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Chemistry
Second Year of Secondary School

Explainer: Types of Chemical Bonding

In this explainer, we will learn how to describe the different types of chemical bonding, understand
the concept of valency, and represent chemical bonds using Lewis structures.

Atoms tend to be unstable when they are not bonded and significantly more stable when they are
grouped together as compounds. Some atoms combine with each other and form simple covalently
bonded molecules such as water (H2O) or oxygen (O2). Other atoms group together and form giant
lattice structures. This includes both ionic and metallic lattice types. Simple covalently bonded
molecules usually contain two or three atoms, and a giant lattice can contain an unimaginably high
number of atoms or ions. Atoms can clearly form very different types of compounds, and this is a
good reason to understand what causes some atoms to form covalent compounds and other atoms
to form giant lattice structures.

Definition: Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonds are forces that hold atoms together in molecules.

Example 1: Understanding What Is and What Is Not a Chemical Bond

Which of the following is not a type of chemical bonding?

A. Metallic
B. Ionic
C. Nuclear
D. Covalent

Answer

Atoms can group together and form small covalently bonded compounds that contain just a few
atoms, or they can group together and form much-larger ionic or metallic compounds. Covalently
bonded compounds have covalent bonding, and metallic and ionic compounds have metallic and
ionic bonding. As such, C, nuclear, is not a type of chemical bonding.

The bonding properties of any one atom or ion are primarily determined by its number of valence
electrons. Valence electrons are the electrons of an atom or ion that cannot be classed as core
electrons. They are electrons that do not make up inner electron shells. They make up outer

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electron shells. We can better understand valence electrons if we examine the electron shells of some
representative group 1 element atoms. The following figure shows the electron shells of three group
1 element atoms. It shows the electron shells of lithium, sodium, and potassium atoms, respectively,
from left to right.

Li Na K

We can see that lithium has a total of just three electrons and that potassium has nineteen. Sodium
has a total number of electrons that is between these two extremes. The figure shows that the group
1 element atoms have a different number of total electrons, but they all have the same number of
valence electrons. It can be said that they all have the same number of valence electrons because
they all have one outer shell electron.

Definition: Valence Electrons

Valence electrons are the electrons of atoms or ions that are located in an outermost electron shell.

Elements usually end up forming a giant metallically bonded lattice if they have a low number of
valence electrons. Group 1 element atoms form a metallically bonded lattice because they have a
single valence electron. The following figure shows how sodium atoms form a giant metallically
bonded lattice. It represents the electrons as blue circles, and the 𝑁 symbol represents a large number.

The sodium atoms are shown to effectively transform into positively charged sodium ions when all
of their valence electrons merge together and form one negatively charged sea of electrons. Valence
electrons tend to be called delocalized electrons when they are decoupled from atoms in a metallic
lattice. This is partly because valence electrons are highly mobile. It is also because valence electrons
do not stay close to any one metal cation. Metallic lattice structures tend to be relatively stable
because of the strong attractive electrostatic forces between their metal cations and their negatively
charged sea of electrons.

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 Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

𝑁 Na 𝑁 Na
Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

Delocalized Metal cations in a sea of

valence electron delocalized electrons

Definition: Metallic Bonding

Metallic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction that exists between positively charged metal
cations and delocalized electrons.

Example 2: Bonds Formed by Sodium Atoms

Like hydrogen atoms, atoms of sodium each contain a single valence electron. Which of the following
is the best description of bonding between sodium atoms?

A. The valence electrons of sodium are delocalized, producing a lattice stabilized by metallic
bonding.
B. The valence electrons of sodium atoms are not involved in bonding.

C. The valence electrons of sodium atoms are shared, producing diatomic molecules with single
covalent bonds.
D. The valence electrons of sodium atoms are shared, producing diatomic molecules with double
covalent bonds.
E. The valence electrons of sodium are removed, producing a lattice stabilized by ionic bonding.

Answer

Sodium is a group 1 element that contains a single valence electron. Sodium atoms effectively
transform into positively charged sodium ions when all of their valence electrons merge together
and form one negatively charged sea of electrons. Valence electrons tend to be called delocalized
electrons when they are decoupled from atoms in a metallic lattice. This is partly because valence
electrons are highly mobile. It is also because valence electrons do not stay close to any one metal
cation. The sodium lattice tends to be relatively stable because of the strong attractive electrostatic

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forces between its metal cations and its negatively charged sea of electrons. These statements can be
used to determine that A is the correct answer for this question.

Metallic bonding is just one type of chemical bonding. There are at least two other types of chemical
bonding that you will have to learn about in this explainer. There is ionic bonding, which is
responsible for making ionic compounds, and covalent bonding, which is responsible for making
covalent compounds. Ionic compounds are made up of oppositely charged ions. They contain an
incredibly high number of positively and negatively charged ions that are arranged as a giant
three-dimensional lattice. Each one of the positively charged ions is surrounded by negatively
charged ions, and each one of the negatively charged ions is surrounded by positively charged ions.
Ionic bonds are the strong electrostatic interactions between positively and negatively charged ions
in an ionic lattice. Ionic bonds tend to be strong and difficult to break. It usually takes a lot of energy
to overcome the strong bridging electrostatic interactions between the oppositely charged ions of an
ionic lattice.

Ionic bonds are usually formed when valence electrons are transferred from metal atoms to nonmetal
atoms. The electron-transfer process produces oppositely charged ions that are attracted to each
other. The metal atoms turn into positively charged ions as they lose electrons, and the nonmetal
atoms turn into negatively charged ions as they gain electrons. These oppositely charged ions are
drawn toward each other and they end up forming a three-dimensional lattice. Ionic bonds are the
strong electrostatic forces between the oppositely charged ions of a three-dimensional ionic lattice.
There is usually very little space between the positively and negatively charged ions of an ionic lattice.

Covalent bonding is another type of chemical bonding. Covalent bonds are formed when one
nonmetal atom shares its valence electrons with another nonmetal atom. Covalent compounds
are usually very small. They are usually smaller than a single nanometer, and they can contain
no more than two or three individual atoms. Covalently bonded compounds are quite interesting
structures because they do not contain any positively or negatively charged ions. They contain
uncharged or partially charged atoms like hydrogen and oxygen. Covalent compounds are not
formed when electrons are transferred between atoms. They are formed when valence electrons are
shared between atoms.

The following figure represents three different types of chemical bonds. It is important to understand
that the figure does not show any core electrons. It only shows valence electrons. The figure shows
that the valence electrons of metals are essentially decoupled from any one metal atom. It also shows
that the valence electrons of ionic and covalent compounds are coupled with individual ions or
atoms.

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 e–

Na Cl
Cl Br
Many Na
atoms
Na+ Cl–
Many Cl Br Electron
ions Many sea
atoms

Ionic bonding Covalent bonding Metallic bonding

The previous paragraphs have shown that there are some important similarities between the
different chemical bonding types. It was explained that both metallic and ionic compounds contain
ions that are packed very tightly together in the shape of a three-dimensional lattice. The structure
of both lattice types is maintained with strong electrostatic forces of attraction between cations and
a sea of delocalized electrons or oppositely charged ions.

The previous paragraphs have also shown that there are many important differences between
chemical bonding types. It was stated that covalent compounds contain neutrally or partially charged
atoms and that ionic compounds contain a combination of positively and negatively charged ions. It
was also stated that covalent compounds tend to be incredibly small and that a metallic or ionic lattice
tends to be much larger. One of the most important differences between metallic and nonmetallic
bonding types is the presence or absence of delocalized electrons. Metals contain a sea of delocalized
electrons, but there are no comparable delocalized electrons in covalently or ionically bonded
compounds. The following table recapitulates most of the information that has been described in
the preceding paragraphs.

Giant Lattice Simple Molecules

Type of Bonding
What Substances Have This Structure?
Examples
What Types of Particles Does It Contain?
How Are the Particles Bonded Together?
Metallic
Metals
Sodium, potassium, and magnesium
Cations surrounded by delocalized electrons
Strong metallic bonds
Ionic
Compounds of metals and nonmetals
Sodium chloride, magnesium oxide
Oppositely charged ions
Strong ionic bonds
Covalent
Nonmetal elements and some metal/nonmetal compounds
Hydrogen molecule, water, and carbon dioxide
Neutrally or partially charged atoms
Weak forces between molecules and strong covalent bonds within molecules

The octet rule is an incredibly simple scientific hypothesis that can be used to explain the formation
of ionic and covalent compounds. It states that atoms tend to be more stable if they have eight valence

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electrons and the same electron configuration as a noble gas atom. The following figure shows the
electron configuration of the three noble gas atoms that are the basis for the octet rule. The octet rule
predicts that atoms usually react so that they end up with an electron configuration that matches one
of the noble gas atoms.

These atoms have 8 electrons in their outermost shell

Ne Ar Kr

Definition: Octet Rule

The octet rule states that atoms tend to transfer or share electrons because this helps them to get
eight valence electrons and the same electron configuration as a noble gas atom.

Let us consider the reaction of metal sodium with nonmetal chlorine. The reaction is highly
exothermic, and it produces a highly stable sodium chloride product. Sodium is a group 1 element,
and it has a single valence electron. It can effectively gain the same electron configuration as a
neon atom if it loses a single valence electron. It can effectively end up with the same electron
configuration as a noble gas atom if its single valence electron is transferred to a nonmetal atom.

Chlorine is a group 17 element, and it has seven valence electrons. It can effectively gain the same
electron configuration as an argon atom if it gains a single valence electron. It can effectively end up
with the same electron configuration as a noble gas atom if it gains a single valence electron from a
metal atom.

Sodium and chlorine atoms end up having the same electron configuration as a noble gas atom if
they react with each other. The sodium metal atoms end up transforming into positively charged ions
as they lose electrons, and the chlorine atoms end up transforming into negatively charged ions as
they gain these electrons. The product sodium and chloride ions have a stable electron configuration

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because they both have eight valence electrons and the same electron configuration as a noble gas
atom. This is shown in the following figure.

Na + Cl Na + Cl

Sodium atom Chlorine atom Sodium cation Chloride anion

Na Cl Na+ Cl–

Let us now consider representative examples of atoms sharing electrons to effectively gain the same
electron configuration as a noble gas atom.

The following figure shows how two chlorine atoms can combine together when they share a
single valence electron. Each one of the chlorine atoms effectively gains a valence electron when
the chlorine atoms combine together. They both go from having seven valence electrons to having
eight valence electrons and the same electron configuration as an argon atom. A single shared
pair of electrons is usually called a single covalent bond. We can state that the diatomic chlorine
molecule contains two chlorine atoms that are linked together with a single chlorine–chlorine
(Cl Cl) covalent bond.

Cl + Cl Cl Cl

The next figure shows how two different types of covalent compounds can be formed from oxygen
atoms. It shows how oxygen atoms can combine with each other and form one oxygen molecule. It
also shows how two oxygen atoms can combine with one carbon atom and form one carbon dioxide
molecule. The oxygen atoms go from having six valence electrons to having eight valence electrons
when they either bond with each other or when each two oxygen atoms bond with one carbon atom.
You will notice here that the oxygen atoms share two valence electrons when they produce either
diatomic oxygen molecules or triatomic carbon dioxide molecules. Two pairs of shared electrons are
usually called a double covalent bond. We can state that a diatomic oxygen molecule contains two

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oxygen atoms that are linked together with a double oxygen–oxygen (O O) covalent bond. Similarly,
each carbon dioxide molecule contains two oxygen atoms that are linked to a carbon atom with two
double covalent bonds (O C O).

O + O O O

O + C + O O C O

Some atoms tend to share more than two valence electrons because they have five valence electrons
or less. Nitrogen is a group 15 nonmetal atom, and it has five valence electrons. It can effectively
have eight valence electrons and the same electron configuration as the neon atom if it shares three
valence electrons and makes a so-called triple covalent bond. The following diagram shows how
two nitrogen atoms can combine together and make one diatomic nitrogen molecule. The molecule
is made up of two atoms that each have the same electron configuration as the neon atom. They
both have eight valence electrons because they each contribute three valence electrons to the triple
nitrogen–nitrogen (N N) covalent bond.

N + N N N

Nitrogen can similarly gain the same electron configuration as neon if it makes multiple single
covalent bonds with other atoms. Nitrogen can effectively gain three valence electrons if it makes
three single covalent bonds with adjacent hydrogen atoms. The following figure shows how a single
nitrogen atom can effectively get eight valence electrons if it makes an ammonia molecule. We can
state that an ammonia molecule contains one nitrogen atom that is linked to three hydrogen atoms
through three single covalent bonds.

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 H

N + H + H + H N H

Definition: Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonds form when two nonmetal atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.

The following table shows how many electrons metals need to lose to have the same electron
configuration as a noble gas. It also shows how many electrons nonmetals need to obtain or share to
have the same electron configuration as a noble gas.

The table shows that there is a relationship between the group number, the number of valence
electrons, and the number of electrons needed to be lost or obtained. Group 2 metals have two outer
shell electrons, and they need to lose two valence electrons to have the same electron configuration
as a noble gas. Group 16 nonmetals have six valence electrons, and they tend to gain or share two
electrons to have eight valence electrons and the same electron configuration as a noble gas.

Group Number of Valence Electrons Number of Electrons To Be Lost, Obtained or Shared

Metals 1 1 1 electron Lost
2 2 2 electrons Lost
3 3 3 electrons Lost
Nonmetals 15 5 3 electrons obtained or shared
16 6 2 electrons obtained or shared
17 7 1 electron obtained or shared

Lewis structures are simple schematic illustrations that show how valence shell electrons are shared
or transferred between atoms when they make covalently or ionically bonded compounds. The
following image shows the Lewis structure for a diatomic chlorine (Cl2) molecule, which has one
covalent bond. Each valence shell electron is shown as a single small dot. The red dots represent
the valence electrons of one chlorine atom, and the black dots represent the valence shell electrons

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of the other chlorine atom. The Lewis structure shows how two single chlorine atoms can gain the
same electron configuration as a noble gas if they share a single pair of electrons.

Cl Cl

The following Lewis structure shows how chlorine atoms get the same electron configuration as
argon when they react with sodium metal and produce sodium chloride (NaCl).

−
+
Na + Cl Na Cl

The image shows that the sodium atoms transfer single valence shell electrons to chlorine atoms, and
this generates oppositely charged ions that both have eight valence electrons. We should notice here
that the sodium and chloride ions have equal but opposite electric charges. This means that a sodium
chloride will not have an overall electric charge. It will be neutrally charged. Ionic compounds always
have an overall neutral electric charge.

Some ionic compounds have to contain an unequal number of positively and negatively charged
ions to have an overall neutral electric charge. This point can be better understood if we focus on
magnesium fluoride. The compound has the chemical formula MgF2. It contains two negatively
charged fluoride ions for each 2+ magnesium ion. The compound can only have zero overall electric
charge if there are two 1− fluoride ions for each 2+ magnesium ion. The Lewis structure for the
formation of magnesium fluoride is shown below. It is clear that the reaction of magnesium and
fluorine atoms generates two fluoride ions for each magnesium ion.

−
F
F
2+
Mg + Mg
−
F F

The following table shows how positively and negatively charged ions of different charges can
combine and make different types of ionic compounds. It is clear that ionic compounds always
contain the ratio of positively and negatively charged ions that gives them zero overall electric
charge. The insights gained here can be used to predict the chemical formula of any one type of
ionic compound.
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 Positively Charged Ion Negatively Charged Ion Chemical Formula
Na+ Cl– NaCl
Na+ F– NaF
K+ Cl– KCl
Na+ O2– Na2O
Mg2+ F– MgF2
Mg2+ O2– MgO
Al3+ O2– Al2O3

Example 3: Understanding How to Draw Lewis Structures for Fluoride Ions

Which of the following is the correct Lewis structure for a fluoride ion?

A.

+
F

B.

−
F

C.

−
F

D.

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 F

E.

−
F

Answer

Fluorine atoms have seven valence shell electrons, and they form fluoride ions when they gain a
single outer shell electron. This means that fluoride ions must have eight valence shell electrons and
a negative electrostatic charge. This can be seen in diagram E, our correct answer.

It is usually relatively simple to predict how many covalent bonds are formed by an atom if we use
the octet rule. The octet rule states that atoms have a more stable electron configuration if they
obtain eight valence electrons and the same electron configuration as a noble gas. Atoms tend to
form a number of covalent bonds that gives them eight valence electrons and the same electron
configuration as a noble gas. Group 17 elements tend to form a single covalent bond because they
have seven valence electrons and need one more to have eight. Group 16 elements tend to form
two covalent bonds because they have six valence electrons and need two more to have eight. This
information is summarized in the following table. It is important to appreciate that a double covalent
bond is made up of two covalent bonds and that a triple bond is made up of three. Oxygen atoms
can make two single covalent bonds or one double covalent bond to have eight valence electrons.

Group Number of Covalent Bonds Formed

14 4
15 3
16 2
17 1
18 Does not usually make covalent bonds

Example 4: Calculating the Number of Covalent Bonds Possible from the Number of
Valence Electrons

The valence shell of oxygen is the second electron shell and contains 6 electrons. How many covalent
bonds can oxygen form?

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Answer

Group 16 elements tend to form two covalent bonds because they have six valence electrons and need
two more to have eight. Oxygen is a group 16 element, and it can gain the same electron configuration
as neon if it makes two covalent bonds. It tends to form either two single covalent bonds or one double
covalent bond. These statements can be used to determine that the correct answer for this question
is 2 covalent bonds.

This explainer has explored different types of chemical bonding. It is important to stress here,
however, that it did not comprehensively cover the different ways atoms can transfer or share
electrons or the various electrostatic interactions that can arise between adjacent atoms. Other
explainers will explore concepts like coordinate covalent bonding and hydrogen bonding to provide
a more holistic understanding of chemical bonding and the different electrostatic interactions that
can arise between adjacent atoms. Coordinate covalent bonds are a special type of covalent bond.
Hydrogen bonds are unusually strong intermolecular interactions that exist between some types of
molecules.

Key Points

Metallic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction that exists between metal ions and
delocalized electrons.

Metal elements can make ionic compounds when they react with other nonmetal elements.
Ionic lattices contain both positively and negatively charged ions.
The octet rule states that atoms create chemical bonds to have eight valence shell electrons and
the same electronic configuration as the nearest noble gas.
Nonmetal elements usually make covalent bonds with other nonmetal elements.
Lewis structures can be used to show how valence shell electrons are shared or transferred
between atoms when they make covalently or ionically bonded compounds.

Coordinate covalent bonds are a special type of covalent bond.

Hydrogen bonds are unusually strong intermolecular interactions that exist between some types
of molecules.

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