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CombinedUse of Englishand Japanese

Subtitles
inFilmVideos
- An Attemptto Make ClosedCaptions
More Accessible
to Learners

TeruhikoKADOYAMA
HiroshimaBunhyoWomen'sCbllege

Abstract

This paper is an attempt to demonstratethat English and Japanese

subtitles can be
successfullycombined foruse in the language classroom to enhance language learning.FolloxNring
a review of the research findingson the use of closed captiens as reading and vocabulary

materials, thispaper examines the addition of previewing questions and combined use of both
subtitles as a possible approach to Tnake closed captions more accessible and comprehensible to
learners.
Inorder to get student feedback,a briefsurvey of 144 students was conducted, and the results
indicatethat overall, they feltlessnervous and learned more targetvocabulary items,referring to
both subtitles as they needed. The paper concludes thatJapanesesubtitles, though often viewed

negatively in Englisheducation, can be successfully used in various activities as an effective use of

Ll in language lcarning.

1. Introduction

With recent increasingawareness and interest in authentic materials such as film videos,

closed captions, or English subtitles are often used in EFL classrooms in Japan. The writer

himself has used closecl-captioned filmvideos in the classroom for the past seven years, with
somewhat mixed results. Although they were very effective to advanced learners, some students,

especially ]e"Jer-level learnersfeltthat English subtitles were too fastand difficuit.In some
cases, the use of Englishsubtitles even caused a lack of motivatien on the part of lessadvanced
students. As a compromise to facilitate
and ensure student comprehension, the writer has come
to use Japanese
subtitles as well as Englishones, but at the same time has always sought ne"T ways

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to fullyexploit the potential of Japanesesubtitles. This search was the starting point for this
study.

Japanesesubtitles are often used simply becausestudents can not fullyunder$tand filnivideos
w･ithout them, and, in contrast to a wealth of research studies en the use of Englishsubtitles, little
attent{on hasbeen paid to them so far. Some teachers ev･en consider them as a kind of "necessarv

"
evil". However, some researchers are aware of their potentiar use in the classroorn. For
example, 0bari (1996)
says that the combined use of beth English and Japanesesubtitles was more

effective than the use of either one. Investigatingthe use of

"bilingual
format",the format in
which L2 text is printed side by side with its Ll translation, Shizuka (1997)
also reports thatthe
format ",as superior to conventional methods of reading L2 texts with the help of bilingual
dictionariesboth in enhancing comprehension ancl in facilitatinglower proficiency learners'
vocabulary Iearning. Despite these studies, research into suitable teaching rnethods has been
scant,

Fundamental to the issueisthatno how good the rnaterial

matter is,itcannot bringabout thc
desired effect if it is beyond the learner'sability, lr'ilm
videos and other authentic materials are

not original]y developeclfor the purpose of teaching, adding furtherimportance to the study of

teaching and presentationmethods. This paper is an attempt to deinonstratethe effect of the

combined use of Englishand Japanesesubtitles as a n]eans of enhancing language learning,

2, Problems with the Use of FilmVideos in the Classroom

I"or many learners,so-called authentic English used in film videos is very difficu]tto
undcrstand because itis spoken fastwith many reduced fornisand contains a lotof colloquial
expres$ions not familiarto them, "['ithout
the help of subtitles, therefore, students can harclly
understand film dialogues,unless clearly and slowly spoken, and filrnsegments with such

comprehensible dialoguesare extremely limited. IIopingthat they might bridge this often si zable

gap between students' reading and listening

abilities, the researcher has used Englishsubtitles in
the classroom for the past seven years,and hisinitial
approach was to encourage students to read

all the English subtitles as they watched film segments. This achieved mixed results, The
results of questionnaires conductecl regularly at the cnd of each term indicatedthat students
fax,oredthe use of filmvideos and Englishsubtitles themselves, but most of them answered that
their comprehension wa$ insufficient.A majority of them attributed their inability
to understand
`'fast
the dialoguesto their speed", followedby '`many･unknown words''.

The writer then started using filinvideDs with Japanese

subtitles to ensure student

comprehension, justlikethe experinient by Obari (l996),

and students watched xiideo segments
firstwith Japanese
subtitles and then with Englishsubtitles, resulting in prolonged viewing time

and much less time was Ieftfor post'viewing activities, Also, advanced students preferred
xvatching videos only with Englishsubtitles.

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3,Justification
forthe Use of Japanese Subtitles

(1)A Review of Findings of Previous Studiesinthe U.S.

As an activity to motivate students, the writer tried an in--class

movie translation exercise,

using both Japaneseand Englishsubtitles <SeeKadoyama 1996 fordetails),

In the exercise, which

was designeclfor would-be translators and other students with an interestin movies, students

showed a distinct
interestin comparing the two subtitles. This led the writer to utilize subtitles

not only to facilitatestudent comprehension but also to teach vecabulary and cultural

comparison. Studiesc)n the use of closed captions in Japan,how･ever,seem to have been limited
to listening
comprehension <for
example, Obari1996; Miyamoto 1991),and little
research has been
conducted on the use of captioned video materials for v･ocabuiary developrnent.
This paper therefore reviews U.S, studies on closed captions as reading and vocabulary

materials, Table1 suinmarizes the findingsof previous research studies conducted in the United
Stateson hearingpopulatiens(ESL students and lear-ing disabledLI students).

Table 1
Stuc{yNeuman& Koskinen,Mrilson, GeLdmun&Goldman
Koskinen(19.92} Gambrell&Jensema (1988)
(1986)
I'Bean&Wil$on
(1989)
t.....
Purposetoexaminetheef- toexaminetheeffect toexaminetheef- toexaminetheef-
fectofclosedcap- ofclosedcaptionsas fectofclosedc,Eip- fectofclosed-cap-
tiunsascomprehen- readingmaterials,fo- tionsasreadingma- tionedTVasnmedi-
sibleinputininci- cusingonsightveca- terials,focusingon umforsighti,･ocabu-

dentalvocabulary bularydevelopment, sightvocabulary, larydevelopmcnt

rearning oralreading&com- writing&compre-

prehension hension
Subject7th&8thGraders 913vearoldSsI
(ESL)ttt (LearhingdisabledLl)HighSchoolSs
(LearningdisabledLl)Adults(LearningdisabledLl)
Subject# 129 r7rtit
Notmentioned /24
't"'321Contact
.Material,3-2-ICrmlact i
(9episodeswereused)l32IContact
(4episodeswereused)A}'i-ne2ingSto7ies,Faini4v1
C5episedeswereused)
:Ties,TheCosb)/Shotv,,
l,Pcrfect.Stxangers,etc.i
ptCethod4treatments<CCTV 4treatnienls(CCTV-'ithFromviewingwithi 3treatments(CCTV
Group,TV'G.,ScriptisoundGroup,CCTV CCandsoundto ",ithinstructionGroup,

withchorusreadingi withnosoundGTV･1 viewingwithCC CCwithnoinstr.G.,

(i,Scripton]yG.) G,,ScriptonlyG.) andnosound i/
Scriptwithinstr.G.)
View{ng'tlmei'Xtotalof90minutes! iXtotalof8minutes Ab61t'24minutesi Atotalof15minutcs
OL'atched5minute'Cwatched2-rninute ,perclass Cwatched3-minute
segmentstwlcea segmcnts4timesin segfments5timesin
weekfor9weeks) 3-weekexperiment) 3--weckexperiment)
Test･XK:'eeklv10itemvo- 20-iternvocabularyiLtO-iteinvocabularv
t 1
･Pre-post30-item

cabula.'ryquiz !anclcomprehension wordrecognitiontest

,quizand10-item
."Jeeklywrittenre- cemprehensionquiz quizperclass i･"reekly20-itemsight
tellings perclassetc. lvocabularytestancl
ireacl-outexercise
l

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'
Results

-reading
ll,Tllllillgillli}l7
g,c,?-l,//'di･,,T,//.,,>'
> Script
,,,,,,:ltgk,,,,,,,fttT,/if.

CCTV with sound >

Vb

lonTy iTV >CCTV with no

isound
i
>Script only
･- -･-
Effecton Not menti oned Significanteffectwas
Se
motlv･atton obsenTed
.ttthenotion.supportsthenotion
N.B.: :s'
upports
that nultaneousthatsimultaneous 1 ence among treat-
'
genhances processmgenhances ments to the small

l1learning out
.points
that .pointsout the neces-
,learning
i
number of subjects

learners sity of long-terml

lower-level
1 .
need instruction i expenments

Rcsearch studies on learningdisabled Ll students revealed no distinctdifferenceamong

treatments, to imply that clo$ed captions are obviously too difficult
which seems formany slow Ll
]earners,despitetheirsignificant effects on learners' motixration, Although Neuman & Koskinen
(1992)report that just viewing televisionwith closed captions led to incidentalvocabulary
learning,they also suggest that low proficiencystudents need instruction. The above studies,
contrary to the researchers' expectations, seem to prove that without a certain proficiency leve]
closed captions would not enhance languagelearningas cemprehensible input and that the
requirecl levelseems tu be quite high. Of course, the findingsef studies on ESL and learning
disabledLl learnerscannot be directlyapplied tQ JapaneseEFL learners,but they seem to imply
that captions might be too difficultfor low proficiency learnersto be considered as com-
prehensible input,which justifies
the use of some to make kind of
Englishsubtitles more support

comprehensible to thern. One possible solution is the use of Japanesesubtitles and previewing
activities to raise students' awareness fortargetvocabulary items.

(2)Use of Japanese Subtitles

With regard to the type of video materials used, most U.S,studies discussedabove used
segments taken from the educational television program, "3-2-7
Contaet" partly becau$e
audiolvideo correlation is very high in the program where scientific informationisexplained using
a lot of pictures and other visual supports. In Japan,however, film videos are often used,

providing students "rith useful informatienon social situations where Ianguage is being used.
Some parts of a film video, though, offer a lew level of visual support (lowaudio/video
correlation), providing much lesspositive visual support for comprehension. Japanesesubtitles
would be effective inproviding clues to the meaning of theunknow･n words that students see on the
screen.

One furthercomplication is that film translation is quite differentfrom normal translation

because of itsstrict limiton the number of Japanesecharacters used foreach dialogue. Japanese
subtitles sheuld be short enough forordinary movie viewers to read before a character in a movie

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finishesspeaking the lines,and, in general,only four Japanesecharacters per second can be used
forsubtitling. For example, a lineIike
"I
saw him yesterday in New York.",which can normally

be said within two seconds, has to be translatedintoup to eight Japanese

characters (Okaeda,
l989:8),Thus, Japanesesubtitles are carefully designednot to burden viewers; this strict limit on
the number of Japanesecharacters significantly lowers the danger of informationov･erload.

(3)PreviewingActivities
The findings
of previous studies seem to support the writer's class observation that low

proficiencylearnerscannot read and digestall the English subtitles as comprehensible input. Thus,
the focus in the writer's teaching objectives was shifted from encouraging students to read all

Englishsubtitles to more focusedreading in order to successfully learntarget v･ocabulary items.

One approach is to raise students' awareness for target expressions in the segments with

previewing activities and have them look forthe answers in actual viewing.

4.Combined Use of Englishand JapaneseSubtitles

In considering the limitedclass hours available, the writer decidedto show both Englishand
Japanesesubtitles on the screen, insteadof having students watch the same segment twice as tried
before.Usingclosed caption decoders,Englishsubtitles were shown justabove Japaneseones,
This format was similar to the bilingual format used by Shizuka (1997),
where Ll and L2 are

presented side by side, and it was utilized based on his finding

that the bilingual
format was

effective inenhancing comprehension and in facilitating

lower proficiency learners)vocabulary
learning. Shizuka (1997:8) says,
"Obviously
this <bilingual
format) does not offer a perfect
solution but the format seems te be at leastone practical option forremedying Iower proficiency
learners."
Some question if this format might
inay overload students. For example, Neuman &
Koskinen (1992)
report that some have suggested thatthe [`crowdedness"
of television,
requiring

readers to process simultaneously through multiple modalities, might be difficultdue to

hypothesizedlimitsof human attention <LaBerge & Samuels, 1974;Singer & Singer,1983). With
the decodingtask so difficult
for ESL students, "Jilliams& Snipper (1990:20)
question whether

they have the attentional capacity to read, view, and listenat the same time. Contrary te these
concerns, the results of their research supported the theoretical notion that sjmultaneous

processing enhances learning. In addition, Kamei & Hirose (1994)report that advanced learners
tend to select media in decoding language information,while !ower-levellearnersseem to decode
various informationunconsciously without selecting them. All of theseseem to justify
the u$e of

Japanesesubtitles to ensure student comprehension and facilitatevocabulary･ learning.

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5,Actual ClassProcedures

(1)Examples of PreviewingActivities
In one le$sen studeiits watched a video segment of about 10 minutes after answering five
previewing questions,
examp]es of which are presented as follows:
- Typical EnglishExpressions
-･･･-- -･ ･- -- ']
l' In
e

1.{taken from the film `LBatman

Forever")
t

the segment, a female repurter asks Ed",ard hew he feelsabout being selected as
"Kekkon
ShitaiDansei M) IL'hii",How cloyou translate this expressiun into English?
Compare your translation with the linein the video.
{Answer:How does itfeelto be the most egigible bachelo
r?)
lt
,

l･
rl'he
question was intendeclto make students aware and appreciate the differences
in
expressions. Most students used the word L`marr],･"
or
t`marriage"
in their transTations due to a
directassociation with the Japaneseword "kekkon". '1"hen,
students' translations were cempared
with the line in the video. Other segments with the same expression, (forexample, a news story
about a son of the latePresidentKennedy, w･ho was until recently considered by the media as
"the

most eligible bachelor" in the United States)were x･,iewed as reinforcement, Also, related
to stuclents as homework.
"eligible'' "bachelor"
vocabulary, such as and was assigned

- Col]oquialExpressions
'- '' -' ' " "
EtlJll.
i
(t'aken from the fiit{ `ccasper")

ln the you will see the Japanese Surtt-J,o".How do you translatc

i,
"Ga"ian
segment, subtitle

thisexpression intoEnglish? Coinpare your translation with the lineused in the video.

(Answef:Icould
live
-
m. .. y,ith.ELLFY
This question senred as a review of sLtch expres$ions as
"put
up w･ith]' and
`[endure".
The
in Japanese-English
dictionarywas
"gai-nan-sunt']
entry a mentioned, and various expressions in
the entry were explained from a pragmatic point of view. Also, students were instructedto Iook
up other such examples which foundin many Japanese-English
are notusually dictionaries.
1 Differencesand Similarities
between Japaneseand EnglishExpressions
r
' '- --- -･･ -."
i'/
3.(taken
from the film "Casper'')

Inthe video, the ghost trio compares Dr.Harvey's deceased wife to a fruit,
meaning that she
i1 was a x･'ery attractive woman. "'hichfruitcomes to firstas fruitassociated
},our inind a with

an attractive woman?･ Check theanswer in the video, '

/
(Answer:SheisaPeach.)
i
- - --- --- -- -- ----1
Before "fatching the video segment, students were encouraged to corne up with theiranswers
in order to raise their awareness, without which many useful expressions are often left

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unnoticed. Following the teacher's explanation, students were told, as homewerk, to look up

images associated with other fruitsin a dictionaryin order to findout differences

and similarities

inimages between the two languages.

- Difference$
and Similarities
between Japaneseand Eng]ishGestures
"' -- '7
4.(takenfromthefilm`'Casper") .
'

You will see theJapanese

subtitle
L`

(pinkie
ktbi-ki'n' square or finger-crossing)"
when Kat
and her fathermake a promise to stop ghost-hunting. XVhat does the Englishsubtitle say for
theexpression? Do you think that Arnericansdo Yztbikiri"
justlike Japanesedo?
"

CAnsiver:DeaO

Students were told to pay attention not only to English expressiens but also differencesin
customs and gestures, Related English expressions, such as
"Cross
my heart and hope to die,
stick a needle inmy eye." were introducedand compared with Japaneseequivalents. Special
care

w･as taken to lead students intopaying attention to differences

and similarities between English
and Japanese
expressions.

(2)A Sample Teaching Plan

In order to demonstrate
what has beendiscussed,
a sample teachingplan will be presented.
Basically, the lesson consistecl of three actixrities: previewing, viewing post-viewing
and

activities. Before the actual viewing, students firstworked with about fivepTeviewing questions
discussed
above. The purpose of this previewing activity was to raise studentsi awareness for
target vocabulary items in the segment. DuTing the viewing both Englishancl Japanese
activity,

subtitles were shown on the screen, and students were instructedto lool<for the answers of the

previewing questions. After v･iewing, students checked theiranswers, viewing the relevant scene

again, if necessary. Related vocabulary and cultura3.aspects were explained by the teacher and

occasionally assigned to students as homew･ ork. Actual class procedures are as follows:
Academic Level:Var{able(Lower--intermediate
and above)

Sequence Type: Feature film

Sequence LengthiAbout 10 minutes (An entire filmwas dividedinto9 or 10 parts, each of which

was used in one class.)

Activity
Time: About 50 minutes
PreparationiPrepare copies of previewing questions forall the students.

In-classProcedures:
C) I)istribute
copies thepreviewing questions.
of

@ Studentswork individually
or inpairs, compTeting their answers,

@ As they finish,ask ior volunteers, or call on some students, to read their answers to the
class.

@ Play the segment, tellingstudents to look forthe ans"Jers as they watch it.

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e Check the answers Playthe relevant scene again ifnecessary.

with the students.
@ Explainrelatedexpressionsandculturaltopicsforreinforcement.
e Studentsworkwithpairconversationpractice.
(8)Tell students to look up related vocabulary in a dictionaryas assignment.

The major difference

in teaching procedures was the addition of previewing activity.
Students used to watch the segment soon after the teacher'sbriefintroduction,
and emphasis was

put on post-viewingactivities, such as Q&A, True or False questionsand conversatien practice,

A distinct
stress was, however, put on the previewing activity here,aiming at more focused
vlewmg,

6,OpjnionSurveyand Analysis:Students'Views

In thispaper, we have looked at the combined use of both Japaneseand Englishsubtitles as a

means to make closed captions more accessible to lessadvanced students. At thispoint, it is
important to determine how the students felt about doing the activity. All of the students
surveyed were taught by the writer, and they worked with the activity presented in thispaper.
The fo"owing survey represents their views:
Respondents:STUDENTS (Ss.)
Groupl: lstyear Englishmajors, HiroshimaBunl{yoVLromen'sCollege....96S$.
Group2: 3rd & 4th year Law majors, Hirosh{ma Shudo University..,.....,....,,48Ss.
TOTAL 144Ss.
Ail the students took the same placement testat the beginningof the firstsemester of l997,
and based on the results of the test they were roughly classified intothree categories: advanced

(21Ss), (78Ss),
intermediat.e ancl lower-intennediate (45Ss).
As van L{er(1988)
notes, there isno single bestway of doing L2 classroom evaluation, So the
students were given freedom to cemment on the activity in any way they wished, rather than
answer a written questionnaire. Although questionnaires may present a more objectix,e evalu-

ation of the activity, they tend to forcestudents te think along preconceivedguidelines

rather than

their own impressionsand ideas. The question to thestudents was do you think ofevatching. "VWiat

bothEnggishandlk7Panese subtitles.P" All the comments were written inJapanese, and the analysis

of their comments revealed three categories of answer, two positiveand one negative. In order ef
frequency they were: (a)useful to understand English subtitles, (b)able to compare the both
subtitles, and (c)inclined to watch only Japanesesubtitles.
An overwhelming majority of students (89%) mentioned that the addition of Japanese
subtitles helped them understand Englishsubtitles better, Comments from this category included
staternents such as:

e I feltmuch lessnervous with the help of Japanese

subtitles.

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e Previewing exercise is very practical, and helped rne focus on key expressions in actual
viewing,

e AlthoughIcould not read all the English subtit]es,Iwas able to locateand identifythe
answers of previewing exercises with thesupport of Japanese
subtitles.

e Japanese
subtitles helped me successfully gtiessthe meaning of unknewn words.

Judging
from these comments, the exercise seenied to produce a beneficial
effect on many
students, significantly Iowering their affective filter.
Twenty'one students (15%)mentioned that theyfound the activity stimulating because they
were able to compare both subtitles. Interestingly,
thirteen advanced students, many of whom

initiallyobjected to using Japanesesubtitles in the classroom, specifically mentioned that

Japane$esubtitles turned out to be useful becausethey helped those students realize the

similarities and difference$

between the two languagesand cultures.
Also, the results of the sun,ey supported the findingof Kamei & Hirose (1994).
Seven
advanced students wrote that they paid attention prjmarily to English subtitles, referring to

Japanesesubtitles as needed. They said Japanesesubtitles did not interrupt them, but rather

facilitated
thejr comprehension. Ten intermediateand lewer-intermediatestudents, on the ether
hand, specifically･ mentioned that they relied mainly on Japanese
subtitles,and picked up some

English expressions with thehelp of Japanesesubtitles. Thus it was supported that students did
not pay equal attention to bothEnglish and Japanesesubtitles at the same time, and the issueof
iniormationoverload was not observed.

On the negative side, however, nine students (6%1)wrote that they tended to watch only

Japanesesubtitles even though they firsttried to watch Englishsubtitles. They were all lower-
intermcdiatestudents, making up 20% of the students in the category,

This major criticism by the students cou]d be significantly reduced, if not eliminated, by
carefully designed prev･iewing questions which best fitstudents' acadcmic leve!,though some

students still might be tempted to read only Japanese subtitles. Nevertheless,the students'

comments generally demonstrated that a signMcant majority (89%)feltthat the use of the both

subtitles had produced some beneficial

effects on them.

7.Conclusion

This paper has tried to demonstrate

that Englishand Japanesesubtitles can be successfully
combined for use in the language classrDom, loweringlearners]
anxiety and facilitating their

vocabulary development. The review of the research findingson the use of closed captions as

reading and v･ocabu]ary materials revealed that some kind of he]p or instruction
was essential so

that lower-levelstudents could digestEnglishsubtitles as comprehensible input. The addition of

previewing questionsand the combined use of both subtitle$ w･ere exaniined as one possible

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solution to this challenge.

The survey of students indicatecl
that overali, they felt lessnervous and learnedmore target
vocabulary items,referring to both subtitles as needed. Japanesesubtitles, though often viewed
negatively in Englisheducation, can be successfully used in various activities to enhance language
learning. This study also supported the finclings
of Shizuka (1997);
the use of
"bilingual

format"
should be further
exp]ored as an effective use of Ll in language iearningand teaching,
Authenticmaterials such as filinvideos are useful to motivate students, but at the same time,
such materials rightfully require careful and thorough preparationin order to turn them into
effective teaching materials. Consiclering
the various proficiency levels
that teachers oiten have
to handle in class, the importance of studying presentation metheds to maximize ]earners'
achievements cannot be overemphasized. The potential of captioned materials is clear and itis
hoped that more lightwM be shed on the effective use of Ll in order to make the materials more

accessible and comprehensible to learners.

References

Bean, R.M. & Wilson,R.M. (1989). Using closed-captioned television to teach reading to adults.
28(4),27 -37.
Readi"g Reseaxch inst7uction,
Goldman,M. & Goldman, S. (1988),
Reading with closed captioned TV. Iottrnal
ofReading,31(5),
458-461.
Kadoyama, T. (1996).
Use of clused captions and simulated movie translation. Stztdies
in 7'7ie
th･tmanities ShitdoUvaiversily),
and ScienceCHiroshinta 68,129-142,
Kamei, S. & Hirose,K, (1994).
Multimedia effects to English en L2 comprehension in relation
learnerproficiency level.
Language Laboratory,No. 31,1-17.
Koskinen, P.,Wilson, R.M.,Gambrell, L. & Jensema,C.J.(1986).Closed-captionedtelevision:A
new technology for enhancing
skills of learningdisabledstudents. ERS Stt)ectrttnt:
reading

lburvaal ofSchool
Resea7Th and informtztion, 4(2),9-13.
LaBerge, D. & Samuels, S.J.(1974). Toward a theory of automatic informationprocessing in
reading. Cagnitive 6, 293-323.
Ils1,cholQgy',
Miyamoto, S.(]991). The classroem use of movies with Englishcaption and its teaching outcome:

G'akuin
A preliminaryreport. AJdgq),a Daigaha GaikokzrgoK.voiku Klyo,No.22,21-32,
Neurnan, S. & Koskinen,P. (1992), Captioned television as comprehensible input: Effects of
incidentalword learningfrom context for language minority students. Reading Research
(?itarte,O',
27(1),95-106.
Obari,H. {1996).
A cross-sectional study of effectiveness on listening
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Japanesesubtitlecl and English captioned video. AZEM BztUetin:7'laachiizg
Engfish throtrgh
il4ovies, No.2, 11-22.
Shizuka,T. (1997).
Bilingual
format:An effective use of Ll?ARELE Reviezv ofEnglish
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of Language
English Language Eduoation
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8，1 ．
Language Educationin ノ晦）an 丿，Vol ． ．
．9，
，J，＆ Singer
Singer ，D ．（1983）．Implications of childhoodtelevisionviewing for cognition ，
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