Bahirdar Institute of Technology

Faculty of Computing
Department of IT (Msc.)

Course Title: Advanced Computer Networks

Task: Assignment

Submitted by: Name Id. No.

Fentanesh Bezie BDU1300731

Submitted to: Mekuanint A. (PHD)

FEBRUARY, 2021

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

 1. Explain the difference between 3G and 4G in detail.

First things first, the "G" stands for a generation of mobile technology, installed in phones and on cellular networks. Each "G"
generally requires you to get a new phone, and for networks to make expensive upgrades.
3G and 4G can be differentiated concerning technology compliance, data transfer rate, capacity, IP architecture and number of
connections, etc. 3G stands for 3rd generation in which optimized mobile are developed for enabling data and broadband
services with better connectivity. 4G LTE stands for 4th generation which delivers more capacity for quicker and improvised
mobile broadband experiences and allowing more connections.
3G and 4G are associated with mobile communication standards. Mobile communications are one of the constantly
developing areas to deliver faster and better mobile broadband experiences. Each new technology offers the significant
advancement in performance and capabilities compared to its predecessor. It provides the ability to access the internet over
different devices like tab, laptop, desktop and mobile phones.

What does 3G mean?

3G (short for third generation) is the third generation of wireless mobile telecommunications technology. It is the upgrade for 2.5G
GPRS and 2.75G EDGE networks, for faster data transfer. This is based on a set of standards used for mobile devices and mobile
telecommunications use services and networks that comply with the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000)
specifications by the International Telecommunication Union. 3G finds application in wireless voice telephony, mobile Internet
access, fixed wireless Internet access, video calls and mobile TV.

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How Fast is 3G?

3G offers speeds that are several times faster or higher than any of its predecessors, including the short-lived 2.5G network which
offered internet connectivity. 3G speeds are high enough to allow for audio and video streaming. They’ve been shown to be perfectly
adequate for remote collaboration tools, such as Unified Communications, while offering clear and responsive voice clarity across the
line

Figure 1: Network Architecture Model.

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The core network is classified into two parts i.e., Circuit Switched Domain and Packet-switched domain.

1. Circuit Switched Domain: It uses Circuit Switched Network in which dedicated link or channel is provided for a particular
time slot to set of users. The two blocks shown in Circuit Switched Domain are:

✓ MSC – Mobile Switching Centre manages circuit switched calls.

✓ GMSC – Gateway MSC acts as an intermediary between external and internal networks.

2. Packet-switched domain: It uses IP Network where IP’s are responsible for transmitting and receiving data among two or
more devices. The two blocks shown in Packet Switched Domain are:

✓ SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node): The various functions provided by SGSN are mobility management, session
management, billing, communication with other areas of the network.
✓ GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node): It can be considered as a very complex router and handles the internal
operations between the external packet switched networks and UMTS packet switched network.

• IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem): It is an Architectural framework which supplies IP multimedia services.

What does 4G mean?

The term 4G stands for ‘fourth generation’ and refers to mobile network technology that enables 4G compatible phones to
connect to the internet faster than ever before.

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4G vs 3G speeds
One of the principal differences between 3G and 4G models is the speed at which they can download files from the internet. A
typical 3G phone can connect to the internet at a maximum speed of up to 21Mbps, whereas a 4G phone can do so at
theoretical maximum speeds of 300Mbps.

How Fast is 4G?

4G networks are very fast compared to 3G.

Standard 4G offers download speeds of around 14 Mbps, which is almost five times faster than what its predecessor, the 3G network,
was able to offer. In fact, 4G networks can reach speeds as high as 150 Mbps, allowing users to download gigabytes of data in minutes
or even seconds, instead of hours like with 3G networks.

Uploading data is much faster as well – standard 4G upload speeds are around 8 Mbps, with theoretical speeds reaching as high as 50
Mbps, while 3G caps off at around 0.5 Mbps. It’s a significant difference, no matter how you look at it.

Figure 2:4G Architecture

 Generally, 3G and 4G

Figure 3: comparison of 3G and 4G

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 1. Consider a router that interconnects three subnets: Subnet I, Subnet 2, and Subnet 3. Suppose all of the interfaces in each of
these three subnets are required to have the prefix 223.1 .17/24. Also suppose that Subnet I is required to support up to 63
interfaces, Subnet
2 is to support up to 95 interfaces, and Subnet 3 is to support up to 16 interfaces. Provide three network addresses (of the form
a.b.c .dJx) that satisfy these constraints.

Answer given Required

Ip address= 223.1.17.0/24 number of interfaces

Note This IP- address doesn’t work if we subnet it based on the given number of interfaces. Because if we add 2 addresses (Network
address and Broadcast address) from each subnet it will exceed beyond the available number of hosts that the fourth octet contains. so
done by assumption and calculated in using VLSM techniques to save address spaces and since it is stated in CIDR notation.

in this case we have to apply VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) principles, because it can help us save address spaces. At first we
need to assign address for the subnet that needs larger interfaces. That means we have to assign hierarchically starting from top to
bottom. So, we need to assign network address from the top. So,

1. Subnet needs 95 interfaces, this means it needs 27 bits to handle this 95 interfaces. And we have to use the remaining 1 bit for
subnets. In this case we have 1 bit in the subnet id part; this implies we have 21 =2 networks. i.e. our network will begin with
either 0 or 1. We can start with either of this two. But we can start assigning with 0.
-|-------
11011111.00000001.00010001.0|0000000/25 because we have borrowed 1 bit for network. Here, the network prefix is /25.
Because we have used 25 bits for the network id part.

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 i.e., 223.1.17.0/25
2. For subnet I we need 63 interfaces totally. For this reason, we need 6 bits in the host id part. Because 26=64, and it can handle
all 64 interfaces. Starting from the next end address of the previous network. So, the network address will be:
223.1.17.128/26 here, the network prefix is /26. Because we have used 26 bits for the network id part.
3. For the third subnet we should assign 16 interfaces that mean we need 4 bits, because 24 =16 and it can handle all 16 interfaces
in this subnet. The network address for this subnet will be:
223.1.17.192/28 here, the network prefix is /28. Because we have used 28 bits for the network id part.

Generally, the three subnets will have the following subnet address:

1. Subnet 2=223.1.17.0/25
2. Subnet I=223.1.17.128/26
3. Subnet 3=223.1.17.192/28

3. MPLS labels are usually 20 bits long. Explain why this provides enough labels when MPLS is used for destination-based
forwarding

Answer

A label has local significance across the link between two peers. Label space is the set of all the labels to be assigned for a prefix by a
particular LSR. Some labels are reserved for specific purposes.
1 Per-Platform Label Space: A set of labels shared by all interfaces on a platform. Used mostly in broadcast medium, like
Ethernet. An incoming label packet can use any interface to get into the platform (LSR).
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2 Per-Interface Label Space: Specific interfaces use specified labels, and an incoming labeled packet is inspected either it arrives
from a correct interface or not. Used mostly in non-broadcast medium, like ATM, Frame Relay. Per-platform label space is mostly
used, and we will see how this helps us in MPLS FRR Implementation.

➢ MPLS the packet forwarding is done with the help of label, which is a 20 bit value added to the packet that acts as an identifier
for packet forwarding. Before forwarding packets, all of them are labeled; consequently, analysis of the packet’s network layer
header is not required at the downstream routers. MPLS is often termed as "Layer 2.5" protocol as it is lies in between Data
Link Layer (Layer 2) and Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI Model.
➢ The MPLS network consist the Label Edge Routers (LER), Label Switched Routers (LSR) connected with host and servers
following a mesh topology as shown in Figure 2. The LER’s as implied by its name are the routers which are deployed at the
edges of the MPLS network. LERs are also responsible for insertion and deletion of labels. When acting as ingress, it inserts
label before transmitting packet in MPLS network. When acting as egress, it deletes the label. The LSR’s as implied by its
name are the routers responsible for routing the packets by switching the labels using label forwarding table.

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 Figure 4: MPLS Header line:32 bit

4 DHCP allows a computer to acquire a new IP address whenever it moves to a new subnet. Why this is not always enough to address
the communications needs of mobile hosts?
Answer

DHCP stands for the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, and is the protocol used for requesting and assigning dynamic IP
addresses. A DHCP application will typically run on the network server. Clients then use the DHCP protocol to obtain their IP address
lease from this application.

➢ One reason why DHCP might not be sufficient is in the case where the mobile device needs to maintain a connection to
another host/ a server, for example/ while moving from one network to another. If the mobile device gets a new IP address, the
connection to the server would be broken, as the device must initiate a new connection to the server. Also, the time it takes for
the client to recognize it is on a new network and receive a new address may be too long for some application.
➢ DHCP is a good candidate for supporting the acquisition of care -of addresses for mobile nodes. The same holds for all other
parameters needed, such as addresses of the default router, DNS servers, the timeserver etc. A DHCP server should be located
in the subnet of the access point of the mobile node, or at least a DHCP relay should provide forwarding of the messages. RFC

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 3118 specifies authentication for DHCP messages so as to provide protection from malicious DHCP servers. Without
authentication, a DHCP server cannot trust the mobile node and vice versal.
➢ A few basic mechanisms to determine a mobile computer's current location has been discussed to modify the IP-based
protocols. We will look at four of them in this article; broadcast, central services, home base and forwarding pointers.

1. Selective Broadcast
With this method a message is sent to all network cells asking the mobile computer to reply with its current address. This scheme may
be too expensive in large networks. However, if the mobile computer is known to be in one of a few cells a message is sent out to the
selected cells. A disadvantage with selective broadcast is that it can only be used when we have enough information about current
location.
2. Central Services
The current address for each mobile user is kept in a centralized database. When a mobile computer changes its address it also updates
the central database by sending a message containing its new address.
3. Home Bases
With this method the location of a given mobile computer is known by a single server (MSS), often called the Home Location Server.
The user is permanently registered under this server and it keeps track of where the mobile computer is. To send a message to a
mobile user, the home location server has to be contacted first to obtain the users' current address. The main disadvantage with this
scheme is that the way a message must travel may be much longer than the real distance. For example, two mobile computers, A and
B, which are registered under two different home location servers in two different areas, may be currently in the same area. For A to
contact B it has to first contact B's home location server which then contacts B. If A and B are likely to be in the same area, this
scheme could be modified to first broadcast a message to all MSSs in that local area. If B is not currently located there a message is

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 then sent to B's home location server. This scheme can also lead to low availability of information. The home location server may be
down or inaccessible which makes it impossible to track the requested mobile user.

4. Forwarding Pointers
This method is probably one of the fastest. Each time a mobile computer changes its address, a copy of the new address is added at the
old location. The message sent is then forwarded along the chain of pointers until the mobile computer is reached. The pointer chain
will be made longer every time the mobile computer changes location and this may lead to inefficient routing. To solve these pointers
at the message forwarders can be updated to contain more recent addresses.
Even though this method is among the fastest it suffers from failure anywhere along the chain of pointers. Another problem is
associated with deleting pointers which cannot be done before all message sources have been updated. The forwarding pointer method
can be hard to implement. It does not fit standard networking models since it must have an active entity at the old address to receive
and forward messages. Network address is usually a passive entity. There has not yet been done much work on comparing different
locating and addressing schemes. The problem is difficult because it involves several dimensions. An issue introduced by these
locating and addressing schemes is the cost of search. The less information the sender has about the mobile computer the more it will
cost to search. This must also be considered when choosing for a location management scheme.

5. Consider the network shown below, and assume that each node initially knows the costs to each of its neighbors. Consider the
distance-vector algorithm and show the distance table entries at node z.

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Answer

Distance vector routing algorithm exchanges the information with the neighbors and works asynchronously.

According to the distance vector algorithm, any node m computes the distance vector using the following formulas:

Note: NA is used when there is no distance value.

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 Sample Bellman-Ford Formula 1:
distance from Z to X:

Min{c(Z,X)+Dx (x), c(Z,V) + Dv(X)

Question 5:
=>2+0=2 OR 3+6=9
1. Distance at node z
Min=2

z x v U y z x v u y z x v u y
z 0 2 5 7 8 z 0 9 6 6 5 z 0 2 5 6 5
x ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ x 2 0 3 4 3 x 2 0 3 4 3
v ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ v 6 3 0 1 6 v 5 3 0 1 3 Sample Bellman-Ford Formula 2:
u ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ u 6 4 1 0 2 u 6 4 1 0 2 distance from Z to V:
y ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ y 5 3 6 7 0 y 5 3 3 2 0
Min{c(Z,V)+Dv(V), C(Z,X) +Dx(V)
2. Distance at node x =>6+0=6 OR 2+3=5
z x v u y
z x v U Y z x v u y Min=5
z 0 2 5 6 5
z ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ z 0 2 5 7 8
x 2 0 3 4 3
x 2 0 3 4 3 x 9 0 6 5 6
v 5 3 0 1 3
v ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ v 6 3 0 1 6
u 6 4 1 0 2
u ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ u 6 4 1 0 2
y 5 3 3 2 0
y ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ y 5 3 6 7 0

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 Sample Bellman-Ford Formula 3:
distance from Z to U:

Min{c(Z,V)+Dv(U), C(Z,X) +Dx(U)

3. Distance at node v
=>6+1=7 OR 2+4=6

z x v u y z x v u y Min=6
z x v U y
z 0 2 5 7 8 z 0 2 5 6 5
z ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
x 2 0 3 4 3 x 2 0 3 4 3
x ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
v 5 6 0 8 3 v 5 3 0 1 3
v 6 3 0 1 6
u 6 4 1 0 2 u 6 4 1 0 2
u ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
y 5 3 6 7 0 y 5 3 3 2 0
y ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ Sample Bellman-Ford Formula 4:
distance from Z to Y:
4. Distance at node u
Min{c(Z,X)+Dx(Y), C(Z,V) +Dv(Y)

z x v U y z x v u y z x v u y =>2+3=5 OR 6+3=9
z ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ z 0 2 5 7 8 z 0 2 5 6 5
x ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ x 2 0 3 4 3 x 2 0 3 4 3 Min=5
v ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ v 6 3 0 1 6 v 5 3 0 1 3
u 6 4 1 0 2 u 7 5 8 0 7 u 6 4 1 0 2
y ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ y 5 3 6 7 0 y 5 3 3 2 0

5. Distance at node y

z x v U y z x v u y
z x v u y
z ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ z 0 2 5 6 5
z 0 2 5 7 8
x ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ x 2 0 3 4 3
x 2 0 3 4 3
v ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ v 5 3 0 1 3
v ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
u ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ u 6 4 1 0 2
u 6 4 1 0 2
y 5 3 6 7 0 y 5 3 3 2 0
y 8 6 3 2 0

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So, the routing table will be:

Note: I have iterated only two times to show only how it updates
z X v u y
the distance from each node to the other.
z 0 2 5 6 5
x 2 0 3 4 3
v 5 3 0 1 3
u 6 4 1 0 2
y 5 3 3 2 0

Resulting Forwarding Table:

Resulting forwarding table in z:

Destination Link
x (z, x)
v (z, x)
u (z, x)
y (z, x)
Resulting Shortest path tree from z.

U V

Y X 16