Student’S Name: Mario Emad Ayyad

Student’S Code: 140974

Research About: positioning and Navigation in

Seismic survey

Supervision Of: Dr/ Said Dahroug

Subject’S Code: Gph 209

1) Surveying and Navigation:
Desired lines of survey are established in the planning stage. In the case of land operations,
the surveyor must determine the feasibility of positioning these lines in the desired
locations and recommend modifications, if needed. Once the line positions, lengths, etc. are
determined the surveyor must locate these with regard to a control point or a known
position on the earth’s surface. In some more remote parts of the earth, it may be necessary
to establish a control point. This is usually done by means of GPS (Global Positioning
System).
GPS is a satellite-based positioning system that currently uses 27 satellites in orbit around
the earth. What makes GPS so valuable in seismic work is that it can be used in all-weather
conditions, it has very good accuracy over long distances, can be used 24 h a day just about
anywhere, is very reliable, and is often much faster than the conventional surveying
techniques.
The surveyor must determine the position and elevation of every source and receiver point
in the survey with the required degree of accuracy. This is usually done within an x-y
coordinate system, the origin of which is precisely located with respect to the selected or
established control point.
The surveyor must also produce a variety of maps. A final map shows the positions of all
source and receiver points. Maps must be provided to the source and recording crews that
show fences, streams, ponds, structures, etc. Such maps should also show areas to be
avoided because of hazards or lack permission for entry. Maps showing how to get to points
across fences, streams, etc., including notes about gates and landowner restrictions must
also be provided.
In marine work location of the energy source array and seismic detectors is done
simultaneously with recording operations. The vessel location is directly determined with
sources and receivers being determined relative to the vessel. Accurate positioning and
steering of the vessel is required to obtain data where it is needed. Accurate positioning and
steering of the vessel is also required to avoid numerous hazards (surface facilities, buoys
reefs shoals, international boundaries) that are frequent.
Marine navigation relies on the observation of radio waves to determine the vessel position
relative to precisely known reference positions known as “base stations”. Both surface-based
and satellite-based radio positioning systems are used. Surface-based systems use fixed base
stations that are located on the surface of the earth near the prospect site. Satellite-based
systems use orbiting satellites as the base stations, e.g. GPS.
Radio positioning systems are based on measurements of radio signal transit times or phase
that can by converted to equivalent distances by scaling based on the propagation velocity
of radio waves. Phase measurements have a cyclic ambiguity of an integer number of
wavelengths.
1.1) Land surveying:
Most types of conventional survey instruments have been used in seismic surveying. Plane
table and alidade were extensively used into the 1960s, and transit-theodolites and chaining
continue to be used today. Successive source points are often measured with a wire of
appropriate length, a theodolite being used to measure elevations, to keep the line straight,
and to survey in side features. The theodolite is used to turn both horizontal and vertical
angles and to give ranges by stadia measurements.
Electromagnetic distance measuring equipment, often called EDM, is widely used today.
EDM and GPS instruments are often used to run in a base survey and to tie to benchmarks
and wellheads even where not used for all source and geophone locations.
Most EDMs use laser diodes that emit a pulse of about 0.9 μm length; the pulse is
reflected from the rod, and the round-trip time is measured to give distances to about 5
parts in 106. Horizontal and vertical angles can be measured to about 30 minutes. Laser
EDMs have a maximum range of about 2 km.

1.2) Marine positioning:

Marine seismic navigation involves two aspects: (a) placing the ships at a desired position
and (b) determining the actual location afterwards so that the data can be mapped
properly. In assessing the accuracy of a navigation method, we distinguish between absolute
and relative accuracy. Absolute accuracy is important in tying marine surveys to land
surveys and in returning to a certain point later, for example, to locate a well. Relative
accuracy is important primarily to ensure accurate relative locations of midpoints.
Absolute accuracies of +70 m are usually sufficient, whereas relative accuracies of 5 m are
desirable. The accuracies obtained in a survey (very difficult to assess) depend upon the
system and equipment used, the configuration of reference stations, the position of the
mobile stations with respect to the reference stations, variations in the propagation of radio
waves, instrument malfunctioning, operator error, and so on. Systems capable of giving
adequate accuracy under good conditions may not realize such accuracy unless considerable
care is exercised at all times.
1.3) Radiopo
R ositioninng:
Radioppositioninng (or raadionaviggation) syystems arre generaally classified according too their
frequencies. In general, high-freqquency raadio systeems suchh as shoraan, radar,, Autotappe, and
Hydroodist use frequenccies of 3 to 9 GH Hz (wavelengths of 3 to 100 cm) annd achievee good
accuraacy, but their
t travvel is linne-of-sighht and soo their raange is limited too about 40 km
(depennding on antenna heights).. Medium m-frequenncy systemms such aas Hi Fixx, Decca, Toran,
and Raydist
R usse frequeencies of 1.5 to 3 MHz (wwavelenggths of 1000 to 200 m); thhey can
bend with
w the Earth's curvature
c and theiir range is about 150 km. Low-frequency systems
s
such as
a Loran-C C use freequenciess of the order
o of 100
1 kHz (waveleng
( gth of 3 km)
k and have a
range of
o 2000 km;
k the gllobal Om mega systeem operaates at thee very loww frequenncies of 100 to 15
kHz (wwavelengtths 20 to 30 km).

1.4) Transit
T s
satellite positionning:
Ships can
c deterrmine theeir locatioon from Transit
T saatellites inn polar oorbits 10775 km aboove the
Earth. Each sateellite takees about 107 minuutes to cirrcle the Earth,E beiing in sigght for abbout 18
minutees horizonn to horizzon. Eachh satellite transmitts continuuous wavees of frequencies 150 and
400 MHz The frequencie
f es measured by a receiver are a Dopppler-shifteed because of the relative
r
motionn of the satellite with
w respecct to the ship.
s Becaause radioowaves trravel at thhe speed of o light
(V), relativity afffects the Doppler--shift equuation; if the
t velocitties of thee source and
a obserrver are
respecttively Vs and
a Vo, thhe observeed frequenncy vo is:

where vs is the source freqquency. The

T differrence betwween the ship's
s andd satellite'ss longituddes and
latituddes at clossest apprroach are calculateed from the
t Dopppler shiftss. The saatellite traansmits
informmation thaat gives itts locationn every 2 minutess. A smalll computter on thee ship com mbines
this infformationn with thee Doppleer-shift measureme
m ents and the speedd and couurse of thhe ship
to givee the shipp’s locatioon.

1.5) Global
G P
Positioni
ing Systtem (GPPS):
The Global Possitioning, or Navsttar, Systeem (Dixonn, 1992) consists oof twentyy-one to twenty-
t
four saatellites att elevationns of 22 200
2 km; itt is operaated by the U.S. Goovernmennt and it permits
p
determmination of latitudde, longittude, andd elevatioon by triilaterationn. The system
s (wwith 25
satellittes in 19994) is exteensively used
u for geophysic
g cal positiooning in the marinne enviroonment
and is also used to set base stations on land. Four satellites are to be equally spaced in each of
six orbital planes that make 550 angles with the Earth's equatorial plane. Each satellite orbits
the Earth in about 12 hours.

1.6) Acoustic and inertial positioning:

Acoustic or sonar positioning uses both sonar range and frequency-shift measurements. High-
frequency acoustic transducers, also called pingers, are used in several ways; they emit acoustic
(sonar) pulses in the kilohertz range that can be detected by other transducers to give the
distances between them. They are sometimes incorporated in the source-detection system to
locate the sources and streamers with respect to the ship and to each other.
For surveys of restricted areas, anchored pinger transponders can be used. The ship or sonde
to be located transmits a sonar pulse and the transponders emit coded responses when they
sense the interrogating pulse. Most systems measure the two- way travel time, though some
also measure the phase difference at several sensors on the ship to determine the direction to
the transponder (much as move out gives the apparent direction of a seismic ray). Four or
more transponders might be set I to 6 km apart where water depths are 20 to 500 m. The range
is improved if the transponders are 5 to 10 m above the sea floor. Recoverable transponders
having lifetimes of 5 years are available.

1.7) Locating the streamer:

A seismic ship usually tows a long streamer that may extend for 5 km or more behind the
ship. Even though the location of the ship is known, the streamer can drift by appreciable
amounts. There is usually a tail buoy at the end of the streamer on which a radar reflector
is mounted; the direction to this reflector can be measured with the ship's radar. How-
ever, it is often impossible in rough seas, to distinguish the tail buoy reflection from water-
wave backscatter, particularly when the tail buoy is in the wave troughs. A radio or GPS
receiver can be mounted on the tail buoy so that its location is known in the
radiopositioning or GPS system being used to locate the seismic ship.

2) Seismic Arrays:
An array is a group of two or more elements (sources or receivers) arranged in a
geometrical pattern. The pattern may be one or two-dimensional (linear or areal). The
function of arrays is to do spatial filtering. An array’s response depends upon wavelength
or wavvenumberr of seism mic energgy produuced or reeceived. Larger
L annd more complexx arrays
use recceivers raather thann sources because of cost diifference..
Signal amplituudes are generallyy increased (maxiimum siignal atteenuation of 3 dBB) over
frequency range of interrest but horizonta
h al, source--generateed noise is attenuaated by 200 dB or
more. Signal-too-random m noise raatio improovement is √N, whhere N iss the num mber of elements
in the array.
Figuree 4.14 shoows a few array typpes. Areaal arrays should
s bee used onlly when noise
n apppears to
come from
f direections otther thann along thhe line off receiverss. In 3-D operatioons care must
m be
exercissed to avooid havinng the array attenuuate the signal.
Figuree 4.15 shoows how an array attenuattes horizoontal noise but noot the siggnal. Showwn is a
simplee, six-elem ment linnear arraay. Noisee producced by the t sourcce generaally proppagates
horizoontally at a rather slow velocity. Thhus, theree is a tim me delay bbetween noise
n arriivals at
successsive geopphones inn the arrray. Outtputs of each geoophone aare electrrically suummed;
produccing the outputs
o i d by Σ. Siignal arriives at thhe surfacee nearly vertically
indicated v and at
nearly the same time. ThusT the summedd signal output o is nearly siix times that of a single
geophoone.
Array performaance is a shown inn Fig. 4.115 only iff the surfface is rellatively flat.
fl If, hoowever,
there isi consideerable eleevation variation
v across thhe array the resullt is not sos good. Figure
4.16 shows
s ann array with
w connsiderablee elevatioon differrences annd comppares its signal
responnse with that
t withhout elevaation diffferences. Signal noo longer adds in phase,p soo arrays
shouldd not be used in such situuations. It is bettter to buunch the geophonnes at thee array
center..
Figuree 4.17 shoows respoonses of simple liinear arrrays of 6 and 12 eelements.. Increasiing the
numbeer of elem ments incrreases atttenuationn overall and
a sharppens the rresponse nodes.
Some practicaal points to considder in dessign and use of arrrays are:
• Detecctors are made in strings of o six, so the
t numbber used mustm be a multiple of six
• A finnite numbber of striings are available,
a , usually only
o enouugh for 44–6 per grroup
• Therre is a finnite lengthh of wire betweenn detectorrs so therre is a maaximum spacing
s b
between
detectoors that can
c be useed
• Elevaation diffferences among
a deetectors `m
may existt. Use of arrays
a maay not bee advisablle
• Strinngs conneections should
s bee simple to avoidd errors ini connecction. Thhere is allways a
tendenncy to hurrry so thaat high prroductionn is obtaiined.
• Two--dimensioonal arrayys cannott always be b laid ouut becausse of terraain or obsstacles
• Layout is not very accuurate sincce everythhing is “eeyeballed in”.
• Detecctors mayy have unnequal ouutputs ressulting inn poorer than
t expeected respponses.
Thesse points lead to thhe concluusion thatt design of o elaboraate arrayss and conncern withh
detaiils in layoout, etc. represent
r wasted time and effort!
References:
 Exploration seismology / R. E. sheriff, L.P Geldart ‫ ــــ‬2nd edition.
 Exploration Geophysics / Mamdouh R. Gadallah , Ray Fisher