Ace Rewrite

Chapter 4: Navigation

Magnetic Variation is the angle from magnetic north to true north, expressed as East or West depending
on if this di erence is positive or negative respectively.

Compass Deviation is the di erence between real magnetic north and the north indicated by the compass.

Meridians of longitude run from pole to pole, are numbered by their angle away from the GM of 000º they
range from 1 to 180 degrees East or West.

A change of latitude (movement along a meridian such as north to south) is measured as: 1NM = 1 minute,
and every 60 minutes is one DEGREE of latitude change.

Parallels of latitude run across the globe, they stem from the equator, all the way to 90º North or South.

A movement along the Equator is measured in the same manner as movement along a meridian, but a
change of longitude (ie. E-W) at any di erent latitude is more complicated because parallels of latitude are
of varying circumferences as you move toward the poles.

This is because lines of attitude are parallel to each other, unlike meridians which all converge at the poles.

For a given degrees change of longitude, distance decreases as latitude increases, this is called departure.

Departure is an east-west movement distance along a parallel of latitude which requires usage of the
following formula:

Departure = minutes Δ Long × (cos Lati)

A rhumb line is a track line between two points with a constant track direction.

A great circle track is the line of shortest distance between two points on a sphere, with a constantly
changing track direction due to convergence.

Convergency represents the change in track direction

(imagine it as heading) between two points on the globe,
because of the fact that meridians converge at the poles.
Convergency is dependent on latitude, and is zero at the
equator, it is also dependent on distance, increasing the
further you travel between two points.

Conversion angle is the di erence in track angle between a

rhumb line and a great circle track between two points.

The doppler e ect is the change in frequency between

transmitted and received signals, this doppler shift is resultant
of movement of the transmitter. If a transmitter such as a radar, is moving towards its target, the amount of
cycles received per second (aka freq) will be greater than that if transmitter and receiver were stationary.

An INS provides positional data without any external assistance. An IRS is a development of this system
which integrates to a greater degree into the FMS.

An INS/IRS requires that an initial position be input on startup of the system, after which accelerometers
and gyroscopes feed a position computer which uses these inertial departures from that initial position to
calculate present position. The INS is most interested in accelerations along the horizontal plane, as its
objective is to use accelerometers to determine where on the globe an aircraft is. An INS is aligned to true
north by its gyroscopes, and nds magnetic north by applying a stored variation value, remember, there
are no external inputs including magnetic ones for compass operation.

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 An INS is a totally global system available even where there are absolutely no NAVAIDs. Modern aircraft
use at least 2 INSs for comparative accuracy, these use ring laser gyros which have shorter warmup times,
do not su er from gyroscopic wander and precession and are EXTREMELY accurate.

INS errors can fall into 3 categories:

- bounded errors do not constantly increase, but oscillate within a cycle. These include Schuler loop
errors a ect position calculations, these are corrected out during a Schuler cycle. North alignment
errors produce bounded velocity errors.

- Unbounded errors which continue to increase over time, such as POS-INIT errors at the input stage,
and again north alignment errors which will produce serious unbounded error in position.

- Inherent system errors The INS does not account for the fact that the distance between two points is
greater at a higher altitude above the globe, fortunately these errors are minimal. The INS also makes no
account for the fact that the globe is not a true sphere.

The sum of these errors is called radial error rate and the nal position should be crosschecked with actual
position at the end of each ight to ensure the system is operating within error margins.

GPS uses a constellation of min 24 satellites (of which 21 are always operational). These are broken down
into 6 orbital planes at 55º increments from the equator, each plane possessing 4-5 sats at a height of
10,900NM and performing one full orbit every 12 hours.

4 satellites will always have line-of-sight to an aircraft, they use pulses modulated with emission time
which is compared to the reception time at the aircraft, this time di erence calculates distance of
transmitter to receiver. Two satellites will give LONG,LAT information, while the third will con rm this, and
the fourth will give altitude information.

GPS is truly global, has redundancy in satellite count and high capacity usage. It can provide accurate
approach guidance where approved and gives the ability to y great circle tracks accurately. GPS can
integrate into an FMS and is FREE.

GPS system errors include clock bias, satellite ephemeris, ionospheric errors, instrument error, satellite
geometry and signal jamming.

Di erential GPS eliminates ionospheric errors, WAAS in the US C172G100. A ground station receives
position data from GPS, compares it to the known position of the station and transmits this error to aircraft
within 70nm of the station using ACARS. This allows accuracy below 3 meters.

FANS is a system that allows for CPDLC (controller-pilot data link communication).

RNAV is a form of onboard area navigation, it uses either a basic VORDME system or other position
sensors like DME INS or LoranC. A simple RNAV allows for the operator to input waypoints to de ne the
intended route of an aircraft. An RNAV waypoint is likened to a phantom station, as the system provides
navigation data identical to what would be provided if the aircraft were tracking to an actual VOR station
for example. The purpose of RNAV is to allow for navigation outside of established airways which is more
e cient.

The free- ight concept allows for unrestricted instrument navigation where collision avoidance in
protected airspace is sourced to the pilot through TCAS and ADS-B, In ‘alert zones’ this separation would
be then provided by conventional methods.

VDF requires the ground station have a directional-sensing antenna, and allows the controller to
communicate position information to the pilot via VHF.

QUJ - true bearing to station

QTE - true bearing from station remember: Q-true-exit

QDR - magnetic bearing from station remember: Q-direct-radial (radials are always from)

QDM - magnetic bearing to station remember: Q-direct-magnetic

NDB maximum theoretical range is 300nm over land and 600nm over water, range is restricted by
transmitter power. NM range over land = sqrt(power output in watts)
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 NDBs su er from interference, static errors (esp. TSRA), night e ect, coastal refraction, mountain e ect,
aircraft quadrantal errors and synchronistic transmissions. The requirement is that NDB work to +-5º error
margins, but this error may be more due to aforementioned factors.

Some NDBs use unmodulated waves, the pilot must temporarily operate the beat frequency oscillator to
morse identify the station.

VORs operate in the 108-118MHz range, they emit an FM reference signal followed by a constantly-
phase-shifting AM signal to produce the 360 radials. They are susceptible to instrument errors at both
ends, site error when signals are re ected (ie. buildings) and propagation errors like scalloping (seen by
small twitches of the needle) and atmospheric ducting.

Note: range is also a factor of transmitter power

The ILS localizer operates in 108-112 MHz VHF band, at odd 100 or 150khz spacing to prevent
interference with VORs. The glideslope uses 329.3-335MHz UHF band, but along with DME, is tied and
automatically tuned when the LOC frequency is captured.

ILS errors include false glideslopes usually found at twice the normal approach angle, this is one reason
why glide slopes are always intercepted from below. ILS must only be used within its speci ed ranges, as
due to the small allocated frequency range, it is easy to receive signals from nearby stations. A back
course approach would show opposite left/right deviations, unless HSI is manually rotated or BC mode
selected.

MLS uses a sweeping beam with a TO and FRO scan. Based on the time di erence between these two
scans, a position either side of centerline can be calculated. The same concept is used for glide slope.
MLS beams are not sensitive to terrain and has a wider transmission band to avoid interference. It allows
for curved approach paths and descent angles which can help in busy airports.

DME is a form of secondary radar that gives a NM readout of the slant range to the ground station. It
operates in UHB between 962 and 1213 MHz and line of sight propagation. Contrary to SSR, the aircraft is
the one who interrogates the ground station, using jittered (randomized) pulse frequencies which are
e ectively unique to each aircraft, eliminating interference. The aircraft also di erentiates between return
pulses and re ections because ground stations return the pulses at a 63 MHz di erence. There are 252
DME channels in the DME band.

DME ground equipment will not be triggered by NON-DME transmissions because it only replies to pulse
pairs separated by 12 µs, which is unique to aircraft interrogator signals.

ground range2 = slant range2 − aircraft height2

Primary RADAR (aka. Pulse radar, re ective radar) woks on the re ected signal principle, utilizing UHF/VHF
for LOS operation.

RADAR radar range can be minimally reduced by atmospheric attenuation, requiring an increase in power.
To double RADAR range you must quadruple antenna power.

Radar range is also a ected by the curvature of the earth, it can be calculated using:

Line of SIGHT Range NM = 1.23 × (acft height AMSL)

Secondary surveillance RADAR works on a respondent-reply principle. A ground station interrogates all
aircraft in the vicinity, aircraft transponders replies with added information such as pressure altitude. SSR
is e ectively, two RADARs talking to each other.

XPDR functions:

• Code selection, a 4 digit code set by the pilot and assigned by ATC in normal operation.

• Transmission functions: STDBY, ON (mode a), LOW (lower power), ALT (mode c), TST.

• Monitor light (blips to indicate correct function)

• Ident switch to highlight on ATC screen.

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An ISOECHO radar is used for weather detection, from the nose of the aircraft it can swing 90º left and
right and tilt 15º up or down. It uses radar signatures bounced from water droplets in clouds.

Cloud tops can be found using these radars, life hack. Use this method:

range in feet × ( WxRad scanner tilt - half beam width )
cloud tops relative to aircraft =

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For a cloud 50nm away, with 1º tilt and 4º width:

50 × 6080 × (1 − 2)
= − 5067′ (below aircraft cruise alt)

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AGC (automatic gain control) is used by weather radar to decrease sensitivity to short-range returns,
removing a misleading inaccuracy that would show closer targets to produce brighter returns.

Thunderstorms appear as red cores, areas of maximum turbulence appear as magenta.