Chapter 13: The Respiratory System

The respiratory system supplies the body with oxygen while removing the waste
product carbon dioxide. The cardiovascular system works with the respiratory
system to make sure that gas exchange happens throughout the body.

I. Functional Anatomy of Respiratory System

A. Nose –during breathing air enters the nostrils or nares, and
comes into contact with the mucous membranes in the nasal
cavity.
B. Pharynx is the back of the throat. The region that starts at the
nasal cavity is called the nasopharynx . The oropharynx is
the region in the back of the throat. The laryngopharynx leads
to the larynx. The tonsils (lymphoid tissue) are found here.
C. Larynx- is the voicebox. The vocal cords enable us to speak.
Attached to this region is the epiglottis which is the flap that
prevents food from entering the larynx and trachea while eating.
(The hole leading to the windpipe is the glottis.
D. Trachea-is the windpipe that has rings of cartilage. These
cartilagenous rings prevent the trachea from collapsing when
you bend your neck or when you eat a large piece of food. The
lining of the trachea is ciliated, which helps move mucous along
the surface.
E. Bronchi are the branches from the trachea which lead to the
lungs
F. Lungs are contained in the thoracic cavity. They are covered
by the pleura. Within the lungs, the bronchi branch into
bronchioles. These branch into smaller bronchioles which
terminate it saclike alveoli. These alveoli resemble microscopic
clusters of grapes (see Figure 13.5), and in cross section you
are able to see the simple squamous epithelium which provides
a good surface for gas diffusion back and forth. Capillaries are
located around these alveoli, since this is where gas exchange
happens. The red blood cells are replenished with oxygen, and
the blood gets rid of carbon dioxide waste products here.

II. Respiratory Physiology consists of four main events:

• Pulmonary ventilation – also known as breathing.
Continuous exchange of gases into and out of the lungs.
• External respiration—gas exchange between
pulmonary blood (in lungs) and the alveoli (air sacs in
lungs)
• Respiratory gas transport – gases dissolved in blood
are carried in the bloodstream back and forth between
the lungs and tissue
• Internal respiration – gas exchange between the blood
and the cells of the body (leading to cellular respiration)
 A. Mechanics of Breathing – changes in the volume happen
during inspiration (breathing in or inhaling) and expiration
(breathing out or exhaling). As a result, there are pressure
changes which result in the flowing of gases during breathing.
Bear in mind that we are negative pressure breathers, which
means that we don’t push air into our lungs, we pull (or suck) air
into the lungs.
1. Inspiration involves the contraction of the
diaphragm and external intercostals (rib muscles).
(Figure 13.7a). The negative pressure caused by
the partial vacuum of this contraction makes the
air to move into the lungs until the air pressure in
the lungs equals the atmospheric pressure.
2. Expiration is usually a passive process. Forced
expiration may be needed for individuals with
asthma or pneumonia, where normal passive flow
does not occur. Pressure in the pleural cavity is
negative. If the pressure in this region becomes
equal to atmospheric pressure, the lungs will
collapse.
3. Non-respiratory movements includes: coughing,
sneezing, hiccuping, yawning, etc. These may
affect normal breathing.

B. Respiratory Volumes and Capacities (Figure 13.9)

1. Tidal volume - normal breathing in and out(500 ml)
2. Inspiratory reserve volume – air that can be
forcibly inhaled over the tidal volume (2100-3200 ml)
4. Expiratory reserve volume – air that can be
forcibly exhaled after the tidal expiration (1200 ml)
5. Residual volume is the air that cannot be forcibly
exhaled no matter how hard you try (~1200 ml).
This volume keeps the alveoli inflated.
6. Vital capacity = tidal volume + inspiratory reserve
volume+ expiratory reserve volume (~ 4800 ml)
7. Dead space volume – stays in the passageways
of the conducting zone and never make it to the
alveoli (~150 ml).
8. Total lung capacity includes the vital capacity
and the residual volume, totaling about 6000 ml.

Respiratory sounds are what a physician hears while listening to your lungs
with a stethoscope. Bronchial sounds are the air moving through the trachea and
bronchi. Vesicular breathing sounds are the sounds produced when air enters
the alveoli. Rales (raspy sounds) or wheezing indicate possible diseased
respiratory tissues.
 C. External Respiration, Gas Transport, and Internal
Respiration
1. During external respiration, the oxygen-poor blood
from the body is delivered to the heart. The heart
sends this blood to the lungs where it is transformed
by the pulmonary circuit to oxygen-rich blood and sent
back to the body (systemic circuit).

2. Oxygen is transported primarily through attachment

to hemoglobin molecules inside red blood cells.
When oxygen binds to hemoglobin, it is called
oxyhemoglobin. (Oxygen can also be transported in
small amounts in blood plasma.) Carbon dioxide is
transported in plasma in the form of bicarbonate ion.

3. Internal transport involves the loading and unloading

of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is loaded in
the lungs, and unloaded in the tissues. When carbon
dioxide is unloaded in the lungs, it first converts from
bicarbonate ion to carbonic acid, then finally to carbon
dioxide. (Carbonic acid is a very important buffer in
blood.) When carbon dioxide is loaded from the
tissues, it first converts to carbonic acid and then to
bicarbonate ion in the plasma.

Impaired oxygen transport or hypoxia results in an individual having a bluish

color (cyanotic).
Carbon monoxide poisoning happens when a person breathes in carbon
monoxide because hemoglobin has a high affinity for carbon monoxide, meaning
that it binds more readily than oxygen to hemoglobin. Thus, carbon monoxide
can prevent oxygen from binding to the hemoglobin in red blood cells (and can
be fatal if not treated).

III. Control of Respiration

A. Neural Regulation
1. Nerves = phrenic and intercostal nerves
Breathing centers are found in the pons and medulla, and control
the breathing rhythm. The breathing centers regulate the breathing
rate via the phrenic and intercostal nerves. These nerves control
the muscles involved in breathing (diaphragm and intercostal
muscles).

B. Factors Influencing Rate and Depth

• Physical factors (talking, exercise, coughing, etc)
• Conscious control (during activities like singing,
swimming)
 • Emotional factors (can cause gasping, sobbing, sighing
etc. )
• Chemical factors Most important! Changes in the
amount of carbon dioxide acts directly on the brain
(medulla). Changes in oxygen is detected by chemical
receptors in the aorta and carotid artery. Breathing rates
will change to maintain pH homeostasis (e.g. hyper-
ventilation or hypoventilation)

IV. Respiratory Disorders such as chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease (COPD) and lung cancer (pages 420-421 A Closer Look --
Lung Cancer ) frequently have an origin of smoking.
COPD includes diseases like chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
Dyspnea is labored breathing. In emphysema, an individual permanently
loses elasticity in the lung tissue and much of the gas exchange is
inefficient. Chronic bronchitis causes an individual to make excessive
amounts of mucus, and places these people at a high risk for pneumonia.

V. Developmental Aspects
In premature infants, a molecule which keeps the alveoli open called
surfactant may not be present. If surfactant is not present, this is called
infant respiratory distress syndrome. Currently, the technological
advances, such as equipment providing positive pressure to keep the
alveoli inflated, have allowed for these premature infants to have a much
better survival rate. This equipment aids breathing until the infant begins
producing their own surfactant.

Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disease which affects 1/2400 children.

This disease results in a thickened mucus that clogs passageways.

SIDS or Sudden infant death syndrome occurs in seemingly healthy

infants stop breathing and die in their sleep. Some instances are linked to
heart defects, some are believed to be related to the breathing centers of
the brain not developing properly. One recommendation by the medical
community is to place infants to sleep on their backs—this technique has
been correlated with a decrease in the incidence of SIDS.

Asthma is a result of respiratory passages being inflamed and very

sensitive to respiratory irritants. These individuals often have episodes of
dyspnea, coughing, and wheezing. Treatment varies depending on the
type of asthma and the severity of the disease.