POWER QUALITY ASSESSMENT FROM A WAVE-POWER STATION

R G Alcorn, W C Beattie

The Queen’s University of Belfast

SUMMARY values from pre-recorded voltage data will be

A wave-power station produces electricity by presented. The method shown is the production
converting sea-wave energy into electrical energy. of a software flickermeter based on the IEC
This can be done by various methods, but the flicker standards.
method considered in this paper uses the
The flicker level is calculated using a statistical
oscillating water column principle. This system
method that produces a cumulative distribution
uses the oscillating wave motion to produce a
function from a flicker level classifier. This
reciprocating air flow which is rectified into
method of calculation easily lends itself to
useful torque by a Wells turbine. The station
implementation in software and can be tested
examined in this paper is the recently
against waveforms given in the IEC standard.
commissioned LIMPET station on Islay, a small
island off the West coast of Scotland. The Although the flickermeter model produced

LIMPET station has two contra-rotating Wells complies to the IEC standards, it will been shown

turbines which spin in the same direction that it is possible to greatly reduce the sample

irrespective of the direction of air flow across frequency of the device for wave-power

them. Each of these turbines is coupled to an applications without a reduction in accuracy. This

inverter controlled 250kW 415V 3-phase 6-pole is due to the fact that a wave-power station will

wound-rotor induction machine, giving the station only generate low frequency voltage fluctuations.

a rated capacity of 0.5MW. The major challenge This novel method of flickermeter implementation

of such a station is in producing an acceptable requires extra statistical manipulation in order to

quality of supply. This is due to the oscillating comply to the standards and this will be detailed

nature of the source as there are power variations in the paper.

with each wave and with each group of waves. Finally, several data sets collected from the

This paper will describe the assessment of power LIMPET station will be analysed and the results

quality from the LIMPET station with regard to will be presented. These will show that the

voltage flicker. The phenomenon of flicker will station is operating well within acceptable limits

be described, and a method of producing flicker of voltage flicker.

POWER QUALITY ASSESSMENT FROM A WAVE-POWER STATION
R G Alcorn, W C Beattie
The Queen’s University of Belfast
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the development and testing of a
software based flickermeter used in order to assess the
supply quality from the LIMPET (1,2) wave-power
station on Islay. It describes the phenomenon of voltage
flicker and the effect that a wave-power station has on
this quantity. The paper also explains techniques
developed in order to improve flickermeter performance
when used with pre-recorded data. It will also show
that the standard flickermeter sample frequency may be
reduced for wave-station applications. Finally the paper
will present flicker results from preliminary data
collected from the LIMPET station and will show that
the device is operating well within acceptable limits.
INTRODUCTION
The major challenge of a wave-power station is in
producing an acceptable quality of supply. This is due to
the variable nature of the source as there are power
variations with each wave and with each group of waves
(3). The difference between calm and rough seas
produces long-term variations in the average power
output, but this presents few problems. However, the
fluctuations caused by individual waves must be
controlled and smoothed to provide acceptable power.
The LIMPET station is mounted on an exposed western
facing coastline on the island of Islay situated off the
West coast of Scotland. The station is of shoreline
oscillating water column (OWC) design. The incoming
wind waves produce an oscillation within the column.
This oscillation drives air to and fro across a pair of
contra-rotating turbines.
Figure 1 – LIMPET Schematic
The water/air interface provides a gearing ratio from the
slow motion of the water column to much higher
velocity air motion suitable for driving turbines. The
turbines are specialised Wells turbines which spin in the
same direction irrespective of the direction of air flow
across them. Each of these turbines is coupled to an
inverter controlled 250kW 415V 3-phase 6-pole wound-
rotor induction machine, giving the station a rated
capacity of 0.5MW. A schematic of the plant showing
its layout and most important elements is shown in
Figure 1.
There are regulations which must be observed for the
generation of electrical power (4,5). These are quite
stringent when connected to an isolated point on the
grid. In the case of the LIMPET station, it is located at
the end of 10km of 11kV line. This paper discusses the
impact of a wave-power station on voltage flicker. It
also shows the development of a software flicker tool
which may be use to analyse past voltage data.
The software flickermeter was developed in such a way
that it could be included in system simulation in order to
predict flicker performance or it could be used on data
previously collected from the station to assess power
quality. This paper deals with only previously recorded
data from the recently commissioned LIMPET station.
At the time of publication, only limited data was
available with the station operating below capacity, but
this will be updated in the future once a database has
been assembled of the station in various operating
conditions.
FLICKER DEFINITION
Voltage flicker is a systematic variation of the voltage
envelope or a series of random voltage changes, the
magnitude of which does not normally exceed the
voltage regulations laid down by the supply authority
(4,5). Unlike harmonics, the distorted waveform
causing flicker contains frequencies below the
fundamental (typically below 25Hz) which makes even
a single-step voltage change classify as flicker. The
most important impact of these fluctuations is that they
cause variations in the light output of various lighting
sources. It is the human perceptibility to these
fluctuations that form part of the system of defining and
calculating the flicker severity.
The eye-brain chain is most sensitive at a frequency of
8.8 Hz. A sine modulated voltage wave at this
frequency with a modulation amplitude of 0.25% RMS
will correspond to a flicker level of 1. This definition
was made by exposing a group of people to a flickering
tungsten-filament light at a set modulation frequency.
The amplitude of modulation was increased and when
50% of the people noticed flickering, the flicker level
was set to one. This was repeated over a range of
frequencies in order to obtain a perceptibility curve.
The IEC perceptibility curve is shown in Figure 2.
1.2
1
Perceptibility (p.u.)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10
Frequency (Hz)
15
Figure 2 - IEC Flicker Perceptibility Curve
In most cases, flicker is caused by varying load
characteristics. Arc furnaces, motor starting, sawmills,
and arc welding are typical sources of voltage
fluctuations. Usually, these plants will be fed by a
strong grid system and so flicker impact will be
reduced. In the case of the wave station it is changes in
the supply rather than the load which cause the voltage
fluctuations. This coupled with the fact that an islanded
system will normally have a weak grid system, makes it
more susceptible to flicker problems.
Figure 2 shows that for frequencies less than 1Hz,
voltage fluctuations have little effect on flicker level.
This is important in respect to a wave station whose
voltage flicker frequency caused by individual wind
waves would be of the order of 0.1Hz. However, the
modulation of the voltage envelope by these individual
wave frequencies may just lie within the tolerable
voltage limits for a weak grid. These large voltage
excursions at low frequencies do have an effect on
voltage flicker which must be assessed. Another effect
of wind waves is that they tend to come in groups,
producing a modulation effect on the individual waves.
IEC STANDARD METER
The IEC have set standards for the measurement and
analysis of flicker severity. These are laid out in IEC
868 and show the design specifications of a
flickermeter(4,5). The meter is essentially composed of
several blocks, the purpose of each detailed as follows.
Block 1 – Input voltage transformer with automatic gain
control– this accepts a wide range of nominal mains
voltages and adapts them to a maximum level
compatible with the operation of the following circuitry.
The output of the block is the RMS voltage modulated
with the disturbance function.
Block 2 – Squaring Demodulator – this circuit gives a
component of its output a voltage linearly related to the
amplitude of the fluctuation modulating the input. It is
essentially simulating the flicker produced by a tungsten
filament lightbulb. Part of the output component is the
flicker waveform to be analysed, the other parts must be
removed.
Block 3 - Weighting Filters – the first filter removes
the dc component and the component at twice the mains
frequency present at the output of the demodulator. The
squaring function of the demodulator introduced this
higher frequency. The output of this filter is solely the
voltage flicker waveform. This filter comprises two
filters back to back, a first order high-pass filter with a
3dB cut-off at 0.05Hz and a low pass 6th order
Butterworth with 35Hz 3dB cut-off.
The second filter weights the voltage fluctuation
according to the lamp and human visual sensitivity
20 25
response. The transfer function for the block is shown in
the IEC standard.
Block 4 – Squaring multiplier and sliding mean function
– this performs two separate functions. Firstly the
weighted flicker signal is squared to simulate the non-
linear eye-brain perception. Secondly the sliding mean
averaging is performed to simulate the storage effect of
the brain and the thermal capacity of the filament. This
has the transfer function of a first-order low-pass filter
with a time constant of 300ms.
Block 5 – Online statistical analysis – this block
samples the instantaneous flicker waveform at a
suggested minimum of 50Hz. The flicker is classified
into a minimum of 64 class levels and a cumulative
probability function created. From this function it is
possible to calculate a figure for the short term flicker
severity, PST, usually over 10 minute intervals. The long
term flicker severity PLT is usually assessed over several
days can be calculated from a successive of PST’s.
The final design of the flickermeter is left to the
engineer, although the standard does give tests to check
that the meter falls within specification.
SOFTWARE FLICKERMETER
The purpose of the software flickermeter was to provide
online and offline flicker performance for the LIMPET
station.. The software flickermeter is divided into 2
parts, namely the instantaneous flickermeter model and
the statistical analysis.
Instantaneous Flickermeter Model
The instantaneous flicker level is calculated by firstly
standardising (reduction to per unit value) and then
sampling the voltage waveform. This signal is squared,
simulating the lamp response, before being passed to
several filters which simulate the eye-brain response.
This gives the instantaneous flicker sensation level. The
output of the system is the instantaneous flicker level
which must be further processed to give a value for PST.
Statistical Analysis
The output of the instantaneous model produces a time
trace of flicker sensation which is passed to a function
that performs the statistical analysis. This must be done
in order to calculate the flicker sensation over a long
enough period to allow for the build up of annoyance.
The statistical method is because flicker is made up of
regular and irregular voltage anomalies. These can make
the instantaneous flicker level vary widely but perhaps
not perceptibly over the observed period. This means
that types of occurrence must be weighted. Also, it is
important to know for what percentage of the observed
period any given flicker level has been exceeded.
In order to meet these requirements, a function was
written which sorted the instantaneous flicker into a
series of class levels, and then built up a probability
function of class level exceedence which could be used
to calculate the short term flicker severity. The short-
term flicker severity may be evaluated in as short a time
as 10 minutes as a 10 minute interval is long enough for
an individual to notice the disturbance and its
persistence without giving too much importance to
isolated voltage changes.
Classification Method
For the software flickermeter, the classification method
chosen was to have a 200 level logarithmic classifier.
The percentage of time the flicker spends in each of
these levels is then calculated over the 10 minute test
period. A cumulative probability function (CPF) is
established from the class level data. The probability
function is defined as the probability that a level will be
exceeded. The PST value is defined as
PST = K1P1 + K 2P2+....K n P n
where P1, P2,.. Pn are CPF percentile points with an
assigned probability of being exceeded and K1, K2,..
Kn are weighting coefficients. In order to find the
flicker level at a particular percentile point it is
necessary to use an interpolation algorithm. Details of
possible methods are given in the IEC standard.
The maximum flicker level was chosen to get a good
spread of data throughout the levels, which in turn
produces a smoother CPF for PST calculation. The PST
could then be calculated using the equation with the
percentiles and weightings given in Table 1.
Percentile (Pn) Weighting (Kn)
0.1 0.0314
1 0.0525
3 0.0657
10 0.28
50 0.08
Table 1 – Percentiles and Weighting Coefficients
Percentile Interpolation
There are several problems associated with the
interpolation of the percentile points from the
cumulative probability function. Interpolation is usually
necessary as it is unlikely that all the required percentile
points lie exactly on the CPF at measured values. The
methods employed to deal with the problems
experienced are shown below:
Logarithmic classes – The flicker level is sorted into
classes or bands of flicker severity, these bands being
spaced logarithmically. If a CPF was to be plotted solely
from this information it would form a staircase function.
This type of function cannot be used to accurately
interpolate the percentile points. Instead, the midpoint
of each class was found linearly and a curve fitted
between the points. This produced a smooth CPF for
more accurate interpolation.
Empty Classes – There is the possibility that there will
be class levels which have no flicker points in them.
When the CPF is constructed, even with the curve
fitting described above, these empty classes produce flat
spots, or part of a staircase function. If the required
percentile happens to lie at this flat spot, the
interpolation can have infinite solutions. To remove
this possibility, any flat spots in the CPF are smoothed
by curve fitting using data either side of the flat spot.
The 0.1 percentile point – This is the point in the
function exceeded only by 0.1% of the flicker or 1 in
1000 samples. If the maximum flicker occurs only
occasionally then this point will not be measured.
Statistically it must exist, but over the given sample
time it may not have been recorded. To ensure that this
percentile point can be found from the CPF, several
points are used to extrapolate back to the 0.1 percentile
point. The weighting applied to this percentile
coefficient in the calculation of PST is small compared
with the other coefficients and so the accuracy of this
method is adequate.
Flickermeter Sample Frequency
The IEC standard states that the flickermeter classifier
must have a sample rate of at least 50Hz. However, due
to the low frequency of sea waves and the inertia of the
turbine/generator system, the frequencies produced by a
wave-power station are much lower.
The drawback of the standard flickermeter for real time
analysis, is the high sample rate and the amount of
processing required to produce a value for PST. To
store the voltage or power data for off-line analysis by
the flickermeter model consumes a lot of memory. The
solution is to reduce the sample frequency of the
flickermeter, so that less storage and processing is
required. Although the flicker created by the wave-
power station is of a low frequency, reducing the sample
rate of the classifier will cause problems with the
percentile interpolation. Over a 10 minute interval at a
frequency of 2Hz there will be only 2000 samples and
this greatly reduces the number of samples per class
interval. This has a detrimental effect on how well the
CPF can be produced and hence how accurately the
percentiles can be interpolated for PST calculation.
In order to understand the effect that the classifier
sample frequency had on the accuracy of the
calculation, a test was devised to compare various
classifier set-ups at low frequencies. Several traces of
voltage were processed with the flickermeter sample
frequency ranging from 50Hz down to 1Hz. The results
are shown in Figure 3.
flicker analysis can be performed on individual phases
and this could highlight conditions of grid unbalance.
230

R -ph V oltage (V olts )

7
225
6

220
5
PST % Error

215
4 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

3 230

Y -ph V oltage (V olts )

2
225

1
220

0
50 20 10 5 2 1
215
Flickermeter Sample Frequency 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

240
Figure 3 – Classifier Sample Frequency Comparison

B -ph V oltage (V olts )

235
This shows the worst case error experienced by the
classifier over a range of classifier sample frequencies. 230

Although the errors at 1Hz and 2Hz are small, it is 225

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
thought that running at sample frequencies lower than Tim e (s ec s )

5Hz would introduce unacceptable errors. This is ideal

in that this matches the data acquisition sample
frequency on the LIMPET station.
Testing and Calibration
With the flickermeter and statistical classifier set up as
described and with the sample frequency set to 5Hz, it
was then tested using frequency and modulation
amplitude values specified in the IEC standard. The
flickermeter was tested with a range of frequencies from
0.5Hz to 25Hz with modulation amplitudes set to give a
PST of 1. The results of the calibration test showed that
for the standard input frequencies, the software
flickermeter was performing to within 1% of the
specification.
DATA ANALYSIS
The data acquisition system on the LIMPET plant has
been set up to record various signals that describe
station operation. These are to monitor, control and
evaluate all aspects of the station’s performance. The
traces of interest for flicker measurement are the line
voltages returned from the inverter system.
At the time of publication, the LIMPET station has been
operational for a short period only, and hence the results
presented are only preliminary and have been taken
whilst the station has been operating below its installed
capacity of 0.5MW. The station in this commissioning
condition is not running system controls which have
been designed to improve the quality of supply (6).
Figure 4 shows an example of the phase voltages
measured whilst the station was producing an average
power of 60kW, with peaks reaching 120kW. The data
acquisition system for analysis purposes saves data in
sets of between 10 and 15 minute periods which are
ideal for flicker analysis. It must also be noted that
Figure 4 - Voltage Traces from LIMPET
In order to find the flicker causing frequencies produced
by a wave-power station, a spectral analysis of the
voltage signals in Figure 4 was performed. These are
shown in Figure 5. The spectra show that there is a
spread between periods of 10 – 20 seconds, which are
the naturally occurring wave periods at the LIMPET
site. However, as the turbine/ generator combination
has very high inertia, the effect of these individual
waves is reduced. The spectra also show a frequency
content of the order of 60-90 seconds. This is a
modulating wave period that occurs due to a build up
and then decline of successive waves occurring in
groups. The inertia will have little effect on these
longer periods as it only deals with short term storage.
Figure 5 – Spectra of Voltage Signals
Flicker analysis
The voltage spectra of Figure 5 show that there are a
range of flicker causing frequencies at various
intensities. Each of the phase voltages requires flicker
analysis for each of the data sets under investigation.
The instantaneous flicker produced by the flickermeter
for a single voltage trace is shown in Figure 6.
 9
x 10
-7
seen that the standard deviation is small, meaning that
for the files analysed the flicker performance is similar.
8

7
Phase Flicker PST
R-Phase 0.125
Ins tantaneous Flic k er Level

5
Y-Phase 0.152
4
B-Phase 0.144
3 Mean flicker Standard Deviation
2 0.140 0.034
1 Table 2 – Flicker Results
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 A further result of the analysis is that the flicker values
Tim e (sec s )
produced for each phase are slightly different. The
Figure 6 – Instantaneous Flicker with class levels values shown in Table 2 give the phase average over all
the data analysed. The difference is to be expected
This shows the variation in flicker intensity and the since an islanded system such as Islay is unlikely to
class levels used in order to classify it. The nature of have a balanced grid and hence the phase susceptibility
the flicker variations show that the trace is more often at to flicker will be different for each phase.
lower levels than at higher levels therefore being better
suited to a logarithmic classifier. CONCLUSIONS

The resultant cumulative probability function produced It has been shown that it is possible to create and test a
from the classified instantaneous flicker sensation trace software flickermeter that complies to the IEC
in Figure 6 is shown in Figure 7. This shows a smooth standards. Furthermore it has been shown that this
and complete function, a result of the having adequate meter can be used to assess impact on the grid that a
data along with a logarithmic classifier. This type of wave-power station has.
CPF produces confidence in the interpolated percentile Frequency analysis of the voltage waveforms measured
points used in the final calculation of PST. at LIMPET have shown that the frequencies
CP F of s ignal perm anenc e in c lass es contributing to flicker are those of the individual waves
100
and a low frequency modulated wave. The frequency
90 analysis also showed that because the voltage waveform
80 was subject to only low frequency fluctuations, the
Cum ulative P robability Func tion %

70
flickermeter sample frequency could be reduced without
loss of accuracy.
60

50
The work to date has shown that the LIMPET station is
working well within acceptable limits of flicker.
40
Although the data was taken when the station was
30
working below its installed capacity, it is thought that its
20 flicker performance at rated output will be similar since
10 a control strategy based on quality of supply will be
0
used once the station has been fully commissioned
-11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6
10 10 10 10 10 10
Clas s Num ber REFERENCES
Figure 7 – CPF with percentiles 1. Heath T.V., The History and Status of the LIMPET
Project, IMechE Seminar, November 1999
RESULTS
2. Description of Limpet Wave Station and Technical
A range of 3 phase voltage traces were available from Specifications available on WaveGen’s website:
the LIMPET station taken from the station operating at 3. www.wavegen.co.uk
average power levels just under 100kW with peak
power output reaching 150kW. The files were taken on 4. Beattie W.C., Sprevak D., Alcorn R.G., Producing
successive days but all displayed similar frequency acceptable electrical supply quality from a wave-power
content of that shown in Figure 5. Also, since the station, Proc Conference OMAE 98 Greece, 1998
station was in a commissioning mode when the data was 5. IEC 868, Flickermeter – Function and Design
being taken, all the power levels are very similar. This specifications, IEC, Geneva 1986 (BS EN 60868-0)
allows the files to be used as a group and average flicker 6. IEC 868-0, Flickermeter – Evaluation of Flicker
levels to be found. The results are given in Table 2. Severity, IEC, Geneva 1991 (BS EN 60868-0)
The results show that for the range of data analysed, the 7. Alcorn R.G., Beattie W.C., Control strategy
flicker is well within acceptable limits, having an development for remote Wave-Power Stations, UPEC
average of 14% of maximum tolerance. It can also be 2000 Conference, Belfast.