Pituitary Hormones and Their

Control by the Hypothalamus

 Pituitary Gland and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus

• Pituitary Gland Has

Two Distinct Parts

a. Anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis)

b. Posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis)

c. Between the two is

the pars
intermedia
 Pituitary Gland and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus

• Pituitary Gland

a. Anterior pituitary
produces 6
important peptide
hormones
b. Posterior pituitary
secretes two
important peptide
hormones
(produced in the
hypothalamus)
 Pituitary Gland and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus
• Control of Metabolic Functions (Anterior Pituitary)
a. Growth hormone-promotes growth of the entire body
affecting protein formation, cell growth, and cell
differentiation
b. Adrenocorticotropin-controls the secretion of some of
the adrenocorticotropical hormones, which affect the
metabolism of glucose, proteins, and fats
c. Prolactin-promotes mammary gland development
and milk production
d. Thyroid stimulating hormone-controls the rate of
secretion of thyroxine and T3 which controls the rates of
most intracellular chemical reactions
e. Follicle stimulating hormone and leutinizing hormone-
control the growth of the ovaries and testes, as well as
their hormonal and reproductive activities
 Pituitary Gland and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus

• Control of Metabolic Functions (Posterior Pituitary)

a. Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)-controls the rate

of water excretion in the urine

b. oxytocin-helps express milk from the mammary glands

during suckling and helps in the delivery of the baby
 Pituitary Gland and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus

• Anterior Pituitary Gland Contains Different Cell

Types That Synthesize and Secrete Hormones

a. Somatotropes-human growth hormone

b. Corticotropes-ACTH
c. Thyrotropes-TSH
d. Gonadotropes-LH and FSH
e. Lactotropes-PRL
Important peptide hormones that secreted by the anterior pituitary and the targets:
 Pituitary Gland and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus Controls
Pituitary Secretion
a. Posterior pituitary-
controlled by nerve signals
that
originate in the
hypothalamus
b. Anterior pituitary-
controlled by hormones
called
hypothalamic releasing or
hypothalamic inhibiting
hormones
 Hypothalamus Controls Pituitary Secretion

• Hypothalamic-Hypophysial Portal Blood Vessels

of the Anterior Pituitary Gland

a. Small arteries penetrate the median eminence, and

additional vessels return to the surface coalescing
to form the portal system

b. These vessels pass downward along the pituitary

stalk to supply blood to the anterior pituitary
sinuses
 Hypothalamus Controls Pituitary Secretion

• Hypothalamic Releasing and Inhibitory Hormones

are Secreted into the Median Eminence

a. The endings of the neurons are special in that their

function is not to transmit signals from one neuron
to another but rather to secrete the hormones

b. The hormones are absorbed into the portal system

and carried directly to the anterior pituitary
2. Relationship Between the Hypothalamus and
Anterior Pituitary

11
 Hypothalamus Controls Pituitary Secretion

• Hypothalamic Releasing and Inhibitory Hormones

Control Anterior Pituitary Secretion

a. Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)

b. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
c. Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)
d. Growth hormone inhibitory hormone (GHIH)
e. Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
f. Prolactin inhibitory hormone (PIH)
g. Prolctin releasing hormone (PRH)
Hormones Secreted by the Hypothalamus and Their Effects on Anterior Pituitary

13
 Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone

• Growth Hormone Promotes Growth of Many

Body Tissues

a. GH is also called somatotropin and is a single chain

of 191 amino acids
b. Causes growth of almost all tissues
c. Promotes increased sizes of cells and increased
mitosis
d. Promotes the greater development of cells and
specific differentiation
e. Growth effect :stimulates cell division, especially in
muscle and epiphyseal cartilage of long bones.
The result is muscular growth as well as linear growth.
 Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone

• Growth Hormone Promotes Growth of Many

Body Tissues

Comparison of weight gain of a rat injected daily with GH with that of a normal littermate
 Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone

• Growth Hormone Metabolic Effects

a. Promotes protein deposition in tissues

1) Enhancement of aa transport through the cell

membranes
2) Enhancement of RNA translation to cause
protein synthesis by the ribosomes
3) Increased nuclear transcription of nuclear DNA
to form RNA
4) Decreased catabolism of protein and amino acids
 Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone

• Growth Hormone Metabolic Effects

b. GH enhances fat utilization for energy

1) Causes the release of fatty acids from adipose

2) Enhances the conversion of fatty acids to
acetyl coA
3) If too great a release, then ketosis can occur

Therefore, utilization of fat for providing energy

in preference to both carbohydrates and proteins.
 Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone

• Growth Hormone Metabolic Effects

c. GH decreases carbohydrate utilization

1) Decreased glucose uptake in tissues such as

skeletal muscle and fat
2) Increased glucose production by the liver
3) leads to increase of the blood glucose concentration.
 Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone

• Growth Hormone Metabolic Effects

d. GH stimulates cartilage and bone growth

1) Increased deposition of protein chondrocytes and

osteoprogenitor cells
2) Increased rate of reproduction of these cells
3) A specific effect of converting chondrocytes into
osteogenic cells
4) Strongly stimulates osteoblasts in the periosteum
and cavities
5) Effects bone bone growth in length and width
 Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone

• Growth Hormone Metabolic Effects

e. GH exerts much of its effects through intermediates

called somatomedins or insulin-like growth factors
 Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone

• Regulation of Growth Hormone Secretion

Stimulate GH Secretion Inhibit GH Secretion

Decreased blood glucose Increased blood glucose

Decreased blood free fatty acids Increased blood free fatty acids

Increased blood amino acids (Arg) Aging

Starvation, fasting, protein deficiency Obesity

Trauma, stress, excitement GHIH (somatostatin)

Exercise Growth hormone (exogenous)

Testosterone, estrogen Somatomedins (insulin-like growth

factors)
Deep sleep (stages II and IV)

GHRH

Ghrelin
 Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone

• Abnormalities of GH Secretion

a. Dwarfism
b. Gigantism
c. Acromegaly

• Hyposecretion of GH results in dwarfism during

childhood.
• Hypersecretion of GH leads to cause gigantism in
children and acromegaly in adult.
(2) Regulation of GH secretion
The plasma concentration of GH changes with age.
5 – 20 years old, 6 ng/ml
20 – 40 years old, 3 ng/ml
40 –70 years old, 1.6 ng/ml
The change of GH
concentration within
one day.

24
 Posterior Pituitary and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus

• Pituicytes- glial like cells that make up the posterior

pituitary

a. Pituicytes do not secrete hormones but act as

supporting structures for terminal nerve fibers and
nerve endings

b. Nerve fibers and endings contain bulbous knobs

that contain secretory granules which release two
hormones—oxytocin and vasopressin (ADH)

c. The two hormones originate in two different nuclei

of the hypothalamus
Posterior Pituitary and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus
Synthesis and Release of Vasopressin (VP) and
Oxytocin (OXT)
.

28
 Posterior Pituitary and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus

• Physiological Functions of Antidiuretic Hormone

a. In the presence of ADH the permeability of the
collecting ducts and tubules of the kidney to water
increases greatly and allows water to be reabsorbed,
conserving water in the body and producing very
concentrated urine
b. Mechanism is probably by increased insertion of
aquaporins in the membranes (cAMP mediated)

• Regulation of ADH Production

a. Increased ECF osmolarity stimulates ADH secretion
b. Low blood volume and low blood pressure
stimulate ADH secretion (called the vasoconstrictor
effects of ADH)
Posterior Pituitary and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus

Roles of ADH
1)Antidiuretic effect
2)Pressure effect :constricting the arterioles
3) Neurotransmitter

ADH RECEPTORS:
⚫Antidiuretic hormone V2-receptor: collecting duct
⚫Vasopressor hormone V1-receptor: vascular smooth muscle
⚫Vasopressor hormone V3 –receptor: neurons (in CNS and ENS)
 Diabetes Insipidus:

•Less water reabsorption and excessive urination

•Decrease in ADH due to damage to hypothalamus
or post. pituitary (brain trauma; tumor)
•OR damage to kidney so water reabsorption is
inhibited (inherited genetic mutation in males, drugs,
infection, and hypercalcemia)
Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone ADH release (SIADH)
• Unsuppressed release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the pituitary
gland or nonpituitary sources or its continued action on vasopressin
receptors
• Most commonly, SIADH occurs secondary to another disease.
(Malignancy, drugs, infection).
• Hereditary SIADH, also known as nephrogenic SIADH, (mutation in
vasopressin 2 (V2) receptors in the kidneys.)
 Posterior Pituitary and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus

• Oxytocic Hormone

a. Causes contraction of the pregnant uterus

b. Aids in milk ejection by the breasts

Pineal gland & Thymus

• Pineal Gland (Endocrine & CNS)–Melatonin

•Target: Hypothalamus
•Action: Sets Diurnal Clock/Circadian rhythm & promotes
sleep

•Thymus (atrophies at puberty)

–Thymosins
•Target: T cells of immune system
•Action: T cell maturation (immunocompetence)
Thyroid Metabolic
Hormones
 Synthesis and Secretion of the Thyroid Metabolic Hormones

• Physiologic Anatomy of the Thyroid

• The thyroid gland is composed of large numbers
of closed follicles that are filled with a secretory
substance called colloid and lined with cuboidal
epithelial cells that secrete into the interior of
the follicles.
• The major constituent of colloid is the large
glycoprotein thyroglobulin which contains the
thyroid hormones.
• Once the secretion has entered the follicles, it
must be absorbed back through the follicular
epithelium into the blood before it can function
in the body.
• The thyroid gland also contains C cells that
secrete calcitonin, a hormone that contributes to
regulation of plasma calcium ion concentration
 Synthesis and Secretion of the Thyroid Metabolic Hormones

• Iodine is Required for the Formation of Thyroxine

a. Iodine in the form of iodides

b. Of the iodide absorbed from the intestine, 80% is
rapidly excreted by the kidneys, and 20% is
selectively removed by cells of the thyroid gland
 Synthesis and Secretion of the Thyroid Metabolic Hormones

• Iodide Pump-the Sodium-Iodide Symporter

(Iodide Trapping)
 Synthesis and Secretion of the Thyroid Metabolic Hormones

• Iodide Pump-the Sodium-Iodide Symporter

(Iodide Trapping)

a. Transport of iodine from the blood

b. Formation and secretion of thyroglobulin by the
thyroid cells
c. Oxidation of the iodide ion
d. Iodination of tyrosine and formation of the thyroid
hormone (organification of thyroid)
Synthesis and Secretion of the Thyroid Metabolic Hormones
Synthesis and Secretion of the Thyroid Metabolic Hormones
e. Storage of thyroglobulin-enough is stored to last the
body for 2-3 months
f. Release of throxine and triiodithyronine-cleaved from
the thyroglobulin and then released into the blood
g. Daily rate of secretion; 93% is normally thyroxine and
7% triiodothyronine. However, about ½ of the
thyroxine is slowly deiodinated to form the T3 so the
tissues get mainly T3
h. Thyroxine and triodothyronine are transported bound
to plasma proteins
i. Because of the high affinity to the plasma proteins,
the hormone is released very slowly
j. Thyroid hormones have slow onset and long duration
of action
Synthesis and Secretion of the Thyroid Metabolic Hormones
 Physiological Functions of the Thyroid Hormones

• Thyroid Hormones Increase the Transcription of

Large Numbers of Genes

a. Most of the thyroxine secreted by the thyroid is

converted to triiodothyronine (T3)

b. Thyroid hormones activate nuclear receptors

Physiological Functions of the Thyroid Hormones
 Physiological Functions of the Thyroid Hormones

• Thyroid Hormones Increase Metabolic Activity-

(increase the BMR 60-100x)

a. Thyroid hormones increase the number and activity

of mitochondria

b. Increase the active transport of ions through the

cell membrane (sodium and potassium)
 Physiological Functions of the Thyroid Hormones

• Thyroid Hormones Effect on Growth

a. Promote the growth and development of the brain

during fetal life and first years of postnatal life

b. Deficiency will retard growth during growing

years
 Physiological Functions of the Thyroid Hormones

• Effect on Specific Bodily Mechanisms

a. Stimulation of cbh metabolism-rapid uptake of

glucose, enhanced glycolysis, enhanced gluconeo-
genesis, increased rate of absorption, increased
insulin secretion

b. Stimulation of fat metabolism-lipids are mobilized

rapidly decreasing fat stores, increases free fatty
acid concentration in plasma, and accelerates the
oxidation of free fatty acids in cells
 Physiological Functions of the Thyroid Hormones

• Effect on Specific Bodily Mechanisms

c. Increased thyroid hormone decreases the

concentrations of cholesterol, phospholipids, and
triglycerides in plasma and vice versa; increases
the cholesterol secretion in bile

• Increased Requirement for Vitamins

• Increased Metabolic Rate

• Decreased Body Weight

Physiological Functions of the Thyroid Hormones
 Physiological Functions of the Thyroid Hormones

• Effect on the Cardiovascular System

a. Increased blood flow and cardiac output

b. Increased heart rate
c. Increased heart strength
d. Normal arterial pressure

• Increased Respiration
• Increased Gastrointestinal Motility
• Excitatory Effects on the CNS
• Muscles React With Vigor
 Physiological Functions of the Thyroid Hormones

• Muscle Tremors with Hyperthyroidism

• Difficulty in Sleeping and Constant Tiredness With
Hyperthyroidism
• Increased Thyroid Hormone Increases the Secretion of Several
Other Endocrine Glands
• Needs to be Normal for Normal Sexual Function
 Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

• TSH (Anterior Pituitary) Increases Thyroid Secretion

a. Increased proteolysis of the thyroglobulin

b. Increased activity of the iodide pump
c. Increased iodination tyrosine
d. Increased size and secretory activity of the thyroid
cells
e. Increased number of thyroid cells

• Cyclic AMP Mediates the Stimulatory Effect of TSH-

acting as a second messenger system
 Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

• Secretion of TSH is
Regulated by Thyrotropin-
Releasing Hormone from the
Hypothalamus

• Feedback Effect of Thyroid

Hormone to Decrease the
Secretion of TSH
 Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion
• Diseases of the Thyroid
a. Hyperthyroidism-Grave’s Disease, toxic goiter

Symptoms of hyperthyroidism

1) High state of excitability

2) Intolerance to heat
3) Mild to extreme weight loss
4) Varying degrees of diarrhea
5) Muscle weakness
6) Extreme fatigue
7) Tremor of the hands
8) Exophthalmos
9) many psychoneurotic tendencies including anxiety
complexes, extreme worry, paranoia and muscle
tremor
 Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion
• Diseases of the Thyroid

b. Hypothyroidism

Symptoms oh hypothyroidism:
• fatigue
• extreme somnolence
• poor memory
• slow mentation
• Weight gain
• Potential depression
 Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion
• Diseases of the Thyroid

Hypothyroidism-endemic colloidal goiter

caused by iodine deficiency

1) Myxedema: myxedema develops

because of deposition of
mucoprotein binding with positive
ions and water molecules in the
interstitial spaces while protein
synthesis decreases
2) Cretinism: A child without a thyroid
gland , growth and mental
retardation.
In the absence of sufficient dietary iodide the thyroid cannot
produce adequate amounts of T4 and T3.
causes abnormally high level of the TSH secretion, which in
turn stimulate the abnormal growth of the thyroid (a goiter).