EXAMPLE 1:

A basin has the following rainfall for the month of july:

Station A B C D E F G H I
Rainfall 51.8 32.0 28.7 43.4 38.6 50.5 59.6 31.5 31.7
mm
Area 31 58 31.5 31 86 71 27 43.5 66.0
km2

Determine the Average rainfall using the applicable method

A. Arithmetic Mean:
51.8+32+28.7+ 43.4+38.6+ 50.5+59.6+31.5+31.7
P AVE = =40.867 mm
9

B. Geometric Mean:
1

P GM =( 51.8∗32∗28.7∗43.4∗38.6∗50.5∗59.6∗31.5∗31.7) 9 =39.601 mm

C. Harmonic Mean:
9
P HM = =38.426 mm
( 1 1
+ +
1
+
1
+
1
+
1
+
1
+
1
+
1
51.8 32 28.7 43.4 38.6 50.5 59.6 31.5 31.7 )
D. Weighted Mean
51.8∗31+32∗58+28.7∗31.5+43.4∗31+ 38.6∗86+50.5∗71+ 59.6∗27+31.5∗43.5+31.7∗66
P GM = =39.748 mm
31+58+31.5+31+86+71+27+ 43.5+66

This is very similar to Thiessen polygon method

EXAMPLE 2:
A basin has the following rainfall for the month of july:

Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Rain 123 10 17 157 63 27 192 0 5 76
Fall

Determine the Median Rainfall from 1990 to 1999

Determine the Median Rainfall from 1990 to 1998

SOLUTION:
Arrange the data in order:
192, 157, 123, 76, 63, 27, 17, 10, 5, 0

63+ 27
the middle part of these data are 63 and 27, therefore the median is = 45
2

Arrange the data in order:

192, 157, 123, 63, 27, 17, 10, 5, 0

the middle of these sample is 27, therefore the median is 27

EXAMPLE 3:
At a station, 55 days of rainfall were observed in a year. The rainfall data are grouped in the interval of 10 as
given below

Rainfall Number of Class Mean

Class occurrence L1 + (L2 - L1)/2
of rainfall
(frequency)
41 - 50 5 45.5
51 - 60 8 55.5
61 - 70 10 65.5
71 - 80 11 75.5 Median class
81 - 90 12 85.5 Modals Class
91 - 100 4 95.5
101 - 110 3 105.5
111 - 120 2 115.5

Determine the mean, median and mode 41+(50-41)/2 = 45.5

SOLUTIONS:
For the mean

M AV =
∑ X i f i = ( 45.5∗5)+(55.5∗8)+(65.5∗10)+(75.5∗11)+(85.5∗12)+(95.5∗4)+(105.5∗3)+(115.5∗2)
N (5+8+10+11+12+ 4+3+2)
M AV =74.773

For the Median

In order to determine the median class – 55/2 = 27.5

( ) ( )
N 55
−S bm −23
2 2
Median=L1 +h =71+10 = 75.091
f median 11

Mode
Modal class is the class with the most number of frequency

Mode=L1 +h
( (f 1 −f 0)
)
(f 1 −f 0)+(f 1 −f 2)
=81+10
((12−11 )
(12−11)+(12−4) )
=82.111
Example 4:
For the given 30 day rainfall of a month

5 4 2 5 3 7
6 8 5 1 7 12
3 7 7 11 8 6
2 9 9 0 8 10
1 3 8 1 2 4

Determine the Mean, Median and Mode for

discrete and continuous

SOLUTIONS: (Discrete Data)

Arrange the data in order from highest to lowest

12
11 Mean=
∑ (P i )
N
10
Mean = 5.47
9
9
8
8
8
8
7
7 Mode = 7
7 Even though 8 and 7 have the same number in the
sample, the mode is still taken to be 7
7
6
6 Median = (6+5)/2
Median = 5.5
5
5
5
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
0
Example 4:
For the given 30 day rainfall of a month

5 4 2 5 3 7
6 8 5 1 7 12
3 7 7 11 8 6
2 9 9 0 8 10
1 3 8 1 2 4

Determine the Mean, Median and Mode for

discrete and continuous

SOLUTIONS: (Continuous Data)

arrange the data to form classes. In this case, the class height h must be odd number and determine the number
of frequencies

Classes frequency f i
0–2 7
3–5 8
6–8 10
9 – 11 4
12 – 14 1

From the class height, we can determine the class mean and the product of the class mean and the frequency Xf

Class Mean
Classes frequency f i XiFi
Xi
0–2 7 1 7
3–5 8 4 32 median class
6–8 10 7 70 modal class
9 – 11 4 10 40
12 – 14 1 13 13

The mean can be computed as follows:

M AV =
∑ Xi f i
N

7+32+70+40+13
M AV =
30

M AV =5.4

From this sample, we can determine the median class to be (3-5) the reason for that is because the total number
of samples is 30, hence N/2 = 15. If the frequencies of (0-2) and (3-5) were added, the total will be 15 hence
satisfying the condition.

It should be noted that the sum of the frequencies from the lowest class may not exactly equal to N/2. The class
in which N/2 will fall is the median class
The median can now be computed as follows:

( )
N
−S bm
2
Median=L1 +h
f median

The sum of the classes lower than the median class is 7 therefore Sbm is 7
The height of the median class is h = 3
The lower boundary of the median class L1 = 3
The frequency of the median class fmedian = 8

( )
30
−7
2
Median=3+3 =6
8

The modal class is the class that has the highest frequency among the classes hence (6-7)

Mode=L1 +h
( (f 1 −f 0)
(f 1 −f 0)+(f 1 −f 2) )
where:
f0 = frequency of the class below the modal class = 8
f1 = frequency of the modal class = 10
f2 = frequency of the class above the modal class = 4

Mode=6+3
( (10−8)
(10−8)+(10−4)
=6.75
)
EXAMPLE 5:

For the given 30 day rainfall of a month

5 4 2 5 3 7
6 8 5 1 7 12
3 7 7 11 8 6
2 9 9 0 8 10
1 3 8 1 2 4

Determine the Dispersion for discrete and continuous

SOLUTIONS (DISCRETE DATA):

Since the sample is less than or equal to 30, the unbiased formula will be used

From the previous example, the mean X AVE = 5.47

1
2
σ =
(N −1)
∑ ( X 1− X AVE )2

1
2
σ =
29
∑ ( X 1 −5.47) 2

2 1
σ = ∗303.467=10.464 variance
29

The standard deviation will be

σ = √ 10.464=3.235 standard deviation

the coefficient of variance is given to be

CV = σ
X ave

3.235
CV = =0.591 coefficient of variance
5.47
EXAMPLE 5:

For the given 30 day rainfall of a month

5 4 2 5 3 7
6 8 5 1 7 12
3 7 7 11 8 6
2 9 9 0 8 10
1 3 8 1 2 4

Determine the Dispersion for discrete and continuous

SOLUTIONS (CONTINUOUS DATA):

From the previous example, we have determined that the classes and frequencies are given as follows:

Classes frequency f i
0–2 7
3–5 8
6–8 10
9 – 11 4
12 – 14 1

also from the previous example, the mean μ is taken to be 5.4

The equation for unbiased variance is given to be

1
2
σ =
(N −1)
∑ f 1( X 1− μ )2

1
2
σ =
(30−1)
∑ f 1 ( X 1−5.4)2

from the table below, the variance can now be computed

Class Mean
Classes frequency f i f1(X1 - μ)2
Xi
0–2 7 1 135.52
3–5 8 4 15.68
6–8 10 7 25.6
9 – 11 4 10 84.64
12 – 14 1 13 57.76
Σf(x 1 – μ)2 = 319.2

2 1
σ = 319.2=11.007 variance
(30−1)

the standard deviation σ is determined to be

σ = √ 11.007=3.318
The coefficient of variance is given to be

CV = σ ;
X ave

3.318
CV = =0.614
5.4
EXAMPLE 6:

For the given 30 day rainfall of a month

5 4 2 5 3 7
6 8 5 1 7 12
3 7 7 11 8 6
2 9 9 0 8 10
1 3 8 1 2 4

Determine the Skewness for discrete and continuous

SOLUTIONS (DISCRETE DATA):

N
μ 3=
(N −1)(N −2)
∑ ( X 1− X AVE )3

Recall that in one of our previous example. XAVE = 5.47, Given also that N = 30 the skewness is taken to be

30
μ 3=
(30−1)(30−2)
∑ ( X 1 −X AVE )3

for the sum of Σ(Xi – XAVE)3 = 99.06311

30
μ 3= ∗99.06311
(30−1)(30−2)

μ 3 =3.66

Coefficient of Skewness

μ3
CS =
σ3

3.66
CS = 3
=0.0996
3.325
EXAMPLE 6:

For the given 30 day rainfall of a month

5 4 2 5 3 7
6 8 5 1 7 12
3 7 7 11 8 6
2 9 9 0 8 10
1 3 8 1 2 4

Determine the Skewness for discrete and continuous

SOLUTIONS (CONTINUOUS DATA):

N
μ 3=
(N −1)(N −2)
∑ f 1 ( X 1− μ )3

for Grouped data, the mean μ = 5.4

Class Mean
Classes frequency fi f1(X1 - μ)3
Xi
0–2 7 1 -596.288
3–5 8 4 -21.952
6–8 10 7 40.96
9 – 11 4 10 389.344
12 – 14 1 13 438.976
Σf1(x1 – μ)3 = 251.04

30
μ 3= ∗251.04
(30−1)(30−2)

μ 3 =9.275

For the coefficient of Skewness

μ3
CS = 3
σ

9.275
CS = 3
=0.254
3.318
EXAMPLE 7:

For the given 30 day rainfall of a month

5 4 2 5 3 7
6 8 5 1 7 12
3 7 7 11 8 6
2 9 9 0 8 10
1 3 8 1 2 4

Determine the Kurtosis for discrete and continuous

SOLUTIONS (DISCRETE DATA):

For unbiased data, the formula for determining the Kurtosis is

2
N
μ 4=
(N −1)(N −2)(N −3)
∑ ( X 1− X AVE) 4
2
30
μ 4=
(30−1)(30− 2)(30−3)
∑ ( X 1 −5.47)4
2
30
μ 4= 6320.124
(30−1)(30− 2)(30−3)

μ 4 =259.447
The coefficient of Kurtosis is given to be

μ4
β 2= 4
σ

259.447
β 2= 4
3.325

β 2 =2.1226
EXAMPLE 7:

For the given 30 day rainfall of a month

5 4 2 5 3 7
6 8 5 1 7 12
3 7 7 11 8 6
2 9 9 0 8 10
1 3 8 1 2 4

Determine the Kurtosis for discrete and continuous

SOLUTIONS (CONTINUOUS DATA):

2
N
μ 3=
(N −1)(N −2)(N −3)
∑ f 1( X 1−μ )4

for Grouped data, the mean μ = 5.4

Class Mean
Classes frequency f i f1(X1 - μ)4
Xi
0–2 7 1 2623.6672
3–5 8 4 30.7328
6–8 10 7 65.536
9 – 11 4 10 1790.9824
12 – 14 1 13 3336.2176
Σf1(x1 – μ)4 = 7847.136

2
30
μ 4= ∗7847.136
(30−1)(30− 2)(30−3)

μ 4 =322.132

The coefficient of Kurtosis β2 is given to be

μ4
β 2=
σ4

322.132
β 2= 4
=2.3165
3.434
EXAMPLE 8:

For any day in July, there is a 20% chance of rainfall. A concrete pouring activity is scheduled and it will last
for 5 days. What is the probability that
1. There will be no rainfall for the duration of the pouring
2. It will rain at least a day for the time of pouring.

SOLUTIONS:

Part 1: There will be no rainfall

Here, the value of n = 5 and the value of P = 0.2 (from the probability of raining in a given day of the month
to be 20%) and since there is no rainfall X = 0

From the equation of the Binomial Distribution:

P (x )=
[ n!
( x )! (n− x )!]p x q n−x

P (0)=
[ 5!
(0)! (5−0)! ]
0.20 ( 1−0.2)5−0

P (0)=0.328 or 32.8% chance that there will be no rainfall at the construction

PART 2: The probability of 1 day rainfall out of 5 days of concrete pouring

Here, the value of n = 5 and the value of P = 0.2 (from the probability of raining in a given day of the month
to be 20%) and since it is expected that there is 1 day of rainfall at any day during the pouring X = 1

From the equation of the Binomial Distribution:

P (x )=
[ n!
( x )! (n− x )!]p x q n−x

P (1)=
[ 5!
(1)! (5−1) ! ]
0.2 1 (1−0.2)5−1

P (1)=0.41

While statistics will only give numbers it will still be up to the engineer to decide what appropriate
action will have to be done. This will have to be balanced with respect to the project deadline and
also the cost. At 41%, the 5 day duration must be extended to 6 days to account for a day of rainfall
(Kaya ng 5 araw pero dahil di pwede mag buhos pag umuulan, dagdag na lang ng isang araw)
EXAMPLE 9:
Determine the probability that a 10 day concrete pouring period will experience 3 days of rainy days given the
average rainfall for the month

mm/day mm/day mm/day

3 7 0
9 4 0
6 8 2
0 9 5
4 5 3
6 3 7
7 5 3
45 8 7
23 3 33
4 8 1

all rainfall are in MM

SOLUTIONS:

The solution starts by determining the probability of rainfall at any given day

rainfall above 7.5 mm per day

P= ;
# of rainy days per month

The 7.5mm rainfall in a day is considered to be the amount in which construction work at open air is deemed
impossible to continue. The probability of rainfall at any given day that can cause work stoppage in
construction is determined by counting the number of data greater than 7.5mm

mm
# of rainfall ≥7.5
day
P=
Number of days

8
P= =0.2667
30

q=1−P=1−0.2667

q=0.7333

For binomial distribution, since the concrete pouring is 10 days it can be said that n = 10, the number of
expected rainy day is 3 days hence X = 3 and P = 0.2667 and q = 0.7333. From Binomial Distribution, P(3)
=

P (x )=
[ n!
( x )! (n− x )!]p x q n−x

P (3)=
[ 10!
(3)! (10−3)! ]
0.2667 3 0.733310−3

P (3)=0.256 or 25.6 %
EXAMPLE 10:
During the construction period of 10 years for a dam, a coffer dam is required to be constructed with a
capacity to take care of the 5 year flood. What is the probability that
1. No flood will occur at all
2. Flooding will occur twice during the construction period

SOLUTIONS:

The probability for the 5 year flood is given to be P = 1/5 = 0.2. This represents the highest flood that can
occur anytime for a given 5 year period. Likewise q = 1 – P = 1 – 0.2 = 0.8.

Since this falls under binomial distribution

PART 1: No flooding will occur, X = 0

P (x )=
[ n!
( x )! (n− x )!]p x q n−x

P (0)=
[ 10!
(0)! (10−0)! ]
0.20 0.8 10−0

P (0)=0.107 or 10.7%

PART 2: Flooding will occur twice during the construction period X = 2

P (x )=
[ n!
( x )! (n− x )!]p x q n−x

P (2)=
[ 10!
(2) ! (10−2) ! ]
0.2 2 0.810−2

P (0)=0.302 or 30.2%
EXAMPLE 12:
The following annual maximum rainfall for a given year were taken as follows:

ANNUAL
YEAR
RAINFALL
Determine the 50 and
1950 113 100 year rainfall using
1951 94.5 the following methods:
1. Gumbel
1952 76 2. Pearson T3
1953 87.5 3. Log Pearson T3
4. Normal
1954 92.7
5. Log Normal
1955 71.3
1956 77.3
1957 85.1
1958 122.8
1959 69.4
1960 81
1961 94.5
1962 86.3
1963 68.6
1964 82.5
1965 90.7
1966 99.8
1967 74.4
1968 66.6
1969 65
1970 91
1971 106.8
1972 102.2
1973 87
1974 84

SOLUTIONS;

The mean, standard deviation and Coefficient of Skewness are given as follows

Mean=
∑ (P i ) Mean=
2170
=86.8mm
25
N
Standard Deviation

1 1
2
σ =
(N −1)
∑ ( X 1− X AVE )2 2
σ =
(25−1)
5156.66=214.8608 mm
2
σ =14.66mm
Coefficient of Skewness.
N 24
μ 3=
(N −1)(N −2)
∑ ( X 1− X AVE)3 μ 3=
( 24−1)( 24−2)
41793.768=1892.8337

μ3 1892.8337
CS = CS= 3
Cs = 0.6007
σ3 14.66

Coefficient of Variance

14.66
CV = σ ; CV = =0.169
X ave 86.8

Chow’s General Equation for the magnitude of event at return period T us given as follows:

X T = X AVE ±σ k

For Gumbel’s Method

Since the data is less than 100, the table for Gumbel’s distribution will be the source the value of k from the
table below

for T = 50 years and n = 25; k50 = 3.088

for T = 100 years and n = 25, k100 = 3.729

The magnitude of rainfall at T = 50yrs is given to be

X 50=86.8mm+ 14.66 mm(3.088)=132.0701 mm

The magnitude of rainfall at T = 100 is given to be

X 100=86.8 mm+14.66 mm(3.729)=141.4671 mm

For Pearson Type 3

Since the sample is less than 100, the computed value of Cs will be multiplied by (1+ 8.5N )
(
C S =0.6007∗ 1+
25)
8.5
=0.8049

At Cs = 0.8049 (assumed to be same as Cs = 0.8)

k50 = 2.453

k100 = 2.891

X50 = 86.8mm + 14.66mm*2.453 = 122.761mm

X100 = 86.8mm + 14.66mm*2.891 = 189.182mm

For Normal Distribution

Same as Pearson T3 but take Cs = 0

At Cs = 0

k50 = 2.054

k100 = 2.326

X50 = 86.8mm + 14.66mm*2.054 = 116.912mm

X100 = 86.8mm + 14.66mm*2.326 = 120.899mm

For Log Normal and Log Pearson T3 the raw data will need to be modified by getting it Log 10

ANNUAL
YEAR Log10
RAINFALL
1950 113 2.053
1951 94.5 1.975
1952 76 1.881
1953 87.5 1.942
1954 92.7 1.967
1955 71.3 1.853
1956 77.3 1.888
1957 85.1 1.930
1958 122.8 2.089
1959 69.4 1.841
1960 81 1.908
1961 94.5 1.975
1962 86.3 1.936
1963 68.6 1.836
1964 82.5 1.916
1965 90.7 1.958
1966 99.8 1.999
1967 74.4 1.872
1968 66.6 1.823
1969 65 1.813
1970 91 1.959
1971 106.8 2.029
1972 102.2 2.009
1973 87 1.939
1974 84 1.924
The mean, standard deviation and Coefficient of Skewness are given as follows

Mean=
∑ (P i ) Mean=
48.318
=1.933
25
N
Standard Deviation

1 1
2
σ =
(N −1)
∑ (Y 1−Y AVE )2 2
σ =
(25−1)
0.1244=0.0052 σ =0.072

Coefficient of Variance Cv is determined by

0.072
CV = σ ; CV = =0.0372
X ave 1.933

Coefficient of Skewness.
N 25
μ 3=
(N −1)(N −2)
∑ (Y 1−Y AVE)3 μ 3=
( 25−1)( 25−2)
(0.00166)=0.0000752

μ3 0.0000752
CS = 3
CS = 3
Cs = 0.201
σ 0.072

For log Normal, take Cs = 3Cv + Cv3.

Take the value of Cv = 0.169 which was take earlier from the raw data.
Cs = 3(0.169)+(0.169)3 = 0.511

Chow’s General Equation for the magnitude of event at return period T us given as follows:

Y T =Y AVE ±σ k

For log Normal, Cs = 0.511 or Cs = 0.5

For 50 years take P = 1/50 = 0.02 or 2%

taking Cs = 0.5 in the table and interpolating
the value of k between 5% and 1%
5%−1 % 1.77−2.70
=
5 %−2 % 1.77−k 50
k50 = 2.468

Y 50=1.933+0.072(2.468)=2.110

X50 = 10Y50 = 102.110 = 128.824mm

For 100 years take P = 1/100 = 0.01 or 1%

Taking Cs = 0.5 in the table and taking
k100 = 2.70

Y 100=1.933+0.072 (2.70)= 2.127

X100 = 10Y100 = 133.9681mm

Repeating the solution for the log Normal but taking Cs = 0 and referring to table 2.8

k50 = 2.054

Y T =Y AVE ±σ k ; Y 50=1.933+0.072(2.054)= 2.081

taking the antilog will yield X50 = 102.081 = 120.226mm

k100 = 2.326

Y T =Y AVE ±σ k ; Y 100=1.933+0.072 (2.326)=2.1005

taking the antilog will yield X100 = 102.1005 = 126.038mm

For Log Pearson T3

Take the value of Cs = 0.201,

interpolating the value of K50 and K100 given Cs = 0.2 and Cs = 0.3 respectively

0.3−0.2 2.211−2.159
= k50 = 2.159
0.3−0.0201 2.211−k 50 Since Cs = 0.201, then it can
be assumed that it is equal to
0.3−0.2 2.544−2.472 Cs = 0.2
= k100 = 2.472
0.3−0.201 2.544−k 100

Solving for YT and XT respectively

Y T =Y AVE ±σ k

For 50 years

Y 50=1.933±0.072(2.159)= 2.088

X50 = 102.088 = 122.603mm

For 100 years

Y 100=1.933+0.072 (2.472)=2.111

X100 = 102.111 = 129.122mm