Biology Module 7 Revision

● Characteristics of inflammation
○ Redness
○ Heat
○ Swelling
○ Pain
○ Loss of function
● Vaccines prevent primary immune response as it triggers production of memory cells, so if the
immune system does encounter the pathogen again, it remembers how to fight it off before the
person experiences symptoms.
● B and T cells possess receptors that recognise specific antigens and activate an adaptive immune
response.
● The complement system (complement cascade) is a group of proteins that cleans up damaged
cells, helping your body heal after an injury or infection, and destroys organisms like bacteria. It
is a front line response and works by forming holes in the cell membrane of pathogens, promoting
inflammation, and causes opsonisation. Opsonisation is where complement proteins bind to an
antigen to flag it for removal.
● Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that are part of your immune system. B lymphocyte
cells are responsible for producing antibodies, used to attack invaders. T lymphocyte cells directly
destroy the foreign invaders and produce cytokines, which are substances that help activate other
parts of the immune system. One such part is the macrophages which clean up the invaders and
dead tissue after immune response. They are part of the adaptive immune response as they are
able to identify specific pathogens.
● Globalisation and urbanisation means constant migration and growth of population, this makes it
harder to control spread of mosquito-borne disease or any disease.
● Bacteria and viruses can develop resistance to antibiotics and antivirals
● Normal flora is a term used to refer to the microbes of the human body
● Mad cow disease was primarily spread through consumption of infected meat (brain). It originally
was a result of intensive farming practices.
● Pasteurisation is now known as the process of heating foods and drinks to kill bacteria and
sterilise it.
● Neutralisation is the reduction of infectivity by the binding of antibodies to the surface of antigens
blocking the site that is used by the antigen to infect host cells, therefore deactivating it.
● An epidemic occurs when the number of infected is above normal in a particular area.
● The primary immune response produces symptoms and the secondary immune system does not.
● Direct transmission is when disease is passed directly from one person to another person
● B cells are produced in bone marrow and T cells are also produced in bone marrow but mature in
the thymus (in the chest)
● Example of indirect contact is contracting a disease from touching an inanimate object that holds
a pathogen because there is an intermediate.
● Example of an innate barrier to infection is skin and mucus
● Biomagnification is when the concentration of pesticides increases along a food chain. Therefore,
the pesticides accumulate in the body tissues of the organism in increasing amounts, causing
higher trophic levels. A trophic level is the position held in the food chain.
● Plasma cells secrete immunoglobulins and antibodies to kill antigens. They are significant to the
adaptive immune response as it can develop memory however it is short lived.
● Koch

1. Name an infectious disease and explain how ONE host response is a defence adaptation.
a. Chickenpox is an infectious disease that activates the immune response when a person is
infected. In defence, the B and T cells will be recruited and work to destroy the pathogen,
adaptive as it must identify the pathogen.
2. For each type of pathogen in the following table, provide a definition and identify a disease
example.
a. Bacteria
i. Definition: prokaryotic, unicellular organism
ii. Example: Tuberculosis
b. Fungi
i. Definition: eukaryotic, non photosynthetic, has a cell wall
ii. Example: Athletes foot
c. Protist
i. Definition: eukaryotic, unicellular microorganisms, no cell wall
3. Outline ONE adaptation of a specific pathogen that facilitates its entry into a host.
a. The bacterium Helicobacter Pylori causes stomach ulcers in humans. It has a flagellum
that allows it to move and penetrate the mucus lining of the stomach.
4. Analyse factors which influence the spread of disease.
a. Pathogen features
i. Growth: how quickly and easily the pathogen replicates.
ii. Survival: dictates how far the pathogen is able to travel, and its opportunity to
infect.
iii. Persistence: evading the host's immune system allows pathogens to replicate over
a longer period of time.
b. Method of transmission
i. Direct transmission: droplet spread, touching, sexual intercourse, requires people
to be in close contact.
ii. Indirect transmission: via an intermediate (air, water, food, vector), these diseases
can often travel further.
c. Population density
i. How physically close people are living.
ii. Diseases spread quicker when people are in close proximity to each other, as
contact between individuals is more likely, increasing the chance of individuals
being exposed to the disease.
iii.
High population densities are typically also linked to overcrowding and a lack of
proper infrastructure, which helps to promote disease spreads
d. Movement of individuals
 i. When infected individuals travel, they can spread the disease to those they come
into contact with.
ii. This is particularly troubling if serious diseases are introduced to groups that
have never encountered it before, as they have no immunity.
iii. Works both ways as people travelling to new environments are also exposed to
new diseases.
e. Proportion of the population that is immune
i. Herd immunity: if a sufficient proportion of the population is immune to a disease
then any susceptible individuals are prevented from coming into contact with the
pathogen.
ii. If most people are vaccinated, this means that the chances of the disease being
transmitted to these immunocompromised people is lower, and they are protected
thanks to herd immunity.
5. Contrast direct and indirect disease transmission.
a. Define: Disease transmission refers to the transfer of a pathogen from an infected host to
an uninfected one.
b. Outline what they are and their characteristics: In direct transmission, physical contact
between an infected organism and a susceptible organism allows transfer of infected
bodily fluids via person-to-person contact or droplet spread. Indirect transmission does
not require physical contact and instead refers to pathogens being passed on through
intermediates like air, water, food, contaminated objects or vectors.
6. Koch's 4 postulates
a. The microorganism must be present in all diseased individuals and absent in healthy
animals
b. The microorganism is to be isolated and cultured