Tema3 1

Unit 3
Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign

Languages
The evolution of English

Language Teaching
Index
Scheme 3
Key ideas 4
3.1. How to study this unit 4
3.2. Introduction 5
3.3. The Classical Methods 6
3.4. Structuralist Methods 11
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)
3.5. Humanistic Approaches 13

3.6. Other Approaches 19
3.7. The Communicative Approach 23
3.8. Bibliographical references 26
In depth 28
Test 30
Scheme
Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

3
Tema 3. Scheme
Key ideas
3.1. How to study this unit
In order to study this unit, you must read, as mandatory contents, the Key Ideas. In
addition to these contents, other recommended resources have been included to
deepen your knowledge, although they will not be requested in this unit’s test.
Throughout the unit we will provide an overview of the different historical methods
and approaches to language teaching. We will compare them in order to understand
their differences and similarities.
▸ First, we will introduce the unit by having a look at the historical evolution of
language teaching.
▸ Then, we will focus on the most important methods of the 19th century and
beginning of the 20th century, such as the Grammar Translation Method or the
Direct Method.
▸ Later, we will have a look at other innovations and alternative methods, like
Suggestopedia or Total Physical Response.
▸ Finally, we will pay special attention to the Communicative Approach.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
3.2. Introduction
Human beings have been learning and studying languages for thousands of years and,
as we mentioned in earlier, bilingualism is becoming more and more common
nowadays. Due to this, language teaching has been a matter of study for a very long
time and this has led to a wide methodological development throughout the years.
There are three main evolutionary periods that we should consider regarding
language learning: as a formal code, focused on communication and based in real life.
Until the 19th century, language teaching methods focused on finding the basic
elements of each language and the essential learning mechanisms. There were two
main classical methods: The Grammar Translation Method and the Direct Method.
It was in the mid-19th century that structuralism emerged. Language learning became
even more important due to the Second World War, because of the armies’ need to
move around in different countries, new languages had to be learnt as quickly as
possible. As a result, two main methods emerged: The Audiolingual Method and the
Oral Approach.
Since approximately the 1960s and 1970s, humanistic theories gained importance in
the field and, therefore, other parameters, such as the learner’s characteristics or
their learning style, were included as essential in the language learning process. Some
of the new methods and approaches that appeared were the Silent Way, Community
Language Learning, Suggestopedia or Total Physical Response. Innovations and new
proposals based on cognitive psychology motivated a change that would eventually
lead to the Communicative Approach, on which we will focus in the last section of
the unit.
Afterwards, language teaching continued evolving and started taking into account
many other parameters, such as fluency or motivation. In recent years, the

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
consideration of new parameters in language teaching, like the multiple intelligences,
have impelled the development of innovative methods. Some of these new active
methodologies are the Flipped classroom Model, Project-Based Learning (PBL),
Gamification, Thinking Based Learning (TBL) or Task-Based Learning.
Nevertheless, we cannot forget that students learn in different ways, so methods and
approaches should be tools to personalise education. There is no single method that
can suit all learning styles.
Hence, a smorgasbord of activities from different resources should be used in order

to prepare a good lesson. Teachers need to vary their technique to give students the
chance to learn according to their learning styles. This means that each approach has
something positive to offer and the role of the EFL teacher should be to identify and
exploit those elements (Bowman, 1989).
Hence, the purpose of this unit is mainly to provide a general idea of how approaches
have evolved throughout history and how we can use all this knowledge to our
advantage in the EFL classroom.
Time to think:
Have you ever been trained in any of these methods? What was your experience
with them?
3.3. The Classical Methods

The Grammar Translation Method
In order to understand the classical methods, we need to go back in time to

approximately 500 years ago, when the dominant language in occident was Latin.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
Although later on, in the 16th century, it was progressively replaced by other
languages (Italian, French and English), it still survived as a school subject.
The study of Classical Latin and Greek through reading classical authors and analysing
grammar patterns became a model for language learning. By the 18th century,
modern languages started to be studied by means of rote learning, translation and
memorization; and by the 19th century, this method became standardized.
This approach to teaching, which developed in Germany, is the Grammar-Translation

Method, also known as the Prussian Method, due to its origins.
Characteristics
As it can be deduced from its name, this method focuses on grammar and translation.
Nevertheless, there are some other characteristics to which we should also pay
attention:
▸ The main objective of foreign language study is to develop the ability to read its
literature.
▸ The main focus is on grammar and morphology, because language learning is seen
as a process of memorising rules in order to be able to manipulate its morphology
and syntax.
▸ Reading and writing are the major and most important skills.
▸ Translation is considered the most common type of language activity.
▸ Accuracy is more important than fluency.
▸ Grammar is taught deductively, i.e. first the grammar rules are introduced and
later they are practiced through translation exercises. All the rules of the language
are gradually given to the students from the simpler to the most difficult.
▸ The mother tongue of the learners is used more than the language taught, so there
is little use of the target language for communication.
▸ The lessons are mainly masterclasses, so the student is passive.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
As a consequence, the typical textbook of this method was organised around specific
grammar items. Each grammar point was thoroughly described, and in order to
illustrate rules and exceptions sample sentences were given.
As specified by Larsen Freeman (2000), the most typical exercises in this method
include (Nagy, 2019):
▸ Translating and memorizing literary texts.

▸ Questions for reading comprehension.
▸ Work on the lexicon through synonyms and antonyms.
▸ Deduction of grammar rules.
▸ Composition and creation of sentences using specific vocabulary.
The Grammar Translation Method focuses on grammar and morphology,

translation, reading comprehension and memorization.
The opposition to the method started to develop in the mid and late 19th century
due to the emergence of innovations that questioned and rejected its success in
Foreign Language Learning. Thus, despite its past popularity, nowadays it is discarded
by most of the scholars and experts in the field. Nevertheless, it is still used in some
parts of the world.
The Direct Method
Towards the end of the 19th century, child language acquisition became an
important linguistic issue and, thus, several reformers tried to develop alternative
methods based on the principles of the first language acquisition.
Lambert Sauveur (1826-1907), developed a new method of teaching based on

intensive oral interaction known as the Natural Approach. It supported the idea of
teaching vocabulary through direct associations between form and meaning in the
target language without using the source language.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
The psychological principles of the method were developed by the German linguist
Felix Franke who provided a theoretical explanation for a monolingual approach to
teaching. He defended the idea of language learning in a natural way, by means of its
spontaneous use in the classroom rather than through explicit teaching of grammar
rules and rote learning.
These ideas led to the development of the Direct Method, the most popular
naturalistic method. Although the method was first introduced in Germany and
France, it became especially popular in the USA, as it was used by Sauveur and
Maximilian Berlitz.
In this sense, it could be said that the Direct Method appeared as an alternative to
the Grammar Translation Method. Since the Grammar Translation Method was
extremely focused on the written forms of language, the direct method was created
as a “counterbalance”, concentrating more on communication and the oral skills.
(Nagy, 2019,)
Characteristics
The leading principles and techniques of the method are presented below:
▸ Classroom instructions are delivered directly in the target language.

▸ The first goal of the lessons is to be able to produce everyday spontaneous
speech, so everyday vocabulary is taught.
▸ Oral skills are introduced progressively through question-answer exchanges.
▸ The teacher is seen as a role model and the student is a bit more active than in
other classical methods.

▸ Translation is not used. New vocabulary is introduced through demonstration or
by association of ideas. The most important techniques are repetitions and drills.
▸ Oral interaction is extremely important.
▸ Correct pronunciation and grammar are encouraged.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
▸ A typical lesson using this method would begin with dialogues in modern
conversational style.
Despite its popularity in Europe, the method was criticised by some applied Linguists
as they considered it lacked rigour. Besides, although the method became very
popular in Private Language Schools, its introduction in Public schools was a failure
because it oversimplified the similarities between first and foreign language
acquisition and it did not take into account the classroom realities. Also, it required
highly professional native teachers able to put the methodology into practice.
The Direct Method was the most popular naturalistic method that appeared
as an alternative to the Grammar Translation Method.
The Classical Methods
The Grammar-Translation Method The Direct Method
Focus on written skills Focus on oral skills
Use of the L1 Use of the target language
Translation Interaction
Table 1: The Classical Methods
Time to think:
Did your teachers in school or high school use any of these two methods?
From your point of view, what positive or negative aspects would you highlight?

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
3.4. Structuralist Methods
The Audiolingual Method
This method, also known as Structuralist Linguistics, evolved as a response to

traditional grammar teaching.
According to its advocates, the natural way of learning a language is in the form of
the four language skills, i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing. Still, the basic
and most important principle of this method is based on the oral ones.
This method proposes that listening and speaking should be gained first, since
language is primarily a spoken tool and its main aim is to communicate
effectively.
Therefore, reading and writing should be learnt once the oral skills have started to be
acquired by the learner.
Characteristics
Some of the most important characteristics of this method are:
▸ The aim of foreign language learning is to be able to communicate effectively, so

the focus is on the oral skills (speaking and listening).
▸ Grammar is taught implicitly rather than explicitly, and it is done gradually. The
rules are shown in the sentence structures rather than focusing specifically on
grammar teaching first.

▸ The new language that has been learnt is reinforced and intensified through
repetition.
▸ There is a lot of interaction between the learner and the teacher, so the focus is
gradually placed on the student.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
The Oral Approach
This approach is an evolution of the Direct Method and it mainly focuses on the oral
skills: speaking and listening. Still, grammar knowledge is also considered of utmost
importance.
This approach was developed in Great Britain and, unlike other methods and
approaches, it was supported by scientific research. Palmer, Hornby and their
colleagues, considered that the Direct Method lacked a systematic basis, so they
started a series of studies in order to develop scientific grounds for their new
approach.
They elaborated a teaching guide which included a list of the most frequent words
used in English. They also focused on oral procedures in order to select, adjust and
introduce the contents of a language course.
Grammar was also taken into account but as an underlying element of the oral
language. Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby, among other British linguists, analysed the
most important grammatical patterns of the English language for students to learn
the basic rules and sentence structures.
All these contributions established the basis for the evolution of this method into the
Situational Approach.
The Oral Method is a reaction to the Direct Method. It is supported by

scientific research and mainly focuses on oral skills.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
Structuralist Methods
The Audiolingual Method The Oral Approach
Oral skills Oral skills
Repetition Situational context

Communication is practised through Communication is practised through
interaction communicative situations.
Table 2. Structuralist Methods
Time to think:
Do you think these methods can be useful for you in the future? Why?
3.5. Humanistic Approaches
The Silent Way
This method, developed by Caleb Gattegno, proposes a classroom in which the

teacher is a silent observer and the student uses the target language as much as
possible. The teacher uses silence and gestures to encourage learners to correct their
own mistakes.
Thus, the aim of this method is to provide the students strictly just with the actions
needed in order for them to infer and express their feelings (Larsen-Freeman, 2000;
Ünal, 2019)
The Silent way focuses very much on pronunciation but tries to avoid rote learning
and translation. Evaluation is done through observation, so normally tests are not
carried out.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
Something that is considered very characteristic of this method are Cuisenaire rods.
Although they were primarily used for mathematics, Gattegno considered they were
very useful for language teaching.
Figure 1. Cuisenaire staricase. Source : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cuisenaire_staircase.JPG
Some positive aspects of this approach are:

▸ It encourages learner-directed learning and autonomy.
▸ It increases participation and engagement.
▸ It creates a safe environment for the students, since they do not feel criticised by
anybody when they make a mistake.
The main drawbacks regarding this approach are that students may feel they are not
getting enough feedback and that progress might be slower than with other methods
and approaches.
Community Language Learning

Developed by Charles A. Curran and his colleagues in the 1970s, Community

Language Learning is considered a holistic approach which focuses in both cognitive
and affective aspects. A good relationship among all the members of the community
is considered essential for the method to work.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
Its main purpose is to help learners reach a level in the target language close to their
mother tongue. The students are compared to actors that the teachers or instructors
observe from the outside, intervening only when necessary. In this sense, the teacher
is seen as a counsellor.
No syllabus or book is used; learners decide what they want to study. Interaction is
also essential in this approach, since it promotes learning in a natural way and helps
relationships to flow positively among the community.
Community Language Learning in the Classroom

Start by creating a community atmosphere e.g. sitting down in circle and
Stage 1: Reflection brainstorming ideas on the board before recording.
Students choose the topic and tell the teacher in the L1 what they'd like to
Stage 2: Recorded say, and the teacher discreetly translates the language chunks into English
conversation for them to use them.
Students discuss how they think the conversation went e.g. they can
Stage 3: Discussion discuss how they felt about talking to a microphone.
Stage 4: They listen to the tape and transcribe their conversation.
Transcription The teacher only intervenes when they ask for help.
Stage 5: Language You can tell them to analyse the language they have used (vocabulary,
analysis tenses…)
Table 3. Community Language Learning in the Classroom. Source: Adapted from

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/community-language-learning
This approach encourages learners’ autonomy and team-work and helps them feel
closer to one another.
The Natural Approach
This approach, developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell in the 1970s,
introduced a new proposition for a natural approach to language teaching. It is also
known as Krashen’s theory of Immersion and Comprehensible Input or the Monitor

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
Model. It is considered a direct method which is mainly based on the idea that a
second language is learnt in a similar way to the mother tongue.
Nevertheless, the Natural Approach, unlike the Direct Method, does not dwell on
teacher monologues or repetition, but instead focuses on emotional preparation for
learning or the willingness to use different materials as comprehensible input.
The natural approach has four main goals:

▸ Basic personal verbal communication skills
▸ Basic personal communication skills in writing
▸ Verbal academic skills
▸ Written academic skills
Besides, according to Richards and Rodgers (1986) one of the main aims of the
Natural Approach is to develop basic communication skills both in verbal and in
writing. In fact, in order to minimise stress, learners are not required to say anything
until they are ready to do so.
The role of the teacher

Provide a constant flow of comprehensible input in the target language and provides non-
linguistic clues.
Create a good classroom atmosphere that lowers the affective filter, i.e. “metaphorical barrier
that prevents learners from acquiring language even when appropriate input is available.”
(Lightbrown & Spada, 2006, p. 37).
Decide on the classroom activities and tasks (content, contexts, materials...)

Communicate clearly with the students about the assumptions and expectations of the method.
Krashen and Terrell point out the importance of explaining to learners what they can expect of the
language course.
Table 4. The role of the teacher. Source: Adapted from https://teflpedia.com/Natural_approach

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
Materials used in the classroom tend to be as meaningful as possible so as to provide
comprehensible input and, therefore, foster communication. Authentic materials are
many times provided to encourage real communication and make it easier for the
learners to acquire the language.
Suggestopedia
This method was developed by Bulgarian psychiatrist and educator Georgi Lozanov.
The main objective of this method is to give the student the ability to speak quickly
and it is based in the idea that the ability of acquiring a foreign language is quite often
blocked by fear of failure.
Some of its most important features are how the class is organised, its decoration,
and objects, and the use of music and art. Also, the teacher should be able to
understand and anticipate problems and to find creative solutions to them.
A regular class would start with the students relaxing with appropriate music. After
that, the teacher would introduce a script accompanied by music. According to Nagy
(2019), by doing so, the teacher introduces the grammar and vocabulary in a playful
manner, using only the target language. At the beginning, the students just relax and
listen. Then, they do group reading, sing songs and play games, so they use the
language in an undirected and fun way.
According to Richard and Rogers (2001) the method has the following principles:
▸ Authority: “The method itself is supposed to gain authority by the use of

scientific-sounding language, highly positive experimental data and true-believer
teachers” (Richard and Rogers, 2001, p. 101).
▸ Infantilisation: The relationship between teacher and student should be like that
of parent and child.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
▸ Double-plannedness: The learner’s environment is as important as everything
else, therefore, classroom decoration should be pleasant and nice for the
students.
▸ Intonation, rhythm and concert pseudo-passiveness: The teacher should

constantly vary intonation and rhythm to prevent boredom and give meaning to
linguistic material.
Total Physical Response
This method, introduced by James Asher in the late 1970s, is based on word and
movement coordination. It aims to teach language at a basic level through
kinaesthesia.
The students learn basic speaking skills through action-based exercises by means of
movement, sound and mimics. This combination of movement and language has a
neurological basis for Asher, who believed that both hemispheres are necessary and
play an important role in language acquisition.
Some of its most important characteristics are:

▸ Only the target language is used.
▸ Learners respond physically to verbal stimuli, which means that understanding
precedes speaking. Only when the learners are ready to speak should they start
giving commands to each other.
▸ Grammar is taught implicitly.
The main goal is to help learners develop their listening skills to later built on the
other skills. This is based on the idea that the L2 is learnt similarly to the L1. Another
theory that influences this method is Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis, because it
is believed that TPR generates a stress-free environment.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
The teacher’s role is primarily to select the appropriate teaching materials, to plan
the activities and tasks to be carried out and to give commands to the students for
them to perform the physical movement required e.g. Stand up! Touch your nose!
Regarding material, it is very common to use realia, pictures, charts or slides,

although there are special kits prepared specifically for TPR that include things that
are not available in the classroom.
Time to think:
Which of these approaches do you think might be more useful for you in the future?
Why?
3.6. Other Approaches
The Reading Approach
The Reading Approach was devised in the first decades of the 20th century for English
learners in India, and also for German or French learners in the USA. Michael West,
who was a teacher of English in India, endorsed the Reading Approach, in which he
recommended graded reading for its practical utility.
Characteristics
The main principles of this approach are the following:

▸ The grammar taught is only that which is useful for reading comprehension.
▸ Learners must be able to recognize the grammar, but they are not required to
master it.
▸ Vocabulary is taught gradually. First, the vocabulary the learner needs to learn is
based on frequency and usefulness, and then it is progressively expanded.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
▸ Translation is widely used in the classroom.
▸ The learner’s first language is used in order to present the reading material,
discuss it, and check understanding.
The Situational Approach
The Situational Approach to language teaching emerged in Great Britain as an

evolution of the Oral Approach. It is mainly based on oral procedures and uses
diverse situational contexts to introduce new structures and words.
This approach is based on the behaviourist model, so it assumes that foreign

language learning follows similar processes to those of first language learning and,
therefore, it expects the meaning to be deduced by the learner from the situation
that has previously been presented. “Situational language teaching (SLT) is an
effective instruction paradigm for English teaching in terms of providing vocabularies
and sentence patterns with their frequent situations through learning materials”
(Huang et al, 2010, p 312).
Characteristics
One of its most distinctive features is that it adds the notion of situation to the
behaviourist approach, but there are other characteristics we should also take into
account:
▸ Grammar is taught inductively.

▸ Oral skills are prioritised.
▸ Both vocabulary and grammar are presented gradually.
▸ Linguistic structures are considered essential to be able to speak a language and

they are worked through situations.
▸ Correct pronunciation and grammar are fundamental, and mistakes are
corrected by the teacher.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
▸ A typical lesson would focus on creating situations by the use of objects,
drawings, authentic materials, gestures or actions to help the learner understand
the meaning of new elements that are being presented through the situations.
The Audio-visual Method
The Audio-visual Method was developed by French experts in the 1950s with the
intention of maintaining the place of French among world’s most studied languages.
It was based on the behaviourist theory that foreign language learning is a
mechanical process, so it is more effective if the oral skills precede the written ones.
Characteristics
▸ It combines visual materials with audio materials.

▸ Grammar rules are learnt intuitively.
▸ The stress of this method lies on oral proficiency and well-structured drills, and
the idea that learning and acquisition are directly related to the amount of input
received by the learner.
▸ The language used in class is the target language. Meaning is provided through
the audio-visual materials used.
▸ Oral skills are considered more important than the written ones (the first sessions
focus on the former and then the latter start being used).
▸ Due to the importance given to the oral skills, this method pays attention to
pronunciation and stress-timing.
A typical lesson using this method has the following stages:

▸ Presentation of a situation by means of the audio-visual material.

▸ The teacher explains by using demonstrations, questions and answers.
▸ The learners repeat the dialogue in class or the language laboratory in order to
memorise it.
▸ After that, the students can create their own dialogues.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
This method became so popular that other countries, especially the Anglo-speaking
countries, decided to create similar programmes to those created in France.
Structural Global Audio-Visual Method

The Structural Global Audio-Visual Method or SGAV aims to help students with
everyday situations in the foreign language. It intends to prepare them to be able to
communicate orally in an effective way. Therefore, it is another method that focuses
on the oral skills. It is only after 60 or 70 hours of session focused on them that the
written skills start to be used.
It was designed by a group of teachers and professors from Saint-Claude’s School in

Paris and the University of Zagreb and it could be said that it is a combination
between the Situational Approach and the Audio-Visual method. It evolved from the
Direct Method, so there are similarities between the two of them. However, its most
distinctive feature is that the dialogue that introduces the different grammar
structures and the vocabulary is presented by means of audio-visual resources.
Characteristics
▸ Grammar structures are considered essential for oral communication.

▸ There is a list of pre-selected basic vocabulary.
▸ Correct pronunciation is of utmost importance.
▸ Grammar and vocabulary are learnt through repetition of the situations that have
previously been presented audio-visually.
▸ Students work with a book, but it only contains pictures connected to the
situations.
▸ Mistakes are systematically corrected.

▸ It promoted the development of language laboratories and teacher’s books.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
Due to the innovations and proposals based on cognitive psychology, the structuralist
methods, including SGAV, gradually lost popularity.
Time to think:
In which contexts do you think these different approaches could be useful? Why?
3.7. The Communicative Approach
The Communicative Approach, also known as Communicative Language Teaching

(CLT), is considered as an approach rather than a language teaching method.
According to Nagy (2019), it is an umbrella term which includes related methods such
as Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) or Content and Language Integrated
Learning (CLIL), although some other authors such as Rama-Agulló consider these
methods post-communicative or even successors of CLT, as stated by Dağkıran.
As its name indicates, it is an approach based on the development of communication.

Therefore, language teaching should emphasise the development of the learner’s
communicative competence by developing procedures to practise all the language
skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing).
Figure 2. Communicative competence. Source: Adapted from Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980).

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
The Communicative Approach considers the learner as the focus of the teaching-
learning process. This means that interaction is essential, and that the students
should become aware of their own learning process.
Some to the most interesting ideas connected to the Communicative

Approach are interaction, fluency, motivation and the students’ awareness of
their own teaching-learning process.
The success of CLT was due both to the changes it involved and to its rapid
introduction and implementation in textbooks. Language teachers and specialists
accepted it rapidly and it became very widespread worldwide (Molina et al., 2006,
and Nagy, 2019,).
Communicative teaching focuses on communication and competences, and it is also

task-oriented. Its aim is to get learners to do many different things with language
(express ideas, communicate in different situations…)
Communicative language teaching relies on the following beliefs and premises

(Nunan 1991, Vizental 2008, Boyadzhieva 2014, Celce-Murcia 2014, as cited in Nagy,
2019, p.129):
▸ The ultimate aim of CLT is to develop the learners’ communicative competence.

▸ The learners’ own personal experiences must be enhanced as important
contributing elements to classroom learning.
▸ The language used in the classroom is the target language.
▸ Grammar is taught only when necessary, because communication is more
important.
▸ Usage of authentic materials.

▸ Learning begins with imitation, but the learner has to move on to the stage of free
production in order to acquire the necessary skills to continue learning the target
language.
▸ The different language skills are integrated from the very beginning.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
▸ Appropriacy of language is as important as linguistic accuracy.
▸ Communication is interactive and, thus, active participation by the student is
required. Learners are given a purpose to produce language: role-plays,
simulations, discussions…
Communicative Approach
Stages: introduction, controlled practice and free practice
Use of communicative tasks
Interaction between students
Use of authentic materials
Cultural information is provided
The fours skills are used from the very beginning
Use of the target language
Table 5: Communicative Approach. Source: Adapted from Análisis de los principios metodológicos
que fundamentan la enseñanza del inglés como segunda lengua en Educación Infantil (Pino &
Rodríguez, 2009).
Therefore, we can conclude that the communicative approach can improve the
communication skills of the students. Learners' communicative competence is
developed by providing the students opportunities to practise. In addition, by using
this approach, teachers can improve their students’ social skills. (Wiyono, 2017).
The most common activities carried out to implement the Communicative Approach
in the EFL classroom are role plays, interviews, any kind of group work activity,
scavenger hunts or information gap tasks. Access examples of information gap tasks
through the British Council Official website.
Some scholars, such as Michael Swan (1985), criticised the method due to its
prioritisation of function over structure. Some critics of CLT suggest that the method

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
does not put enough emphasis on the teaching of grammar and that might lead
students to produce grammatically incorrect utterances. (Ridge, 1992).
Another disadvantage that was considered among its detractors was the flaws of
textbooks such as the lack of bilingual wordlists, the excess of visual aids, or the use
of authentic materials without the appropriate cultural background.
Nevertheless, Communicative Language Teaching has been considered by

most experts and scholars one of the most successful approaches ever
implemented.
Finally, it is important to mention that the Communicative Approach helped setting

the basis for most of the methods and approaches that are used nowadays. As you
will also see in other subjects, current language teaching techniques and methods
focus on the function of language as a communication tool from different
perspectives and taking into account several parameters, but this would not have
been possible without the development of the Communicative Approach.
Time to think:
Why do you think the Communicative Approach became the basis for other
approaches to Language Teaching?
3.8. Bibliographical references
Bowman, B. (1989). TEFL/TESL, Teaching English as a foreign or second language.

Washington, DC. Peace Corps, Information Collection and Exchange.

https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pur1.32754063269579&view=1up&seq=35
Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to

second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47.

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Unit 3. Key Ideas
Huang, A. F. M., Yang, S. J. H., & Hwang, G. (2010). Situational language teaching in
ubiquitous learning environments. Knowledge Management & E-Learning, An
International Journal, 2(3), 312-326.
http://www.espaciotv.es:2048/referer/secretcode/docview/1955103711?accountid
=142712
Lightbrown, P. M. & Spada, N. (2006). How Languages are Learned. Oxford University
Press.
Nagy, I. K. (2019). In between Language Teaching Methods: Do We Need (to Know

About) Methods at All? Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 11(3), 119-139.
https://doi.org/10.2478/ausp-2019-0030
Pino, M., & Rodríguez, B. (2009). Análisis de los principios metodológicos que
fundamentan la enseñanza del inglés como segunda lengua en Educación Infantil.
Enseñanza & Teaching, 24, 131-155.
http://revistas.usal.es/index.php/0212-5374/article/view/4165
Richards, J. C. and Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language

Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Ünal, S. (2019). Language Teaching Methods and significance of Rhetoric. Selcuk

Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (42), 212-218.
http://www.espaciotv.es:2048/referer/secretcode/docview/2333623613?accountid
=142712
Wiyono, B. B., Gipayana, M., & Ruminiati. (2017). The influence of implementing
communicative approach in the language teaching process on students’ academic
achievement. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 8(5), 902-908.
http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0805.08

27
Unit 3. Key Ideas
In depth
A Brief History of Teaching Approaches and Methods
Galicia, C. & Acevedo, R. (n.d.). A Brief History of Teaching Approaches and Methods.
[Video file]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=afBngJdISug
This video provides a brief summary of the historical language teaching methods and
approaches that we have mentioned throughout the unit. It also provides some
examples on how they can be implemented in the classroom.
Constituents and Categories of Methods
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2005). Constituents and Categories of Methods. In Understanding

Language Teaching: From Method to Post-method (pp. 83-96). ProQuest Ebook Central.
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/univunirsp/detail.action?docID=261419
In this chapter, key terms and concepts related to language teaching, such as
‘method’, ‘approach’ or ‘task’, are examined.
The Silent Way
Gattegno, C. (2010). Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. Educational
Solutions Worldwide Inc.
https://issuu.com/eswi/docs/gattegno_-_teaching_foreign_languages_in_schools_t
In this book, Gattegno explains how to apply the Silent Way in the EFL classroom,
with practical examples and explanations.

28
Unit 3. In depth
Making reading communicative
Howarth, P. (n.d.) Making reading communicative. Teaching English British Council.

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/making-reading-communicative
This article focuses on how to make reading tasks more communicative in order to
help students feel more motivated and to encourage them to continue reading
outside the classroom.

29
Unit 3. In depth
Test
1. The most important Structuralist methods are
A. The Direct Method and the Oral Approach.
B. The Direct Method and the Audiolingual Method.
*C. The Audiolingual Method and the Oral Approach.
D. None of the answers is correct.
2. The Grammar Translation Method focuses on

A. Grammar, translation and fluency.
B. Grammar, translation and accuracy.
C. Grammar, translation and oral skills.
D. Grammar, translation and drills.
3. In the Direct Method

A. Grammar is learnt inductively, and translation is only used when necessary.
B. Grammar is learnt inductively, and translation is not used at all.
C. None of the answers is correct.
D. Grammar is learnt inductively, and translation is constantly used.
4. This method is also known as Structuralist Linguistics

A. Grammar Translation Method.
B. Direct Method.
C. Natural Approach.
D. Audiolingual Method.
5. Which method uses music and focuses on oral skills?

A. Natural Approach.
B. Total Physical Response.
C. Suggestopedia.
D. None of the answers is correct.

30
Unit 3. Test
6. Which of the following methods is an evolution of the Oral Method?
A. Audiolingual Method.
B. Natural Approach.
C. Communicative Approach.
D. Situational Approach.
7. Which method is connected to Krashen’s theories?

A. Natural Approach.
B. Oral Approach.
C. Audiolingual Approach.
D. All the answers are correct.
8. Which of the following methods is considered a classical method?

A. Community Language Learning.
B. Reading Approach.
C. Grammar Translation Method.
D. Direct Method.
9. Some of the most important characteristics of the Audiolingual Method are

A. Repetition and interaction.
B. Situations and interaction.
C. Focus on oral skills and situations.
D. All the answers are correct.
10. Which one is an example of Communicative Approach?

A. The teacher explains the grammar point, the student studies it and then
interacts with his classmates using the target language.
B. Grammar is not explained at all because the main focus is on oral skills.
C. Grammar is explained only when necessary and all the skills are considered
important.
D. Adapted materials are used in the classroom in order to foster interaction.

31
Unit 3. Test

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Unit 3

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign

The evolution of English

3.5. Humanistic Approaches 13

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

3.1. How to study this unit

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

Hence, a smorgasbord of activities from different resources should be used in order

3.3. The Classical Methods

The Grammar Translation Method

In order to understand the classical methods, we need to go back in time to

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

This approach to teaching, which developed in Germany, is the Grammar-Translation

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

▸ Translating and memorizing literary texts.

The Grammar Translation Method focuses on grammar and morphology,

The Direct Method

Lambert Sauveur (1826-1907), developed a new method of teaching based on

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

▸ Classroom instructions are delivered directly in the target language.

other classical methods.

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

The Classical Methods

The Grammar-Translation Method The Direct Method

Focus on written skills Focus on oral skills

Use of the L1 Use of the target language

Table 1: The Classical Methods

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

The Audiolingual Method

This method, also known as Structuralist Linguistics, evolved as a response to

Some of the most important characteristics of this method are:

▸ The aim of foreign language learning is to be able to communicate effectively, so

grammar teaching first.

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

The Oral Method is a reaction to the Direct Method. It is supported by

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

The Audiolingual Method The Oral Approach

Oral skills Oral skills

Repetition Situational context

Table 2. Structuralist Methods

3.5. Humanistic Approaches

The Silent Way

This method, developed by Caleb Gattegno, proposes a classroom in which the

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

Figure 1. Cuisenaire staricase. Source : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cuisenaire_staircase.JPG

Some positive aspects of this approach are:

Community Language Learning

Developed by Charles A. Curran and his colleagues in the 1970s, Community

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

Community Language Learning in the Classroom

Table 3. Community Language Learning in the Classroom. Source: Adapted from

The Natural Approach

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

The natural approach has four main goals:

The role of the teacher

Decide on the classroom activities and tasks (content, contexts, materials...)

Table 4. The role of the teacher. Source: Adapted from https://teflpedia.com/Natural_approach

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

▸ Authority: “The method itself is supposed to gain authority by the use of

teachers” (Richard and Rogers, 2001, p. 101).

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign languages

▸ Intonation, rhythm and concert pseudo-passiveness: The teacher should