Unit 2

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign

Languages

English for Spanish

Speakers
 Índice
Scheme 3

Key ideas 4
2.1. How to study this unit 4
2.2. Strategies for monolingual, bilingual and
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multilingual classrooms 5
2.3. The influence of Spanish in English Language
Learning 13
2.4. Bibliographical references 18

In depth 20

Test 22
 Scheme
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Unit 2. Scheme
 Key ideas

2.1. How to study this unit

In order to study this unit, you must read, as mandatory contents, the Key Ideas. In
addition to these mandatory contents, other recommended resources have been
included to deepen your knowledge, although they will not be requested in this unit’s
test.

Throughout the unit we will talk about how the First Language affects Foreign
Language Learning, focusing on the influence that Spanish may have when learning
English.

▸ First, we will provide some strategies to work in different classroom contexts

(monolingual, bilingual and multilingual).
▸ Second, we will discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of using the
L1 in the EFL classroom.
▸ Finally, we will focus on English for Spanish Speakers paying attention to input
and concepts such as ‘false friends’ or ‘transfer,’ and we will provide some tips on
how to work them in class.
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Unit 2. Key ideas
 2.2. Strategies for monolingual, bilingual and
multilingual classrooms

Learning a foreign language is an extremely complex process and there are a series
of considerations to be taken into account. These include cultural and educational
backgrounds, age, life experience, affective factors, and the learners’ and teachers’
beliefs about language learning.

Context, which can be formal (classroom, institutional contexts…) or informal

(extracurricular, non-institutional contexts, unknown interlocutors…) is also another
factor to be considered.

In addition, foreign language learners are different from a child who is acquiring a
language. They have already acquired one language before, and this prior knowledge
might bring about both advantages and disadvantages for the acquisition of another
language.

As we will see, we will also need to take into account learning strategies. These
strategies are conscious actions related to one another which learners use in order
to improve their language learning, and should be considered a process rather than
a single action. (Anderson, 2005). Therefore, as teachers, we should explicitly teach
strategies because it is important to help our students choose the best ones.

There is also yet another important factor that influences deeply the way in which
the language is acquired: classroom context. It can be monolingual, bilingual and
multilingual, as we will see in subsequent sections.
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Unit 2. Key ideas
 Monolingual classrooms

In monolingual scenarios, all the students have a common language different from
the one they are learning, and this has a series of implications that affect the way in
which teachers should proceed.

The main advantage is that they tend to have a similar cultural background which
can be used to our advantage when we design activities, give examples or decide on
content and planning, since more similar features may need less time to explain,
while others that differ much from the target language will take longer. Hence, in
monolingual classrooms we can predict some of the mistakes the students will make
due to the influence of their first language. In fact, students in monolingual
classrooms often understand each other because many of them make the same
mistakes.

Speaking a second language can be exhausting or boring sometimes, so when

learners need a break, they switch to their L1. Krashen’s “affective filter hypothesis,
implies that students or more accurately ‘acquirers’ of a language will filter or block
out the target language if they become tense, angry, or bored” (McLoughling, 2015).

However, since all the students in the classroom can communicate in a common
language, they do not need to use English, so, as teachers, our challenge is to find
the way to motivate them to they use it as much as possible.

Time to think:
How would you motivate your students to speak up in class?
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How could this be done? Some ideas are provided below (adapted from Oxford
University Press ELT: English Language Teaching Global Blog):

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 ▸ Talk about it with your students: Most of them will agree that it is essential for
their language learning process. You can use it at the beginning of the course as
a discussion topic which will encourage them to take charge of their learning
process.

▸ Build confidence: Most of the L1 usage is due to a lack of confidence in the L2.
We should let students know that making mistakes is the best way to learn. Errors
and mistakes are an important part of their communicative skills development
and they need to be aware of them in order not to be paralyzed by self-awareness
of by the fear to failing to use the correct form.

▸ Equip them: Give them some type of pre-task of elicitation so that they have the
language they may need for the activity. If they do not have the necessary
language to complete the task it is more likely they end up using the L1.

▸ Time for English: You can also challenge your students to use only English for a
specific period of time. When we create a time limit, students see it as an
achievable task and, therefore, might not feel so overwhelmed.

▸ Traffic light: Print out a big traffic light on a piece of paper. In the red circle you
can write ‘NO SPANISH’, in the amber one ‘SOME SPANISH’ and in the green one
‘SPANISH OK’. The aim of this traffic light is that your students gradually increase
their use of the English language in class. One way to use this resource is as a
game in which you hide two of the circles and leave only a visible one each time.
As teacher, you control the time you show them each of the circles, which will
very much depend on the type of class you have, how old your students are or
what their initial level of English is. Another option is to establish routines in the
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classroom in which you use the different circles depending on what you want to
achieve with your students.

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 Figure 1. Spanish traffic light.

▸ The one-minute rule: If a student uses the L1 when it is not allowed, they have to
talk in English for one minute on a topic given by the teacher. We can adjust the
amount of time depending on the age and level of our students.

▸ Assign roles: Students that have been assigned specific roles (spokesperson,
decision maker…) tend to be more proactive, but make sure that those roles are
not always played by the same students.

▸ Give them a reason to use English: Designing activities that create a need to use
English gives the students a purpose. Good examples of this are dialogues and
role-plays.
▸ Reward them: It is not necessary that you give them anything material, a simple
‘well done!’ can sometimes be enough. You can also find creative ways to reward
them depending on the type of students you have.
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In monolingual classrooms the biggest challenge is to encourage students to

communicate in English.

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 Bilingual classrooms

In this section, when we talk about bilingual classrooms, we are referring to Bilingual
Education. Nowadays, schools all over the world are trying to find the best way to
help children become bilingual.

This is not an easy task, and it is directly related to many different factors that do not
only depend on teachers and schools. Nevertheless, regardless of all the other factors
that can influence language learning, as teachers, there are different models that can
be implemented in order to encourage bilingualism.

Some of the most common models that are usually implemented to achieve this goal
are language immersions and Content and Language Integrated Learning, also
known as CLIL, which has been implemented throughout Europe since the term was
coined, back in the 1990s. (Cenoz 2015; Eurydice 2006; Marsh 2002; Roquet and
Pérez-Vidal 2015 and Fernández-Sanjurjo et al., 2019).

Figure 2. Content and Language Integrated Language.

Although there are many different immersion models, both immersion programmes
and CLIL programmes have certain common features.
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Immersion programmes aim at making students become proficient in both languages

simultaneously maintaining the acquisition of academic knowledge, so in these
programmes the teachers should also be bilingual.

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 The communicative approach is essential for immersion programmes because their
main goal is to help learners communicate effectively. Therefore, it is fundamental to
encourage a motivating learning environment through situations and interlocutors
interested in their linguistic development (Lasagabaster and Sierra, 2009).

Differences between CLIL and immersion programmes

CLIL
The language used is not spoken locally
and students usually have contact with it
in formal contexts.
CLIL programmes show more similarities
with late immersion programmes, such as
those implemented in Canada in
secondary education.
Materials tend to be abridged, so they
seem to be aimed at non-native speakers.
CLIL has a dual focus because the student
learns content and language
simultaneously.
IMMERSION
Students have contact with the language
used in other contexts such as their home,
society…
The vast majority of immersion
programmes focus on early stages.
The materials of immersion programmes
are aimed at native speakers.
Immersion programmes focus on language
learning.

Table 1. Differences between CLIL and immersion programmes.

Nowadays, in Spain, CLIL is not as extended in Secondary Education as it is in Primary

Education yet. However, as teachers of English as a Foreign Language, this should not
discourage us from using CLIL materials with our teenage students; it is not necessary
to be part of a CLIL programme in order to use it.

Although CLIL has been developed in order to be used in content subjects (non-
linguistic), any English teacher can use CLIL materials in the EFL classroom to enrich
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their language learners’ experiences or to support what is done in other subjects. In

fact, this might help students become aware of the fact that the different subjects
they are studying are more interconnected than what they actually think.

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 Multilingual classrooms

Time to think:
Have you ever been in a multilingual class? How was it different from a monolingual
one?

The first challenge teachers should consider in a multilingual classroom is the fact
that there is no common first language among students. Therefore, they tend to
make different mistakes which makes it more difficult for the teacher to predict them
and prevent them.

However, there are several positive aspects about multilingual classrooms. The most
obvious example is that students cannot talk in their first language to clarify anything,
so they all need English to communicate. Also, although the fact that students come
from different countries and cultural backgrounds can sometimes be seen as a
challenge, it actually makes for great conversations and discussions in class.

Tips for multilingual classrooms

Be open and respect all cultures. A teacher should always respect students for who they are
and be ready to understand why sometimes students do the things they do (the reason may
be cultural and not behavioural).
Welcome language differences and celebrate them. For example, you can create a corner
where the different languages are represented and compared to English so that you raise
awareness of differences and similarities among the different languages present in the
classroom. Another idea is to create a multicultural library with books in English that deal
with diverse cultural topics and that include the different cultures of the students.
Bear in mind that language learning depends on the four language skills (listening, speaking,
reading and writing), so all of them should be worked in class
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Use cultural differences and similarities to introduce new topics or to foster conversation
and interaction
Work in small groups or in pairs, it can be a great opportunity for students to get out of
their comfort zone and try a new way to practise English.

Table 2. Tips for multilingual classrooms. Source: Adapted from Bridge TEFL.

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 A positive aspect of multilingual classrooms is that students speak different
first languages, so they need English to communicate with each other.

Besides all these factors, we cannot forget that each learner is different. They all
have their different learning styles and, therefore, their learning strategies, which are
not usually taken into account in most language teaching methods. This also means
that there is not a single method which can meet the needs of all learners. (Oxford,
1993, and Nunan, 1991, and Anderson, 2005)

Learning styles, apart from being different from student to student, can also differ
from one culture to another because of what the learners are used to in the
classroom. For example, you might have students from cultures in which they are
used to be given lectures and do tests, with students from cultures in which they are
encouraged to actively participate in the lesson.

Hence, it is advisable to consider the explicit instruction of strategies in all

classroom contexts, so that learners become aware of which ones they can
use depending on their learning styles.

In the In depth section you will find a study about the relationship between
personality and learning strategies.

Methods and approaches can be very useful, but we cannot forget that each student
is different and that we should focus on their individual and collective needs to
personalise education.

Time to think:
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Can you think of examples to help students with different learning types (visual,
auditory, kinaesthetic…)?
Should the L1 of the students be used in the classroom? Why?

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 2.3. The influence of Spanish in English Language
Learning

In this section we will see there are a series of features in any L1 that can affect L2
learning in positive and negative ways. We will focus on how the L1 affects Foreign
Language Learning, paying special attention to Spanish as L1 and English as L2.

Linguistic interference

Linguistic interference, also known as negative transfer, is a term that refers to the
error or mistakes that a student makes in the L2 that are believed to derive from the
L1. The fact that languages have similar structures is what best explains the
phenomenon of negative transfer or linguistic interference. Nevertheless, it might be
a consequence of many different factors, such as cultural differences or the
communicative context.

When we are learning new languages, we always compare them to the language or
languages we already know. Sometimes, this prior knowledge helps us learn faster.
This is known as positive transfer, and it occurs, for example, when structures are
very similar in both languages. Other times, it leads to mistakes and then it is referred
to as negative transfer or interference, for example, when a Spanish student who is
learning English says ‘I have 12 years’ instead of ‘I am 12’ or ‘I am 12 years old’.

Pedagogically speaking, when transfer is seen as an error, contrastive analysis has

proved to be useful in order to explain certain mistakes, as we mentioned in the
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previous section. It compares the two linguistic systems in question to describe their
similarities and differences in order to be able to predict possible errors and
difficulties and, thus, help teachers with the planning of didactic strategies to avoid
them. Nevertheless, this list of mistakes, though very useful, should be regarded as
hypothetical, because not all the students with the same L1 make the same mistakes.

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 Some of the most common interferences in the case of the Spanish language are:
number and gender differences, order of the adjectives, excessive use of the,
omission of the subject, false friends, phonetic differences, the passive voice is more
common in English than in Spanish…

In the table below you can see some more examples of interferences that you will
probably hear in the EFL classroom.

Common interferences in Spanish-speaking learner of English

WRONG RIGHT

Explain me, listen me and say me Explain to me, listen to me and say to me

I have a good new I have some good news

Give an advice Give some advice

I am agree I agree

Childrens, foots, tooths,… Children, feet, teeth,…

I like food Italian I like Italian food

Too much people. Too many people
People is very nice People are very nice.

I have 15 years I am 15 / I am 15 years old

Table 3. Common interferences in Spanish-speaking learners of English.

False Friends

False Friends, or false cognates, are a specific type of interference that occurs at a
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lexical level. It is not a scientific term connected to an academic discipline, but one
that started to be used in France by EFL teachers (faux amis).

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 In English Didactics, the term cognate refers to those words that are similar in both
languages in meaning and form. That is why when we want to refer to words that are
similar in form but different in meaning we must use: false cognates.

In the table below you can see some common false cognates:

English-Spanish false friends

English Spanish

Diversion Desvío

Fun Diversión

Actually En realidad

Currently Actualmente

Assist Ayudar

Attend Asistir

Constipated Estreñido

Sick (cold) Enfermo (enfriado)

Sensible Razonable

Sensitive Sensible

Table 4. English-Spanish false friends.

How to work them in class

The best way to prevent this type of mistakes is to work them and address them
explicitly. This will help your students become more aware of the possible negative
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transfer. If they have not made those mistakes before, they will not make them in the
future, and, if they have, they will try to avoid them next time.

Errors in foreign language learning can be due to:

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 ▸ Phonetic differences (e.g. In terms of pronunciation, in Spanish there are five
vowels, whereas in English there are twelve)
▸ Semantic differences (e.g. The use of the verbs lend and borrow)
▸ Pragmatic differences (e.g. Spanish speakers using imperatives to ask for
something without the intention of being rude or impolite)
▸ Grammatical differences (e.g. Dropping the subject in a sentence)

In the previous sections we have seen some of the most common interferences and
false friends you will find in the EFL classroom. Now we are going to have a look at
other common errors Spanish Speakers make:

▸ Little use of the Saxon genitive. (The book of Peter instead of Peter’s book)
▸ Use of for to (I came to London for to improve my English/ I came to London to
improve my English).
▸ Mispronunciation of some vowels and consonants (especially schwa).
▸ Use of will in time clauses (When I will arrive…/When I arrive…)
▸ Wrong use of -ed and -ing adjectives (I am very boring bored).
▸ Use of modal verbs followed by to (I can to run)

Something interesting you can do as a teacher it is to make a list with the most
common errors you come across in your own classroom. By doing so, you will
probably be able to identify potential problems before they arise.

To avoid this type of errors you need to deal with them individually in class. For
example, in the case of pronunciation errors, you can suggest a tongue twister
challenge. They usually enjoy this type of activities a lot, so even those students that
are not very motivated might participate actively. In fact, if you have students that
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speak languages other than Spanish, you can ask them to include tongue twisters in
those languages as well

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 In the case of false cognates, it is very important that you explain the difference
between the meaning in both languages. Your students must know what the false
friend means both in Spanish and in English.

A good way to help your students understand and remember the meanings of false
friends, is by using visual aids or by doing something funny that helps them
remember. For example, if you are trying to help them remember the difference
between cold and constipated it might be fun to choose two students to do some
kind of roleplay. Another option they usually enjoy is doing simple translations of
sentences containing false cognates; this can result in amusing mistranslations, which
help them focus on the correct version.

Thanks to contrastive analysis, many textbooks have versions for speakers of

different languages. This is why you will find books that have English for Spanish
Speakers versions. In these books there are sections that specifically focus on the
most common mistakes derived from different types of interference (phonetic,
lexical, pragmatic…) Working those specific sections carefully will help your students
prevent possible mistakes and improve their language skills in general.

You can also prepare your own materials depending on what you want to work. For
example, once you get to know your students and you see what mistakes they are
making, you might want to give them a specific activity in order to help them correct
those mistakes.

Finally, the internet is also a fantastic resource in which you will find lots of already
made materials connected to what you want to work with your students.
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In the In depth section you will find more information about this topic which you
might find useful.

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 Time to think:
What mistakes did you use to make when you were a student in terms of grammar,
vocabulary, spelling, etc?
How should teachers deal with errors and mistakes in the classroom?

2.4. Bibliographical references

Anderson, N. J. (2005). L2 Learning Strategies In Handbook of research in second

language teaching and learning (pp. 757-772).
https://bv.unir.net:2056/lib/univunirsp/detail.action?docID=227524

Bridge TEFL (2015, October 20) Teaching English in a Multilingual Classroom.

https://bridge.edu/tefl/blog/teaching-english-multilingual-classroom/

Fernández-Sanjurjo, J., Fernández-Costales, A. & Arias Blanco, J.M. Blanco (2019)

Analysing students’ content-learning in science in CLIL vs. non-CLIL programmes:
empirical evidence from Spain. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 22(6), 661-674.

Krashen, S. (1981) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning.

University of California.
http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/sl_acquisition_and_learning.pdf

Lasagabaster, D. & Sierra, J. M. (2009) Immersion and CLIL in English: More

differences than similarities. ELT Journal, 63, 367-375.
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McLoughlin, A. (2015, April 23) L1 in the L2 classroom- For or Against?

http://elt-connect.com/l1-in-the-l2-classroom/

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Unit 2. Key ideas
 Oxford University Press ELT. English Language Teaching Global Blog (2014, January 8)
EFL Teaching_Teaching Monolingual Classes.
https://oupeltglobalblog.com/2014/01/08/eflproblems-teaching-monolingual-
classes/
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Unit 2. Key ideas
 In depth
The Relationship between Personality Types and Learning Strategies

Ghyasi, M., Yazdani, M., & Farsani, M. A. (2013). The relationship between personality
types and self-regulated learning strategies of language learners. International Journal of
Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 2(4), 74-82.
http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.2n.4p.74

This study focuses on the connection between personality types and learning
strategies. Researchers conclude that language teachers could benefit from assessing
their students’ personalities and matching strategies to their students’ tendencies.

Pronunciation errors

Pronunciation studio. (2008). 10 English Pronunciation Errors by Spanish Speakers.

https://pronunciationstudio.com/spanish-speakers-english-pronunciation-errors/

In this website you will find 10 common pronunciation errors typically made by
Spanish speakers when speaking English. There are audios where pronunciation is
compared in order to help students correct or avoid those errors.

Grammatical and semantic mistakes in English

La Mansión del Inglés (s.f.) Errores gramaticales comunes en inglés.

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http://www.mansioningles.com/errores-gramaticales-ingles/errores-comunes-
ingles.htm

In the section provided you will find examples, explanations and exercises about the
most common mistakes Spanish speakers make.

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Unit 2. In depth
 Article: Students and Teachers' Reasons for Using the First Language Within the
Foreign Language Classroom

Irasema, M. P., Lengeling, M. M., Buenaventura, R. Z., Crawford, T., & Goodwin, D. (2011)
Students and Teachers' Reasons for Using the First Language Within the Foreign
Language Classroom (French and English) in Central Mexico. Profile, supl. Issues in
Teachers' Professional Development; Bogota 13(2), 113-129.
http://www.espaciotv.es:2048/referer/secretcode/docview/1677626636?accountid=1
42712

This study explores the use of the L1 in the EFL classroom. It gives the perspective of
both English and French teachers in Mexico, and their students.
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Unit 2. In depth
 Test
1. What is the main challenge when teaching a monolingual classroom?
A. Cultural similarities among students.
B. Making students use English to communicate.
C. Cultural differences among students.
D. None of the answers is correct.

2. What are some of the strategies that can be used in a monolingual classroom to
encourage students to speak English?
A. Time for English and the one-minute rule.
B. Use cultural differences to introduce new topics.
C. Give long lists with vocabulary for them to memorize.
D. Teach grammar at the beginning of the lesson so that they can do their
homework.

3. What does CLIL stand for?

A. Content and Learning Integrated Language.
B. Content and Learning Integrated in Language.
C. Content and Language Integrated Learning.
D. Content and Language Inclusive Learning.

4. Linguistic interference refers to the errors that a student makes

A. When learning an L2.
B. When learning the L1.
C. In the L2 that are believed to derive from the L1.
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D. None of the answers is correct.

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Unit 2. Test
 5. Positive transfer
A. Does not exist; transfer is always negative.
B. Is also known as interference.
C. Takes place when the L1 is different from the L2 and this prior knowledge
helps the student learn faster.
D. Takes place when the L1 is similar to the L2 and this prior knowledge helps
the student learn faster.

6. False friends are a specific type of transfer that occurs at what level?
A. Grammatical.
B. Lexical.
C. Phonetic.
D. All the answers are correct.

7. What is a cognate?
A. It is the same as a false friend.
B. A word that is very different from its equivalent in another language.
C. Words that are very similar in form in two languages, but they have different
meanings.
D. Words that are very similar in form and meaning in two languages.

8. Dropping the subject in a sentence is an error that occurs due to

A. Phonetic differences.
B. Grammatical differences.
C. Pragmatic differences.
D. Semantic differences.
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Unit 2. Test
 9. Comparing linguistic systems to describe their similarities and differences in order
to predict possible errors and difficulties is
A. Corrective analysis.
B. Correlative analysis.
C. Linguistic interference.
D. Contrastive analysis.

10. Which one is NOT a common error that Spanish Speakers make when learning
English?
A. Wrong word order in the sentence.
B. Excessive use of the Saxon Genitive.
C. Mispronunciation of some vowels and consonants.
D. Misuse of the Present Perfect Tense.
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Unit 2. Test