Battle of Badr

The Battle of Badr took place in March 624 C.E.,[6][7] in the Arabian town of Badr between the
Islamic prophet Muhammad-led Muslim army and a relief column of the Meccan Quraysh tribe.[8]
The latter had originally set out to protect their homeward-bound trade caravan that Muhammad
was about to raid.[9][2] Prior to this, Muhammad had ordered his followers to carry out several
raids on Quraysh caravans, which, despite initial failures, finally succeeded in gaining their first
plunder at Nakhla, when the Quraysh were observing a holy month forbidding them from
shedding blood.[10][11]

In addition to many smaller caravans, the Quraysh sent two major caravans each year.[12] One of
these was sent to Syria in the autumn of 623, led by Abu Sufyan and carrying the investments of
all the Meccans. Muhammad tried to ambush it on its departure, but failed. On the caravan's
return journey, Muhammad planned to raid it again. The caravan reportedly consisted of 1,000
camels and 50,000 dinars worth of goods. At Zarqa, Abu Sufyan got wind of Muhammad's
intention and sent a messenger to Mecca for help. A relief column, said to have been 1,000
strong, under Abu Jahl then set out to protect the caravan.[1][13]

Approaching the watering place of Badr, Abu Sufyan, fearing Muhammad's possible attack,
conducted a reconnaissance. When he discovered that two Muslim scouts had just visited the
town and left, he hastily diverted the caravan to the coastal road to the west,[14][2] even though it
would deprive them of access to fresh water.[2] Once at a safe distance, he sent another
messenger to update the relief column. Upon learning of the caravan's safe escape, the column,
already bivouacked about 3 miles from Badr, faced a split. Some, whose close relatives were
among the Muslims, chose to return home,[15] leaving behind an estimated 600–700 men.[3][16]
When Muhammad learned of the column's presence from their water carriers, he followed
Hubab ibn al-Mundhir's advice and
immediately ordered his followers to seal the
wells with sand and stones,[17][18] leaving only Battle of Badr
one for him and the Muslims, thus forcing the
remaining Quraysh to fight for water.[19][20]
Part of Muslim–
The battle began with duels between
champions of both sides and escalated into Quraysh wars
wild melee.[21] While the Muslims were fueled
by Muhammad's promises of paradise, the
Quraysh were not only grappling with thirst,
but many were reluctant to kill their kin among
the Muslims.[22][23][24] They had assumed that
a mere show of force would be enough to
scare off the Muslims, and had not expected
such ferocity from them.[23] Shortly before
noon, when they could no longer see their
Early 14th century
leader Abu Jahl hovering above them after his
depiction of
horse fell, the Quraysh column broke in
disarray and turned to flight.[25][23] The Muhammad
Muslims slashed them as they fled,[25] and
managed to acquire a number of captives for encouraging his
ransom, as well as booty, which, though not as
abundant as that brought by the caravan, was followers before the
still considerable.[23][26]
Battle of Badr

Background

Spreading of
Muhammad's
influence
Muhammad was born in Mecca to the
Quraysh clan of Banu Hashim around the year
of 570.[27][28] At the age of 40 he claimed to
have received his first revelation from God
through the angel Gabriel in the cave of
Hira.[29] He then spread his new religion of
Islam to his fellow tribesmen. At first, he met
no serious resistance from the people of
Mecca, who were indifferent to his
proletyizing activities, until he began to attack
their beliefs, which led to tensions.[30][31][32][33]
In 620, Muhammad met six men from Banu
Khazraj, one of the two Yemeni Arabic tribes
that were settled in Medina, the other was
Banu Aws. The six individuals had previously
raided Jews in their locality, who in turn would
warn them that a prophet would be sent to
punish them. On hearing Muhammad's
religious message, they said to each other,
"This is the very prophet of whom the Jews
warned us. Don't let them get to him before
us!" Upon embracing Islam, they returned to
Medina and shared their encounter, hoping to
bridge the divide between their people—the
Khazraj and the Aws, who had been in conflict
for years—through the common leadership of
Muhammad.[34][35]

In 621 and 622, two secret meetings were

held in Aqaba where the Muslim converts
from the Khazraj and Aws pledged their
allegiance to Muhammad.[36] The latter pledge
included an oath to protect Muhammad as
they would defend their own wives and
children.[37] Paradise was Muhammad's Date March
promise to them in return.[38][39] Shortly
thereafter, Muhammad took his Meccan 624
followers to relocate to Medina.[40][41] This
migration is termed the Hijrah, which literally (Ramada
means the severing of kinship ties.[42][43] The
Meccan Muslims who undertook the 2 AH)
migration were then called the Muhajirun,
while the Medinan Muslims were dubbed the
Ansar.[44] Location Badr,
Hejaz
(present-
Rejection by the day Saud
Jews Arabia)
During his early days in Medina, Muhammad 23°44′N
expected to gain the approval of the local
Jews and endeavored to convert them to his
[44]
38°46′E (
religion. However, his efforts were
unsuccessful and even met with ridicule as ttps://geo
the Jews perceived discrepancies between
the Quran and their own scriptures. The Quran hack.too
then charged the Jews with concealing and
tampering with parts of their holy texts. The
orge.org/
Jewish rejection and criticism pose a threat to
his prophetic claims, and therefore the views
geohack.
of Muhammad and the Quran toward them
deteriorated.[45][46][47] This led to the change
php?page
of the Muslim direction of prayer, the qibla,
from Jerusalem to the Kaaba in Mecca.[48][49]
name=Ba
tle of Ba
 tle_of_Ba
Planning of raids dr&param
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Muhammad's designation of Mecca as the center of Islam, coupled with his need to settle
scores with the Meccans after his threats of divine punishment against them never
N_38_46_
materialized,[50] as well as the economic hardships he and the Muhajirun faced in Medina,[51][52]
culminated in a new divine directive—to fight the polytheists.[50] Accordingly, Muhammad set out
E_region:
his followers to raid the Quraysh trade caravans.[50][53][54][55] Some of his Meccan followers were
hesitant to participate because it would mean attacking their own tribesmen. This annoyed
SA_type:
Muhammad and prompted the revelation of Qur'anic verse 2:216, among others, which asserts
that fighting is good and has been made obligatory for them.[50] After several months of failures,
vent)
Muhammad achieved his first successful raid, at Nakhla, during a month in which the pagans
prohibited themselves from shedding blood.[10][11] When the rich booty was brought to him in
Medina,[50] Muhammad was met with censure from the locals. He contended that his followers
Result Muslim
had misunderstood his command, and he postponed taking his one-fifth share of the booty until
a verse was finally revealed that justified the attack.[56][57][58][59]
victory

Prelude Belligerents
Early Quraysh
Grand Meccan Muslims forces
caravan and from
Muhammad's Mecca
attempts to raid it
Commanders and
In the autumn of 623, the Quraysh dispatched
a vast trade caravan, led by Abu Sufyan, to
leaders
Syria.[1] This was one of the major caravans
they usually sent each year, the other in the
spring.[12] The entire Quraysh people had a Muhamma Amr ibn
share in the investment. When Muhammad
heard about it from his secret agents in d Hisham †
Mecca, he gathered his followers to ambush it
on its departure but failed.[13][1] Abu Bakr Utbah
In January 634, the same caravan made its
way home.[1] It was reported to consist of
Ali ibn Abi ibn
1,000 camels and goods worth a total of
50,000 dinars.[13] During its stop at Zerqa,
Talib Rabi'ah †
about a hundred miles south of Damascus,
Abu Sufyan obtained information that
Zubayr ibn Umayyah
Muhammad had intended to again raid the
caravan.[1] So Abu Sufyan sent a messenger
al-Awwam ibn
to Mecca for aid. When the messenger arrived
in the city, he tore his shirt, cut his camel's
al-Miqdad Khalaf †
nose in despair, and cried, "Oh, Quraysh! The
caravan, the caravan! Muhammad and his
bin 'Amr Shaybah
comrades are lying in wait to seize your
wealth which is with Abu Sufyan! You will not
Hamza ibn ibn
be in time to save it! Help! Help!"[1][2] A relief
column, said to have been 1,000 strong, under
Abd al- Rabi'ah †
Abu Jahl then set out to protect the caravan.[1]
Muttalib Walid ibn
Muhammad planned to ambush the caravan
at the watering place of Badr. He sent two of Umar Utbah †
his followers ahead to scout the place, and
there they overheard a conversation between 'Ubaydah Uqba ibn
two local girls, which confirmed that the
caravan would soon be making a stop in the
[60]
bin al- Abi
town. Since the people of Badr made a
hefty profit by providing services to caravans, Harith Mu'ayt †
it was common for them to obtain advance
information about their arrival.[61] The scouts
then reported their findings to Muhammad,
and he hastily rallied his followers.[62] 314
Muslims, consisting of 83 muhajirin and 231
ansar, joined his force. They were so poor that Bilal ibn
they could muster only 72 camels and 2
horses for transportation, with each of the Rabah al-
three or four men taking turns riding a
camel.[1][63] Habashi
As the Muslim army departed, Hubayb ibn
Yusuf and Qays ibn Muharrit, two expert Strength
swordsmen from Medina, followed
Muhammad. They were still pagans then. Total: 315[1] Departing from
They wanted a share of the expected plunder, Mecca:
but Muhammad said they had to embrace Muhajiru
Islam first. They initially refused, with Hubayb ~1,000
arguing that Muhammad was their sister's son n: 83 [2]
and protege, which was enough for
cooperation by pagan standards. But
Muhammad did not accept that; he demanded
Ansar: At the time of the
their conversions. Qays gave up and returned, battle:
but Hubayb changed his mind and joined
231
Islam later before the fight.[64] 600–
Aws
700
: 61
(estima
The caravan Kha
ed)[3][4]
changing course zraj:
170
Abu Sufyan, with his caravan approaching
Badr from the north, was deeply concerned
that Muhammad might make his raid on the 2 horses
town. So he scouted the town, questioned a
local, and learned that two camelmen had just
visited and left after resting and fetching
water. He examined the place where they had
been and noticed some camel dung 70
containing a date kernel similar to those from
Medina. This confirmed his suspicion. He then camels
rushed to the caravan and changed their route
to the coastal road west of Badr,[14][2] even
though it would deprive them of access to
Casualties and
fresh water.[2]
losses
The Muslims coming from the east received
word as they passed Safra that the Quraysh
Total: 14 killed Total: 140[5][f]
had left Mecca to meet and safeguard the
caravan. There was no news, however, of the
[65]
Muhajiru 70 kille
caravan's arrival in Badr. While the
Muhajirun reaffirmed their unwavering support
for Muhammad, he was concerned about
n: 6 70
whether the Ansar would still fight in this
offensive raid, as opposed to the pledge of Ansar: 8 capture
Aqaba, where they vowed to protect him only
if he were attacked in Medina. To Kha d
Muhammad's delight, Sa'd ibn Muadh, one of
the Ansar's chiefs, assured that they would zraj:
follow him even if they had to jump into the
sea. Pleased with the responses, Muhammad 6
advanced his troops, declaring, "For God has
promised us one of the two parties."[65]
Aws
:2
Muhammad
changed his
target

Location within Saudi Arabia

A map of the Badr campaign,

showing the route taken by Abu
Sufyan to protect his caravan from
the Levant to Mecca, the route
taken by Amr ibn Hishām (Abu
Jahl) from Mecca to Badr, and the
route taken by Muhammad and the
Muslims from Medina to Mecca.

After the caravan had traveled a safe distance from Badr, Abu Sufyan sent another messenger to
the relief column. However, unbeknownest to him, the two parties had already passed each other
via different routes. When the messenger finally delivered the message, the column was already
within three miles of Badr and had sent some men to fetch water from the well of Badr.[66]
Learning the caravan's safe escape, the column was faced with internal divisions.[67] Some
chose to return home, including:
 1. A party of Banu Zuhra, a clan to
which Muhammad's late mother
belonged.
2. A group of polytheists from the Banu
Hashim clan, led by Talib, the eldest
son of Abu Talib, Muhammad's late
uncle and caretaker.
3. Banu Adi ibn Ka'b clan, the relatives
of Umar.[67]
Leaving behind an estimated 600–700 men who, despite some hesitation, remained at the
urging of Abu Jahl.[3][16]

When the Quraysh water-carriers was fetching water from the wells of Badr, the Muslims
managed to capture two of them. After some beatings, they disclosed the presence of the
Meccan troops. Muhammad asked how many Quraysh nobles were accompanying them, and
the watermen replied that there were seventeen and listed their names. Excitedly, Muhammad
exclaimed to his followers, "Mecca has thrown the pieces of its liver at you!"[68]

Muhammad promptly led his troops through the mountain pass to the center of the northern
plain, securing the nearest wells and calling for a halt. Hubab ibn al-Mundhir, an Ansar military
leader, inquired if this arrangement was a divine command or Muhammad's own idea. When
Muhammad clarified it was the latter, Hubab suggested moving forward, filling the wells of Badr
to the west and south with stones and sand, and constructing a cistern to the east for ample
water. Muhammad accepted the plan, instructing his followers to implement it
immediately.[17][18][20] A hut was specially erected for Muhammad, with a number of camels
tethered outside for him to escape in case the Muslims were losing.[69][70] The sealing of Badr's
wells compelled the Quraysh to battle for water.[19][20] One of them had attempted to reach the
Muslims' water cistern and drink from it, but on his way, he was killed by Hamza ibn Abd al-
Muttalib, Muhammad's uncle.[8][71]

Abu Jahl and his forces advanced to the hill south of the Badr Plain in the morning and set up
camp. When the scout they had sent returned with an assessment of Muhammad's army's
strength, the scout expressed concern, stating, "One of them will not be killed until he kills one of
you." If the Quraysh lost as many men as their enemies, he questioned, "What is the good of
living after that?" This remark sparked dissension among the Meccans. Utba ibn Rabi'a, a
Quraysh noble whose son had joined the Muslims, advised his fellow nobles against entering
battle. Upon hearing this, Abu Jahl criticized him, claiming his lungs were swollen with fear. Utba
countered, asserting that his bravery would be proven on the battlefield. According to an Islamic
tradition, Utba, in an attempt to dissuade the Quraysh from fighting their kinsmen, said, "Do you
not see them," referring to the Muslims, "squatting on their mounts, holding on tightly, licking
their lips like snakes?" Abu Jahl reportedly reacted angrily, stating that if anyone else had said it,
he would have bitten them.[72]
Battle

Hamza ibn Abdul-Muttalib duels

Shaybah ibn Rabi'ah, as portrayed in
Tārīkhunā bi-uslūb qaṣaṣī (published
1935)

As the Quraysh marched to meet the Muslims, Muhammad exclaimed: "O God! here are the
Quraysh in their vanity and pride, fighting against you and calling your prophet a liar. O God!
provide the help you promised me. Crush these people this morning."[67] A nearby tribe had
offered the Quraysh reinforcements the previous night, but they refused.[73] Utba ibn Rabi'a,
accompanied by his brother Shayba and son Walid, went forward and challenged three Muslim
warriors to individual combat. Initially, three Ansars answered, but Utba insisted on Meccans of
comparable status. Hamza, Ali, and Ubayda then stepped forth. Hamza was Muhammad's uncle,
while Ali was Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. Hamza and Ali managed to kill Shayba and
Walid respectively. Meanwhile, Ubayda and Utba dealt each other near-fatal blows. Ali and
Hamza then finished off Utba and brought their comrade Ubayda to Muhammad. Ubayda asked
if he was a martyr, and Muhammad replied in the affirmative, thus allowing him to die
happily.[74][75]

The battle then reportedly continued with wild melee, though no record of who attacked first.
With their positioning, the Muslims forced the Quraysh to face the blistering morning sun to the
east.[21] While Abu Jahl ordered his force not to kill the Muslims but to capture them so that they
could be punished,[24] Muhammad promised his battling followers paradise, as well as the
weapons and armors from the enemies each of them killed.[22][23][24] A Muslim named Awf ibn
al-Harith asked Muhammad what made God laugh with glee, and he answered that it was when
a Muslim, without mail, charged into the enemy. Upon learning this, Awf removed his mail and
plunged into the ranks of the Quraysh until he was killed.[25][22] Although Muhammad did not
participate in combat and spent much of his time praying in the hut provided for him, he would
occasionally go out, motivate his followers, and throw pebbles at his enemies, shouting, "Evil
looks on their faces!"[23][76]

The Meccans, who were essentially merchants, had apparently assumed that a simple display of
force would suffice to frighten off Muhammad's followers. They had not anticipated such
ferocity on the part of the Muslims. Many shied away from killing their kin and setting off a new
cycle of revenge.[23] When the Muslims managed to knock down Abu Jahl's horse, the Quraysh
column, no longer able to see their leader hovering above them, shuddered and broke in disarray.
Overtaken by a combination of thirst, fatigue, and doubt, they turned to flight just before
midday.[25][23] It was at this point that the actual killing and maiming started, as the Muslims
chased and slashed their blades at the fleeing Quraysh.[25] Abu Jahl's son, Ikrima, desperately
shielded his father, whose leg was severed by Mu'adh ibn Amr's sword. Ikrima managed to slash
Mu'adh's shoulder, staggering him and causing him to fall back. With Abu Jahl too injured to
move, Ikrima retreated alone, leaving his father behind near a thicket of bushes. Not long after,
Abu Jahl received another blow from a passing Muslim, but it was still not enough to kill him.[77]
Aftermath

Imprisonment of captives and their

ransom

The death of Abu Jahl, and the

casting of the Meccan dead into dry
wells

As the Quraysh fled in panic, Muhammad's forces began to collect captives.[78][23] He ordered
the search for Abu Jahl, his former childhood friend who had become an adversary.[79] A Muslim
named Abdullah ibn Mas'ud discovered him, barely clinging to life from his wounds. Ibn Mas'ud
then placed his foot on his neck and inquired, "Are you Abu Jahl?" Upon confirmation, he grasped
the dying man's beard and decapitated his head.[78][76] Holding it up, he then cast it at
Muhammad's feet, who jubilantly exclaimed, "The head of the enemy of God. Praise God, for
there is no other but He!"[76][78][79] Muhammad then ordered a large pit to be dug. The deceased
Quraysh numbering 50–70, were cast into it, while Muhammad recited over them, "O people of
the pit, have you found that what God threatened is true? For I have found that what my lord
promised me is true." His companions were surprised and asked if he spoke to the dead.
Muhammad assured them that those corpses heard what he said.[79][78]

Muhammad's party gained booty that, while not as extensive as Abu Sufyan's caravan, was still
considerable: 150 camels, 10 horses, a substantial amount of weaponry and protective gear,
assorted possessions of the fleeing individuals, as well as some goods the Meccans brought
along in the hopes of conducting business along the way.[23] The Muslims also acquired a
number of captives. One of them was Muhammad's uncle al-Abbas, who, according to some
sources, had been Muhammad's secret agent in Mecca.[80][81][82] Umar wanted all the captives
killed, but Abu Bakr and others suggested exchanging them for ransom, for besides them being
their kinsmen, the revenue from the ransom would strengthen the Muslims.[23][83] Muhammad
chose that ransom must be requested first, and afterwards, they could execute anyone for whom
no one was prepared to pay.[23]

A painting from Siyer-i Nebi, Ali

beheading Nadr ibn al-Harith in the
presence of Muhammad and his
companions

Among the prisoners were Nadr ibn al-Harith and Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt.[84] Previously, during
Muhammad's time in Mecca, the two had asked him three questions, which they had obtained by
consulting with Jewish rabbis in Medina, to confirm his prophethood. Although Muhammad
promised to give the answer the next day, 15 days later the answer from his God still did not
come, leading to gossip among the Meccans and causing Muhammad distress. Muhammad
was able to give his answer some time later after being informed by the angel Gabriel, but
neither they nor the Jews converted to Islam afterwards.[85][86] Upon learning that Uqba and
Nadr were his prisoners, Muhammad ordered them to be executed. When Uqba pleaded, "But
who will take care of my children, Muhammad?" Muhammad replied, "Hell."[84][87][88]
As Muhammad and his troops made their way back to Medina, they encountered a congregation
of Muslims at Rawha, all eager to welcome them back. However, one of the victors, Salama ibn
Salama, was heard to grumble: "Why do you congratulate us? By God, we were only up against
bald old women; we cut their throats like the camels offered up for sacrifice with their feet tied
together." Muhammad smiled and said, "Yes, but nephew, they were the chiefs!"[89][90] The
Muslims obtained a large amount of ransom money for the captives.[89] Nevertheless, several
Islamic traditions report that later on, Muhammad received a divine revelation stating that
Umar's recommendation to kill the captives was actually the right one; and that if God's
punishment were to descend from the heavens—due to them having released the captives for
ransom—only Umar would be spared.[83]

Implications
Muhammad used this triumph as a propaganda tool to assert the validity of his prophetic
claims. It was not his army who killed his enemies during the battle, the Qur'an says in verse
8:17, "but it was God who killed them, and it was not you who shot when you shot, but it was God
who shot." He doubled down by pointing out that this was the divine punishment he had
promised the Quraysh for rejecting his prophethood.[91] Upon his return to Medina, Muhammad
immediately worked to solidify his authority. He instructed the removal of Asma bint Marwan,
who had criticized him in poetry.[92] One of his followers executed her while she slept with her
children, the youngest still nursing in her arms. Upon learning of the deed, Muhammad lauded
the act as a service to God and his Messenger.[93][92][94] Shortly after, he called upon his
followers to end the life of the centenarian poet Abu Afak.[92] Simultaneously, Muhammad
employed poets like Hassan ibn Thabit to circulate his propaganda among the tribes.[92][95]
When inquired if he could shield Muhammad from his foes, Ibn Thabit is reported to have
extended his tongue and claimed there was no defense against his verbal prowess.[92][96]

As the number of his followers grew, Muhammad set his sights on the Jewish tribe of Banu
Qaynuqa. They were mainly goldsmiths and armorers.[97] Muhammad came to their area and
invited them to convert to Islam if they wanted to be safe. But when it became clear that they
would not, Muhammad ordered them to leave their land,[98][99] and some time later, Muhammad
led his followers to lay siege to them.[100] Muslim sources give different reasons for the siege,
including an altercation involving Hamza and Ali in the Banu Qaynuqa market, and another
version by Ibn Ishaq, which tells the story of a Muslim woman being pranked by a Qaynuqa
goldsmith.[101][102]

Legacy
"Badr" has become popular among Muslim armies and paramilitary organizations. "Operation
Badr" was used to describe Egypt's offensive in the 1973 Yom Kippur War as well as Pakistan's
actions in the 1999 Kargil War. Iranian offensive operations against Iraq in the late 1980s were
also named after Badr.[103] During the 2011 Libyan civil war, the rebel leadership stated that they
selected the date of the assault on Tripoli to be the 20th of Ramadan, marking the anniversary of
the Battle of Badr.[104]

The Battle of Badr was featured in the 1976 film The Message, the 2004 animated movie
Muhammad: The Last Prophet, the 2012 TV series Omar and the 2015 animated movie Bilal: A
New Breed of Hero.

See also

Islamic military jurisprudence

Muslim–Quraysh War
Military career of Muhammad
Pre-Islamic Arabia
 List of expeditions of Muhammad

Footnotes

1. Glubb 2001, p. 179.

2. Rodgers 2012, p. 90.
3. Gabriel 2007, p. 92.
4. Watt 1961, p. 123.
5. "Sahih al-Bukhari: Book 64 (Military
Expeditions led by the Prophet (Al-
Maghaazi), Hadith 37" (https://sunnah.co
m/bukhari:3986) .
6. Watt, W. Montgomery (24 April 2012),
"Badr" (https://referenceworks.brillonline.co
m/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/badr-SI
M_1015) , Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second
Edition, Brill, retrieved 5 February 2024
 7. Glubb 2001, p. 189.
8. Gabriel 2007, p. 96.
9. Glubb 2001, p. 179–181.
10. Bogle 1998, p. 12.
11. Gabriel 2014, p. 76–83.
12. Gabriel 2007, p. 86.
13. Rodgers 2012, p. 88.
14. Glubb 2001, p. 181–2.
15. Glubb 2001, p. 182–3.
16. Rodgers 2012, p. 91.
17. Gabriel 2007, p. 95.
18. Rodgers 2012, p. 93.
19. Rodinson 2021, p. 166.
20. "Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume I (A-B):
[Fasc. 1-22]" (https://brill.com/display/title/
1480) , Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume I
(A-B), Brill, 26 June 1998, ISBN 978-90-04-
08114-7, retrieved 28 May 2023, p. 868
21. Gabriel 2007, p. 99.
22. Gabriel 2007, p. 100.
23. Rodinson 2021, p. 167.
24. Rodgers 2012, p. 96.
25. Rodgers 2012, p. 97.
26. Nagel 2020, p. 102.
27. Rodgers 2012, p. 22.
28. Gabriel 2007, p. 11.
29. Peterson 2007, p. 51.
30. Buhl & Welch 1993, p. 364.
31. Lewis 2002, p. 35–36.
32. Muranyi 1998, p. 102.
33. Gordon 2005, p. 120-121.
34. Rodinson 2021, p. 143.
35. Peters 2021, p. 211.
36. Rodinson 2021, p. 143–4.
37. Fontaine 2022, p. 245.
38. Glubb 2001, p. 144.
39. Gabriel 2007, p. 61.
40. Rodinson 2021, p. 144.
41. Fontaine 2022, p. 245–7.
42. Schacht et al. 1998, p. 366.
43. Nigosian 2004, p. 10.
44. Buhl & Welch 1993, p. 367.
45. Buhl & Welch 1993, p. 367–8, 374.
46. Lindemann & Levy 2010, p. 212–3.
47. Hodgson 2009, p. 177.
48. Buhl & Welch 1993, p. 368.
49. Rodgers 2012, p. 69.
50. Buhl & Welch 1993, p. 369.
51. Rodinson 2021, p. 161–2.
52. Rodgers 2012, p. 71–3.
53. Rodinson 2021, p. 162.
54. Rodgers 2012, p. 73.
55. Ibn Ishaq. Sirat Rasul Allah [The Life of
Muhammed]. Translated by Guillaume, A.
p. 289.
56. Rodgers 2012, p. 85-86.
57. Gabriel 2014, p. 83.
58. Rodinson 2021, p. 163.
59. Peterson 2007, p. 101.
60. Glubb 2001, p. 181.
61. Gabriel 2007, p. 89.
62. Rodgers 2012, p. 89.
63. Gabriel 2007, p. 87.
64. Nagel 2020, p. 101.
65. Glubb 2001, p. 182.
66. Gabriel 2007, p. 91.
67. Glubb 2001, p. 183.
68. Gabriel 2007, p. 91–2.
69. Gabriel 2007, p. 98.
70. Glubb 2001, p. 184.
71. Rodgers 2012, p. 95.
72. Rodgers 2012, p. 92–93.
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96. Glubb 2001, p. 196.
97. Gabriel 2007, p. 104.
98. Rodgers 2012, p. 104–5.
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101. Rodinson 2021, p. 173.
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