UNIT - 2 COMPUTER ARITHMATIC AND STORAGE FUNDAMENTALS

UNIT –II

COMPUTER ARITHMETIC &

STORAGE FUNDAMENTALS:

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Syllabus
COMPUTER ARITHMETIC

Number System:

1. Non Positional
2. Positional
a. Binary,
b. Octal,
c. Decimal,
d. Hexadecimal,
• Converting from one number system to another.
• Binary Arithmetic,

STORAGE FUNDAMENTALS

• Primary Vs Secondary Storage,

• Data storage & retrieval methods.
• Primary Storage:
o RAM,
o ROM,
o PROM,
o EPROM,
o EEPROM.
• Secondary Storage:
o Magnetic Tapes,
o Magnetic Disks.
o Cartridge tape,
o hard disks,
o Floppy disks
o Optical Disks,
o Compact Disks,
o Zip Drive,
o Flash Drives.

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Number System:
1Q: What is Number system? Explain its types.
The technique to represent and work with numbers is called number system. When we type
some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can understand
only numbers.

There are two types of number system:

1. Non positional Number systems:
Characteristics:
i. Use symbols such as I for 1, II for 2,III for 3,IV for 4 V for 5 etc.
ii. Each symbol represents the same value regardless of its position in the
number
iii. The symbols are simply added to find out the value of a particular number
Difficulty: It is difficult to perform arithmetic with such a number system.
2. Positional Number systems:
Characteristics
i. Use only a few symbols called digits
ii. These symbols represent different values depending on the position they
occupy in the number
iii. The value of each digit is determined by:
a) The digit itself
b) The position of the digit in the number
c) The base of the number system
(Base=total number of digits in the number system)
iv. The maximum value of a single digit is always equal to one less than the
value of the base.

• There are four types of Positional Number systems

1) Decimal
2) Binary
3) Octal
4) Hexadecimal

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2Q: Explain Different Types of Positional Number System

(Decimal, Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal)
1)Decimal Number System
Characteristic:
a. A Positional number system
b. The number system has 10 system or digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9). Hence ,its base=10
c. The maximum value of a single digit is 9 (one less than tha value of the base)
d. Each position of a digit represents a specific power of the base (10)
e. We use this number system in our day-to-day life
For example, the decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens
position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position. Its value can be written as
such..
1234 => (1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)
(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

2)Binary Number System

Characteristics

1. A Positional number system

2. The number system has only 2 symbols or digits(0 and 1). Hence its base=2
3. The maximum value of a single digit is 1(one less than the value of the base)
4. Each position of a digit represents a specific power of the base(2).

5. This number system is used in computers

Each binary digit is also called a bit. In any binary number, the rightmost digit is called least
significant bit (LSB) and leftmost digit is called most significant bit (MSB).

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And decimal equivalent of this number is sum of product of each digit with its positional value.
110102 = 1×24 + 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 0×20
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
= 2610
Computer memory is measured in terms of how many bits it can store. Here is a chart for
memory capacity conversion.
• 1 byte (B) = 8 bits
• 1 Kilobytes (KB) = 1024 bytes
• 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
• 1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB
• 1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB
• 1 Exabyte (EB) = 1024 PB
• 1 Zettabyte = 1024 EB
• 1 Yottabyte (YB) = 1024 ZB

3) Octal Number System

Characteristics
1. A Positional number system
2. Has total 8 symbols or digits(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) Hence, its base=8
3. The maximum value of single digital is 7 (one less than the value of the base)
4. Each position of a digit represents a specific power of the base(8)
5. Since there are only 8 digits,3 bits(23=8) are sufficient to represents any octal
number in binary

4) Hexadecimal Number system

Characteristic

1. A Positional number system

2. Has total 16 symbols or digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F) Hence its base=16.

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3. The Symbols A,B,C,D,E and F represents the decimal values 10,11,12,13,14,15

respectively
4. The maximum value of a single digit is 15 (one less than the value of the base)

Decimal equivalent of any hexadecimal number is sum of product of each digit with its
positional value.
27FB16 = 2×163 + 7×162 + 15×161 + 10×160
= 8192 + 1792 + 240 +10
= 1023410

3Q: Explain conversion between number system.

It is often required to convert a number in a particular number system to any number system.
There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to
another. We'll demonstrate here the following −

I. Decimal to Other Base System

➢ Decimal to Binary
➢ Decimal to Octal
➢ Decimal to Hexadecimal
II. Other Base System to Decimal
➢ Binary to Decimal
➢ Octal to Decimal
➢ Hexadecimal to Decimal
III. Other Base System to Non-Decimal
➢ Binary to Hexadecimal
➢ Binary to Octal
➢ Octal to Binary
➢ Octal to Hexadecimal
➢ Hexadecimal to Binary
➢ Hexadecimal to Octal

I. Decimal to Other Base System

Technique: Division-Remainder Method

Steps
• Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.

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• Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of
new base number.
• Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
• Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base
number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in
Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base
number.

1. Decimal to Binary Conversion

Now to convert a decimal number to binary we have to divide the decimal number by 2
repeatedly, until the quotient of zero is obtained

Example 1: Conversion decimal number 26 to Binary

(26)10 = (11010)2

Example 2 Conversion decimal number 156 to Binary

Decimal Number (156)10= Binary Number (10011100)2

2. Decimal to Octal
Similarly, to convert a number in decimal to number in octal we have to divide the decimal
number by 8 repeatedly, until the quotient of zero is obtained

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Example 1: Conversion decimal number (670)10 to Octal

(670)10= (1236)8

Example 2: Conversion decimal number (5496)10 to Octal

(5496)10= (12570)8

3. Decimal to Hexadecimal
Similarly, to convert a number in decimal to number in hexadecimal we have to divide the
decimal number by 16 repeatedly, until the quotient of zero is obtained

Example 1: Conversion decimal number (106462)10 to Hexadecimal

(106462)10= (19FDE) 16

II. Other Base System to Decimal

Procedure
• Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the
position of the digit and the base of the number system).

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• Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.
• Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in
decimal

1. Binary to Decimal

2. Octal to Decimal

3. Hexadecimal to Decimal

III. Other Base System to Non-Decimal

1. Binary to Hexadecimal
Steps
• Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
• Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

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2. Binary to Octal
Steps
• Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
• Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

3. Octal to Binary
Steps
• Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number (the octal digits may be
treated as decimal for this conversion).
• Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary
number.

4. Octal to Hexadecimal
Note: First Convert to OCTAL to BINARY then BINARY to HEXADECIMAL

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5. Hexadecimal to Binary
Steps
• Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number (the hexadecimal
digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
• Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary
number.

6. Hexadecimal to Octal
Note: First Convert to HEXADECIMAL to BINARY then BINARY to OCTAL

4Q: Explain Binary Arithmetic with examples?

Binary arithmetic is an essential part of all the digital computers and other digital
system

1. Binary Addition
Four Rules of Binary addition

A+B SUM CARRY

0+0 0 0
0+1 1 0
1+0 1 0
1+1 0 1
Example
11010
+ 1100

100110
Binary Subtraction
Four Rules of Binary subtraction

A-B SUB BORROW

0-0 0 0
0-1 1 1
1-0 1 0
1-1 0 0

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Example: 11010
- 1100

01110

2. Binary multiplication
Four Rules of Binary multiplication

A*B MULTIPLICATION
0*0 0
0*1 0
1*0 0
1*1 1

Example:
11010
x1100

00000
00000x
11 1 1 1x x
111 1 1 xx x

1011 1 01 0 0

3. Binary Division
Binary division is also performed in the same way as we perform decimal division.

• If the remainder obtained by the division process is greater than or equal to the divisor,
put 1 in the quotient and perform the binary subtraction
• If the remainder obtained by the division process is less than the divisor, put 0 in the
quotient and append the next most significant digit from the dividend to the remainder.
Example Divide 14 by 7 in binary form

Example 2 Divide 18 by 8 in binary form

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5Q) what is Memory or Computer Storage? What do you

mean by primary Memory or Storage? Discuss in Detail.
Ans: MEMORY:
"Memory or computer storage is an electronic file that is used to place data until
needed".
Data entered into computer needs a place where it should immediately reside of stay, physically;
memory consists or chips either on the motherboard or on a small circular board attached to the
motherboard. This electronic memory allows the CPU to store and retrieve data quickly. When
we give instruction to the computer it goes to the memory of computer and from memory CPU
reads the instruction.
Two types of memory
Primary memory
Secondary memory

PRIMARY MEMORY:

This memory of the computer is very limited and computer uses it temporally. In this type of
memory, we have.
· ROM (Read Only Memory)
· RAM (Random Access Memory)
ROM:

Non-volatile chips always hold data. The data in these chips cannot be changed except

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through a special process that overwrites the data. Infact putting data into them is called
"burning in the data" and it is usually done at the factory. During normal use, the data in these
chips is only read and used -not changed, so the memory is called read-only-memory.
.
Properties of ROM:
1. We can only read from Rom.
2. We cannot write or delete information from Rom without special devices.
3. This memory contains BIOS (Basic Input Output System).
4. This memory is also called firmware because manufacturer of the computer produces this
memory.
5. Information is stored on Rom at the time of manufacturing the computer.
6. Computer uses Rom at the time of booting (starting). At the time of booting, computer
read from Rom what to do. Rom contain a set of start up instructions that check to see that
the
rest of memory is functioning properly, check for hardware devices and check for an
operating system on computer's disk drives.
7.When the computer is turned off the memory stored in Rom does
not vanish.
Rom’s other variations are:
· PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
One time a program could be loaded in this memory and it becomes Rom again in other
words once a chip has been programmed, the recorded information can not be changed
i.e. the PROM becomes Rom again
· EPROM (Erase able Programmable Read Only Memory):
This type of memory allows writing programs again and again after removing previous
program in the memory.
· EEPROM (Electrically Erasable, Programmable Read Only Memory) :
This type of memory allows writing programs again and again after removing previous
program in the memory by electrically.
· UV-ROM (Ultra Violet Read Only Memory):
This memory allows rewriting programs again and again after removing previous
program by exposing memory chips into ultra violet rays.
· FLASH USB:
This Flash Rom is used in micro computer generally

RAM (Random Access Memory):

Random access memory also called main memory consists of memory chips that can be
read from and written to by the processor and other devices.
When you turn on power to a computer certain operating system files load into ram
from a storage devices such as hard disk. These files remain in ram as long as the computer has

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continuous power.
Properties of RAM:
1. We can read, write and delete information from Ram.
2. This memory is called volatile because when you turn off computer, its contents
are washed.
3. It has fast speed.
4. The technology, which is now a day used for RAM, is CMOS (Complementary Metal
Oxide Semiconductor)
5. The memory consists of small blank chips. Blank memory chips are fixed in single inline
memory modules (SIMMs). Basically SIMM is a circuit board, which can hold a group of
memory chips.
6. Microprocessor fetches data from RAM and executes the instruction provided by the
user of a computer.
TYPES OF RAM
The system unit contains two types of memory:
· Volatile
· Non-Volatile
Volatile
When the computer power is turn off volatile memory loses its Content.
Non-Volatile
None-Volatile memory, by contrast, does not lose its contents when computer's power is
removed. There are three basic types of RAM.
· SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
· DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory):
It is popular type of RAM and is mostly used in compute. DRAM is refreshed many times
in a second that is why it is slow; however it is cheaper, easily available and requires less
power. DRAM must be refreshed many times a second otherwise they will loss then contents.
SRAM (Static Ram):
Static Ram is not popular but it is faster than DRAM because it does not have to refresh
many times in a second. It is expensive and requires more space and power than DRAM and is
not used frequently in PC’

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6 Q) what is Memory or Computer Storage? What do you

mean by Secondary Storage or Auxiliary Storage:? Discuss in
Detail.

Ans: Secondary Storage or Auxiliary Storage:

The purpose of secondary storage is to store data even when the computer is turned off so the
data can be used whenever it is needed. The physical components or material of which data is
stored are called Storage Media, and components that write data to, and read it from, storage
media mainly include Magnetic Storage and Optical Storage.

I.Sequential Access Device:

a. Magnetic Tape

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• A magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data can be encoded.

• Tapes for computers are similar to tapes used to store music.
• Tape is much less expensive than other storage mediums but commonly a much slower
solution that is commonly used for backup.

b.Cartridge tape,

A tape cartridge is a storage device that contains a spool of magnetic tape used to store
different kinds of data, from corporate data to audio and video files. Each cartridge is designed
to fit into a compatible audio/video recorder system or computer system. In the context of
computing, however, a tape cartridge is the magnetic tape storage cartridge used in tape library
units to store digital data on magnetic tape, which is packaged in cassettes and cartridges.

The surface of these devices are coated with magnetic material such Iron Oxide.
c. Tape Drive:

Tape drives read and write on the surface of the tape the same way an audiocassette
recorder does. The difference is that a computer tape drive writes digital data rather than analog
data. The best use of tape storage is for data that you do not use often, such as back up of your
hard disk. Data is recorded on the tape is serially i.e. in a sequence like songs on a cassette. With
capacities as high as 50 GB, 100 GB and higher tape offers an inexpensive way to store a lot of
data on a single cassette.

II. Direct Access Devices

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i.Magnetic Disks:
Magnetic disks include floppy diskette, high capacity floppy diskettes and hard disk.

1. Hard Disk
• The hard disk drive is the main, and usually largest, data storage device in a computer.
• It can store anywhere from 160 gigabytes to 2 terabytes.
• Hard disk speed is the speed at which content can be read and written on a hard disk.
• A hard disk unit comes with a set rotation speed varying from 4500 to 7200 rpm.
• Disk access time is measured in milliseconds.
Hard disk available in market have storage capacity of nearly 1TB , 2TB and higher.

2. Floppy Disk

• A diskette contains a single flat piece of plastic plate (the disk) coated with iron oxide and
enclosed in a plastic cover. While a hard disk contains a number of rigid metal platters
enclosed in a hard disk drive
• Floppy disks are portable.
• Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disks and have less storage capacity, but they are
much less expensive.
• Can store data up to 1.44MB.
• Two common sizes: 5 ¼” and 3 ½”.
• 5 ¼ inch Floppy Disk 3 ½ inch Floppy Disk
3. Zip Diskette
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• Hardware data storage device developed by Iomega that functions like a Standard 1.44"
floppy drive.
• Capable to hold up to 100 MB of data or 250 MB of data on new drives.
• Now it less popular as users needed larger storage capabilities.
• Diskettes rotate at 300 RPM (Round Per Minute) whereas most hard disks spins at
7200, 10000 and 15000 RPM.

ii.Optical Disk
• Optical disc is any storage media that holds content in digital format and is read using a laser
assembly is considered optical media.
• The most common types of optical media are

1. Blu-ray (BD)

Blu-ray or Blu-ray Disc is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was
designed to supersede the DVD format, and is capable of storing several hours of video in high-
definition and ultra high-definition resolution

The plastic disc is 120 millimeters (4.7 in) in diameter and 1.2 millimeters (0.047 in) thick, the
same size as DVDs and CDs Conventional or pre-BD-XL Blu-ray discs contain 25 GB per layer,
with dual-layer discs (50 GB) being the industry standard for feature-length video discs. Triple-
layer discs (100 GB) and quadruple-layer discs (128 GB) are available for BD-XL re-writer
drives.

2. Compact Disc (CD)

CD (Compact Disk)
A memory, which can only be read today most popular alternatives to magnetic storage
system are optical systems. The most widely used type of optical storage medium is the compact

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disk (CD). This is used in CD ROM. A standard CD can store 700 MB about seventy minutes of
audio. CD ROM speed is low as compared to hard disk. Its speed is measured as single speed or
1* (KBps) unit. It was double later making 300 KBps and now 52* means 52 times faster CD
ROM are available. CD's are used for audio, video and software distribution purposes. These are
also used for making back up of hard disk important data.
CD-R (Compact Disk Recordable):

CD recorders are able to write data on the blank disk. User can write data on the CD's
through CD-R for making back up of important data, writing data once makes blank CD's in a
read able form.
CD-RW (Compact Disk Rewriteable):

A special type of CD which has the ability to write data again and again.

3. Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disk):

CD ROM is being replaced with DVD ROM, as DVD have more storage capacity than CD.
A DVD can store data as much 9.4 GB or 17 GB on both sides. Thus making it very favorable for
high storage requirements especially for huge and heavy software.

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III. Memory Storage Devices

i.FLASH DRIVE
1. USB Flash Drive
small, portable flash memory card that plugs into a computer’s USB port
and functions as a portable hard drive.

Flash drives are available in sizes such as 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 5GB, and
16GB and higher.. and are an easy way to transfer and store information.

ii.Memory Card
An electronic flash memory storage disk commonly used in consumer
electronic devices such as digital cameras, MP3 players, mobile phones, and
other small portable devices.

Memory cards are usually read by connecting the device containing the card to
your computer, or by using a USB card reader.

7 Q: Difference between Primary storage and secondary

storage

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