Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory

September 2023
Course Calendar

2023 Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Week Topics | Module Legend | Exams
27 28 29 30 31 1 2 1 Prologue Holiday
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 Module 1 & 2 Exam Dates
Sep 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 3 Module 3 & 4 Lab Experiments
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 4 Module 5 & 6 Lab Report Due
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 5 Module 7 & 8 Exam I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 Module 9 Exam I & II
Oct 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 7 Module 10
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 8 Module 11 Exam III
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 9 Module 12 Exam III & IV
29 30 31 1 2 3 4 10 Module 13 & 14
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 11 Module 15 & 16 Exam V
Nov 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 12 Epilogue Exam V & VI
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 13
26 27 28 29 30 1 2 14
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 Last Day for W
Dec 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 16 Last Day of Classes
N.B.: The modules shown in red are the exam coverage breakpoints.

Course Modules

 Prologue
 Module 01: Fluid Properties
 Module 02: Hydrostatic Pressure
 Exam I
 Module 03: Hydrostatic Force (planar surfaces)
 Module 04: Hydrostatic Force (curved surfaces)
 Exam II
 Module 05: Flow Rate, Mean Velocity, and Acceleration
 Module 06: Continuity Equation
 Module 07: Euler's Equation
 Module 08: Bernoulli’s Equation
 Exam III
 Module 09: Energy Equation I
 Module 10: Energy Equation II
 Module 11: Momentum Equation I
 Module 12: Momentum Equation II
 Exam IV
 Module 13: Drag Force
 Module 14: Lift Force
 Exam V
 Module 15: Dimensional Analysis
 Module 16: Similitude Theory
 Exam VI
 Epilogue

© 2005-2023 Habib Basha

Printing History: Jun. 2005; Sep. 2015; Feb. 2016; Sep. 2016; Feb. 2017; Sep. 2017; Feb. 2018; Sep. 2018; Feb. 2019
Sep. 2019; Feb. 2020; Feb. 2021; May 2021; Sep. 2021; Feb. 2022; Sep. 2022; Feb. 2023; Sep. 2023
Syllabus
Semester: Fall 2023
Course No: CIVE 340
Course Title: Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory
Prerequisites: MATH 201, PHYS 210, CIVE 210
Class Schedule: MW 12:30–13:50
Exam Schedule: Tu 12:30–13:30
Classroom: Bechtel – Rm. 107

Instructor: Habib Basha

Office: Bechtel – Rm. 518
Hours: MW 10:00–11:00 or by appointment.

Topics

Fluid Properties, Fluid Statics, Continuity Equation, Euler Equation, Bernoulli Equation,
Energy Equation, Momentum Equation, Drag and Lift Forces, Dimensional Analysis and
Similitude.

Textbooks

Elger, D. F., Lebret, B. A., Crowe, C. T., Roberson, J. A., (2016) Engineering Fluid
Mechanics, 11th ed., chaps. 1-8 & 11, John Wiley & Sons, Singapore.
Finnemore, E. J., Franzini, J. B., (2002) Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications,
10th ed., chap. 1-7, 9, 11, 13, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Course Description

The Fluid Mechanics course presents the fundamental properties of fluids (Chap. 2) and
covers the three primary principles of fluid flow: conservation of mass (Chap. 4),
conservation of energy (Chap. 5), and conservation of momentum (Chap. 6), along with
their basic applications. The forces of fluids at rest are covered in Chap. 3, the forces of
moving fluids in Chap. 6, and the forces on immersed bodies in Chap. 7. Chap. 8 on
similitude and dimensional analysis deals with the empirical form of investigation. Four
laboratory experiments dealing with flow measurements and fluid forces will also be
conducted.

Course Learning Outcomes

 Students will understand the significance of fluid mechanics in engineering.

 Students will know the basic properties of fluids.
 Students will be able to apply the hydrostatic laws to determine forces on surfaces.
 Students will be able to calculate velocities and pressures in a fluid system.
 Students will know the concepts of energy and energy loss in a fluid system.
 Students will be able to apply the momentum equation to solve fluid flow problems.
 Students will know how to estimate the forces on immersed bodies.
 Students will know about dimensional analysis & similitude theory in fluid flow problems.
 Students will have hands-on experience of fluid mechanics in the laboratory.
 Students will have basic technical writing skills.
Course Outline

 Properties of Fluids
 Density, specific weight, and specific gravity
 Compressibility, viscosity, and surface tension
 Vapor pressure, and ideal gas law
 Fluid Statics
 Hydrostatic pressure and pressure measurements
 Hydrostatic force on plane and curved surfaces
 Buoyant force
 Fluid Kinematics
 Flow classification
 Flow rate, mean velocity, and acceleration
 Continuity equation
 Pressure Variation
 Euler’s equation
 Bernoulli’s equation
 Energy Equation
 Pipe flow
 Power equation
 Momentum Equation
 Force exerted on pressure conduits
 Force on sluice gate
 Reaction of jet
 Forces on Immersed Bodies
 Drag force
 Lift force
 Dimensional Analysis & Similitude
 Dimensional analysis
 Similitude theory
 Laboratory Experiments
 Orifice meter
 Venturi meter
 Forces on plates
 Forces on gates

Course Assessment

Exam I-VI 12 Problems (60%) 04 Oct – 15 Nov

Laboratory Experiments 1 Group Report (10%) Experiment #1
Fluid Mechanics Cartoon 1 piece (5%) (optional) By end of September
N.B.: All optional tasks are off the table by the third week of the semester.

Course Policy

The final grade is based on a weighted average of the above components. The above
weights might be modified to the best interest of the class. They are also subject to
change without prior notice. Participation is normally rewarded in the final grade. There
is no grade push-up or push-down. All assignments are due as scheduled at 1 pm. Early
submission is rewarded with 5% bonus points. Late submission is penalized at 5% points
per day. Plagiarism and cheating are very serious offences, and they will be treated as
such (even in the unusual times of a pandemic).

ii
Table of Contents
1 Properties of Fluids ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Density, Specific Weight & Specific Gravity .............................................................1
1.2 Compressibility...................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Viscosity ............................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Ideal Gas Law........................................................................................................ 2
1.5 Vapor Pressure ...................................................................................................... 2
1.6 Surface Tension ..................................................................................................... 2
2 Fluid Statics .................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Hydrostatic Pressure .............................................................................................. 3
2.2 Pressure Measurements ......................................................................................... 3
2.3 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Area .......................................................................... 4
2.4 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface ................................................................... 4
2.5 Buoyant Force ....................................................................................................... 4
3 Fluid Flow..................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 Flow Classification................................................................................................. 5
3.2 Flow Rate & Mean Velocity .................................................................................... 5
3.3 Acceleration .......................................................................................................... 5
3.4 Continuity Equation ............................................................................................... 6
4 Pressure Variation ......................................................................................................... 7
4.1 Euler's Equation .................................................................................................... 7
4.2 Bernoulli's Equation .............................................................................................. 7
5 Energy Equation ............................................................................................................ 9
6 Momentum Equation ................................................................................................... 11
7 Drag and Lift ............................................................................................................... 13
7.1 Drag Force .......................................................................................................... 13
7.2 Lift Force ............................................................................................................ 14
8 Dimensional Analysis & Similitude ............................................................................... 15
8.1 Dimensional Analysis .......................................................................................... 15
8.2 Common Dimensionless Numbers ........................................................................ 15
8.3 Similitude Theory ................................................................................................ 16
9 Examples .................................................................................................................... 17
9.1 Fluid Properties ................................................................................................... 23
9.2 Fluid Statics ........................................................................................................ 37
9.3 Fluid Flow ........................................................................................................... 72
9.4 Pressure Variation ............................................................................................... 78
9.5 Energy Equation ................................................................................................ 103
9.6 Momentum Equation ......................................................................................... 113
9.7 Drag and Lift ..................................................................................................... 136
9.8 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude .................................................................. 162
9.9 Homework Problems – aka The Corona Competition ........................................... 185
10 Experiments .................................................................................................................. 0
A. Appendix ...................................................................................................................... 1

iii
1 Properties of Fluids
1.1 Density, Specific Weight & Specific Gravity
The density  of a fluid is its mass M per unit volume V

M
 (1.1)
V

The specific weight  is its weight per unit volume. It expresses the force exerted by gravity
on a unit volume of fluid

W
 (1.2)
V

The parameters  and  are related by

  g (1.3)

The specific volume v is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid. It is the reciprocal of
density v  1  . The specific gravity s of a liquid with density  f is

f
s (1.4)
w

where w  1000 Kg/m3 is the density of water at 4o C.

1.2 Compressibility
The compressibility of a liquid is defined as the change in volume due to a change in
pressure. It is defined as

dp dp
Ev    (1.5)
d V V d 

where Ev is known as the bulk modulus of elasticity. Using (1.1), eq. (1.5) becomes the ratio
of pressure change to the fractional change in density as shown on the right hand side.

The value of Ev for water is 2.2 GN/m2. The high value of Ev implies that for any unit change
in pressure, the change in density is orders of magnitude smaller. Hence, water can be
considered to be incompressible since the change of density with pressure is so small as to be
negligible. Note that incompressibility does not imply constant density as there are some
flow cases where the density varies with depth as in estuaries where river freshwater mixes
with seawater.

1.3 Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear or friction force. The rate of
deformation of the fluid is related to the applied shear stress through viscosity. In solids,
shear stress is dependent on the normal force and it can be resisted, while in liquids the shear
stress is independent of the normal force and can initiate movement. The shear stress is
given by

1
Properties of Fluids

F du
  (1.6)
A dy

where  is called the coefficient of viscosity or dynamic viscosity. In solids, the shear stress
is proportional to shear strain and the proportionality factor is the shear modulus. In fluids,
the shear stress is proportional to the time rate of strain du dy and the proportionality factor
is the dynamic viscosity.

An ideal fluid is one in which there is no friction. Such liquids are termed inviscid, i.e.
liquids with zero or negligible viscosity. A fluid with a constant  is called a Newtonian
fluid. Non-Newtonian fluids have a nonlinear relationship between the shear stress  and the
time rate of strain. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids include toothpaste, paints, and printer
ink.

In most equations of fluid mechanics, the viscosity  appears alongside the density  in a
ratio that is now commonly defined as the kinematic viscosity


 (1.7)


1.4 Surface Tension

Surface tension is the tension force acting at the interface of two liquids and is defined per
unit length of contact. It is the result of molecular attraction that is out of balance at the
interface between two immiscible liquids. This tension force is expressed by

F  L (1.8)

The surface tension  for a water-air interface is 0.073 N/m at room temperature.

1.5 Ideal Gas Law

The fundamental equation of state for an ideal gas is

p  RT (1.9)

where p is the absolute pressure, R is the gas constant that is tabulated for a number of
gases, and T is the absolute temperature.

1.6 Vapor Pressure

Vapor pressure is the pressure at which the liquid will boil at a given temperature. At 100C,
the vapor pressure is 1 atm., while at 10C the vapor pressure is less than 0.01 atm. Hence,
water can boil in local regions of low pressure and create vapor bubbles that can later move
to regions of high pressure and collapse. This phenomenon is known as cavitation and can
cause damages to hydraulic structures.

2
2 Fluid Statics
2.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
The forces acting on a body are the sum of two forces: body forces (e.g. gravity, magnetic)
and surface forces (e.g. pressure, shear). For fluids at rest, the only forces acting are the
pressure and gravity forces. There are no shear stresses or frictional forces. The average
pressure p over an area A is defined as

F
p (2.1)
A

where F is the total force and p has units of Pascal, Pa  N m 2 . The pressure at a point is
the same in all directions. It is a scalar quantity as opposed to a vector quantity.

For an elemental volume at equilibrium, the sum of the forces in the horizontal and vertical
direction is equal to zero. In the horizontal direction, the only forces acting are pressure
forces. In the vertical direction, the sum of the forces includes the weight of the elemental
volume and is expressed in differential form as

dp
  (2.2)
dz

Equation (2.2) relates the variation of pressure with elevation in any static fluid. Note that
the elevation z is herein defined as positive upward. To evaluate the pressure at any point in
a fluid, eq. (2.2) must be integrated after expressing  as either a function of p or z. Using a
known value of p at a point z (initial condition), say the pressure on the water surface ps, the
pressure at any point in the fluid is

p  h  ps (2.3)

where h is the water depth from the water surface to the point.

The general solution of (2.2) is

p
zc (2.4)


where c is a constant that is not varying with z. Hence, for any increase in elevation z, there
is a decrease in pressure head p  . Eq. (2.4) states also that two points at the same
elevation within the same fluid have the same pressure. This is known as Pascal’s law and is
useful in expressing the pressure in a manometer (pressure measuring device).

2.2 Pressure Measurements

The absolute pressure of a liquid is the sum of the atmospheric pressure and gage pressure

pabs  patm  pgage (2.5)

where pgage could be positive or negative (vacuum). The atmospheric pressure is also called
the barometric pressure and varies with altitude. When pressure is measured relative to
absolute zero, it is called absolute pressure. When it is measured relative to atmospheric
pressure, it is called gage pressure. In most water applications, one often deals with gage
pressure. There are various instruments of measuring the pressure and these include
barometers, piezometers, simple and differential manometers, and pressure transducers.

3
Fluid Statics

2.3 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Area

2.3.1 Resultant Force

The force is the integral of the pressure over an area

F   pdA (2.6)

The pressure distribution on a submerged body is not uniform but increasing with depth as
given by (2.3). For a constant density with atmospheric pressure above the surface, eq. (2.6)
yields

F  hc A (2.7)

where hc is the vertical depth to the centroid of the body.

2.3.2 Center of Pressure

Eq. (2.7) gives the resultant force acting on a submerged body. For moment calculations, the
point of application (center of pressure) of this resultant force is needed and is given by

Ic
y p  yc  (2.8)
yc A

where yc is the slant distance, as opposed to the vertical distance hc , to the centroid of the
area A and y p is the slant distance to the center of pressure. For a vertical body yc  hc .
The parameter I c is the moment of inertia of the area about its centroidal axis and is usually
listed in textbooks for various geometries.

The lateral distance of the center of pressure x p of the resultant force can be found from the
property that the moment of the resultant force F must be equal to the moment of the
distributed forces pi dAi about any axis

x p F   xi pi dAi (2.9)

where xi are the lateral distances to the center of the horizontal strips of area dAi on which
the pressure are pi .

2.4 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

The hydrostatic force on curved surfaces is the vectorial sum of the horizontal and the
vertical force. The horizontal force is obtained from (2.7) using the projected area of A on a
vertical plane and the location is obtained from (2.8). The vertical force is equal to the
weight of the volume of liquid above it and the location is obtained from (2.9).

2.5 Buoyant Force

The buoyant force Fb is the equal to the weight of fluid displaced and the center of buoyancy
is at the center of the displaced fluid. If Fb  W , the body will float. Otherwise, it will sink.
If the center of buoyancy is above the center of mass of the body, the submerged body will
also be stable.

4
3 Fluid Flow
Fluid Kinematics deals with velocities and acceleration of moving fluids. The velocity of flow
is of primary concern in engineering problems. Knowledge of the velocity allows the
evaluation of the pressures and forces acting on a structure and ensures its adequate design.

3.1 Flow Classification

Flows are classified as it makes it easier to find the most suitable method to analyze it. For
each type of flow requires a different method of solution.

A flow is considered uniform if the velocity does not change in magnitude or direction from
one location to another. A flow is considered steady if the velocity does not vary in
magnitude or direction with time. An incompressible flow is one in which the density does
not vary with pressure. An ideal fluid is one in which the viscosity is zero, i.e. frictionless.

Turbulent flow is characterized by an intense mixing action while laminar flow has a very
smooth appearance. An index related to turbulence is the Reynolds number Re  VD  that
provides a criterion Re  2000 for which the flow is turbulent.

There are two ways to view the fluid flow: the Lagrangian and Eulerian approach. In the
Eulerian method, the motion of fluid particles is observed as they pass a certain point, while
in the Lagrangian method, the movement of a fluid particle is observed in space. That is, the
Lagrangian approach implies a moving coordinate system while the Eulerian approach is for a
fixed coordinate system.

In general, flows are three-dimensional in nature. For negligible variation in the velocity in
one coordinate direction, the flow can be considered two-dimensional since two dimensions
suffice for describing it. An example is when the flow is identical in a series of parallel
planes. For minor flow variations in two coordinate directions, the flow can be considered
one-dimensional along the main flow direction. That is the most common simplifying
assumption.

3.2 Flow Rate & Mean Velocity

For a variable velocity, the flow rate or discharge is defined by

Q   udA (3.1)

The mean velocity V is defined as the discharge divided by the total cross-sectional area

Q
V  (3.2)
A

3.3 Acceleration
The acceleration of a fluid is the rate of change of the particle’s velocity with time. It is the
sum of the local acceleration and the convective acceleration. The local acceleration is due to
velocity changes in time and the convective acceleration is due to velocity changes in space.

For a velocity vector V with components u, v, w, that are all function of space x, y, z, and
time t, the local acceleration is

 V
al  (3.3)
t

5
Fluid Flow

The convective acceleration is

  
 V V V
ac  u v w (3.4)
x y z
  
The total acceleration is then a  al  ac .

For the velocity along the streamline, the tangential acceleration is

 V V
at  Vs s  s (3.5)
s t

And the normal acceleration is

 V2
an  s (3.6)
r

3.4 Continuity Equation

The continuity principle is based on the conservation of mass, which states that the mass rate
into a system minus the mass rate out of the system is equal to the mass change in the
system. In integral form, the continuity equation is expressed as

d
dt cv
dV   V  dA  0 (3.7)
cs

where the first integral refers to the mass change in the control volume cv and the second
integral refers to the mass flow through the control surface cs. For a one-dimensional flow,
the equation of continuity can be simplified to

dV
Q1  Q2  (3.8)
dt

where V is the volume between the two end sections. For a one-dimensional steady flow,
eq. (3.8) becomes

Q1  Q2 (3.9)

Or

1V1 A1  2V2 A2 (3.10)

6
4 Pressure Variation
Pressure variation plays a major role in engineering design and analysis of hydraulic
elements. For static fluids, gravity causes pressure to vary with elevation. For fluids in
motion, acceleration and viscous resistance are additional causes for pressure variations.

4.1 Euler's Equation

Applying Newton’s second law along a streamline s, one obtains

dp dz
   as (4.1)
ds ds

The first term accounts for the pressure gradient along the streamline, the second term
accounts for gravity effects, and the right-hand-side term is the acceleration along the
streamline. Equation (4.1) is Euler’s equation of motion for a fluid and it assumes that only
gravity and pressure forces are acting.

4.2 Bernoulli's Equation

Bernoulli’s equation is derived by integrating Euler’s equation along a streamline for steady-
incompressible flow. Expressing the acceleration as V dV ds for a steady flow, eq. (4.1)
becomes

dp dz dV
   V 0 (4.2)
ds ds ds

Integrating along a streamline, one gets

V 2
p  z   constant (4.3)
2

Dividing by the specific weight, one obtains

p V2
 zC (4.4)
 2g

Equation (4.4) is Bernoulli’s equation and relates the pressure, velocity and elevation
between any two points in the flow field that is steady, irrotational, nonviscous, and
incompressible. For two points in the same flow field, the constant C is the same.

7
5 Energy Equation
The total energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic energy, potential energy, and the
internal or thermal energy that accounts for the motion of molecules and is function of
temperature.

The energy equation is derived from the first law of thermodynamics, which states that the
change of energy of a system E is equal to the work done by the system W plus the heat
transferred to the system Q, i.e. E  Q  W . The energy terms are the kinetic, potential,
and internal energy. The work done by the system W is the flow work that is associated with
the pressure and the shaft work that is related to a pump or turbine.

The general form of the energy equation is expressed by

p1 V2 p V2
 1 1  z1  I1  hm  QH  2   2 2  z2  I2 (5.1)
 2g  2g

where p  is the pressure head or the energy possessed by the liquid in virtue of its
pressure, V 2 2 g is the velocity head or the kinetic energy per unit weight of a flowing liquid,
z is the elevation head or the potential energy that depends on the elevation above an
arbitrary datum, hm is the energy per unit weight put into the system by a machine e.g.
pumps, QH is the energy per unit weight put into the system from an external heat source,
and I is the internal energy of the liquid that is dependent on temperature. The terms of the
energy equation are all expressed as energy per unit weight.

The parameter  is the kinetic energy correction factor that accounts for the velocity variation
within a cross-section. For turbulent flow in pipes,  is usually between 1.03 and 1.06 so it is
common practice to let  1. The internal energy terms and QH are also combined into a
head loss term, i.e. hL  I2  I1  QH .

The simplified form of the energy equation is then given by

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  hm  2  2  z2  hL (5.2)
 2g  2g

Or

H1  hm  H 2  hL (5.3)

where H is the hydraulic head (energy/weight) defined by

p V2
H  z (5.4)
 2g

The quantity p   z is known as the piezometric head because it represents the level at
which water will rise in a piezometer. A plot of the piezometric heads at various points in
the system is known as the hydraulic grade line (HGL). The energy grade line (EGL) is the
plot of the hydraulic head H at various points in the system. The EGL decreases at a rate of
the head loss. If the HGL between two points fall below the system, then that region has a
low pressure. The HGL and EGL are useful in solving flow problems and they are an easy
way of spotting regions of low pressures without having to calculate the pressure at fine
discrete intervals.

The power in Watts is expressed by

9
Energy Equation

P  QH (5.5)

where H is the head. The power of a jet is for H  V 2 2 g , the power lost in fluid friction is
for H  hL , and the power of a machine is for H  hm .

Although the Bernoulli and energy equation have a similar form, they are derived in different
ways. Bernoulli equation is based on Newton’s second law and applies to steady,
incompressible, inviscid fluid along a streamline. The energy equation is derived from the
first law of thermodynamics and applies to steady, incompressible, and viscous flow along a
stream tube. Moreover, the energy equation can account for the presence of pumps and
turbines in a flow system. Under the special circumstances of zero head loss hL  0 with
no pump or turbine in the system hm  0 , the energy equation reduces to the Bernoulli
equation.

10
6 Momentum Equation
The momentum principle allows the evaluation of the forces and moments caused by flowing
fluids. Such forces occur when the velocity changes in either direction or magnitude. By the
law of action and reaction, there will be an opposing force by the body on the fluid.

The momentum principle is derived from Newton's second law


 d( mV )
 F  dt (6.1)

The force term includes various types of forces including surface forces and body forces. The
surface forces may be in the form of pressure forces transmitted through the fluid or forces
transmitted through the solid such in the case of joints and bends. The body forces consist of
gravity and electromagnetic forces. The flow may be compressible or incompressible, real or
ideal, and steady or unsteady.

Applying (6.1) to a fixed control volume, one obtains for steady flow
 
 d( mV )out d( mV )in
 F  dt  dt (6.2)

In scalar notation

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1 x (6.3)

F y  2Q2V2 y  1Q1V1y (6.4)

F z  2Q2V2 z  1Q1V1z (6.5)

The resultant force acting on the body is the vectorial sum

F  Fx2  Fy2  Fz2 (6.6)

In many problems, the flow inside the control volume is steady. However, if the flow is non-
steady, an additional term must be included in (6.2).

The momentum equation can be used to determine the force exerted on a piece of equipment
given the flow and pressure. One way to solve for the force is to evaluate the pressure and
shear stress distribution around the body and integrate. However, it is difficult to solve for
the exact pressure and shear stress distribution. A more efficient approach is to apply the
impulse-momentum principle on a control surface selected in such a manner that the
unknowns are isolated. The advantage here is that one needs only the conditions at the end
sections of the control volume. Normally, one draws the control surface such that it crosses
one-dimensional flow zones where the velocity and pressure are essentially uniform.

Common applications of the momentum equation include the evaluation of the forces exerted
on a conduit, a bend, a nozzle, a vane, and a sluice gate. Additional applications include the
reaction of a jet, the thrust on a rocket, and fluid jets e.g. a fire hose.

11
Momentum Equation

Force Exerted on Conduits

One often wants to determine the force needed to hold the pipe through bolts or anchor
blocks. The pressure or the velocity terms must first be known. Given either one of them,
the other term can be evaluated by means of the energy equation.

Force on Sluice Gate

The impulse-Momentum principle can also be applied to find the force on the sluice gate. For
given water depths on each side of the gate, the continuity and energy equation can be used
to find the respective velocities from which the acting force can be determined using the
momentum equation.

Force Exerted on Blades

The force exerted on blades is obtained through the application of (6.3) with the pressure
forces equal to zero as the blade or vane is open to the atmosphere.

If a single vane is moving with a velocity u , eq. (6.3) still apply but with the flow rate given
by

Q  Av (6.7)

where v is the relative velocity, i.e.

  
v V u (6.8)

If there is a series of blades, (6.3) would also apply with Q  AV assuming that all the flow
would hit the blades. For if the flow does not impinge on the first blade, it would do so on
the second one, and so on around the circle.

The power delivered by the vane is equal to the product of the force on the vane and the
speed of the vane.

Reaction of a Jet

If a tank is emptying water, there will be a reaction of the jet on the wall facing the orifice.
This is due to the unequal pressure distribution on opposite walls. Applying the momentum
principle on the control volume on which at one end there is a discharging velocity
V  2 gh and zero velocity on the other end, one gets

Fx  Q2(V2  0)  A2V22  A2 2 gh (6.9)

12
7 Drag and Lift
A body immersed in a homogeneous fluid is subject to two forces: pressure and viscous
forces. The sum of these forces acting parallel to the fluid motion is the drag force and the
sum of these forces perpendicular to the motion is the lift force.

7.1 Drag Force

In principle, the drag and lift forces can be obtained by integrating the pressure and shear
stress over the whole body. Integration of the pressure distribution gives the form drag while
the integration of the shear stress yields the friction drag. The form drag is mainly due to the
difference of pressure between the upstream side of the body and the downstream side since
flow past a body separates at a point and a zone of low pressure forms behind the body. The
total drag force is the sum of the form drag due to pressure variation and the friction drag due
to viscous resistance.

In practice, the drag force is expressed by

V 2
FD  C D Ap (7.1)
2

where Ap is the reference area of the body, C D is the drag coefficient,  is the density of the
fluid, and V is the free-stream velocity. The reference area depends on the type of body and
the most common reference area is the projected area. One should note that the drag force is
proportional to the square of the velocity. So if the wind velocity doubles, the drag force
increases by a factor of four.

The drag coefficient is usually found by experiment, and it is normally plotted as a function
of the Reynolds number for two-dimensional and three-dimensional bodies. A two-
dimensional body is considered as such when the flow pattern around it is not affected by the
ends of the body. An example would be a very long antenna. For a short antenna, the ends
would affect the flow distribution around the body and the flow pattern would be considered
three-dimensional.

The variation of the drag coefficient goes through two or three regimes depending on the
angular form of the body. In the first regime, C D decreases with Re due to the combined
effect of both form drag and friction drag. In the second regime, C D is nearly constant due to
the dominant effect of form drag. This is particularly true for angular bodies. For
streamlined and rounded bodies, abrupt changes in C D occurs. Streamlining leads to a
reduction in form drag since the drag on most bluff objects is due to the pressure distribution
around the body. On the other hand, friction drag is typically increased since streamlining
results in a larger surface area than for a non-streamlined body. Hence, the optimum
condition is when the sum of both form and friction drag is minimum.

The drag coefficient of a sphere is of particular interest as it has wide ranging application.
For laminar flow conditions, the drag of a sphere can be obtained mathematically

FD  3DV (7.2)

Eq. (7.2) is known as the Stokes equation. From (7.1) and (7.2), one finds that C D  24 Re
for laminar flow conditions.

Common applications of the drag force equation (7.1) include the evaluation of the terminal
velocity of a falling object through a fluid, the estimation of the power needed to overcome
the drag of a moving body (e.g. car), and the wind load on a structure (e.g. high rise
building).

13
Drag and Lift

7.2 Lift Force

A lift force is caused by a pressure differential between the top and bottom of the body. The
lift force equation is similar in form to the drag force equation

V 2
FL  C L Ap (7.3)
2

The lift of an airfoil is also a function of the angle of attack. The lift coefficient C L increases
with the angle of attack to a maximum value and then decreases with any further increase.
This condition is called stall and it occurs when the pressure distribution on the top of the
wing changes in such a way as to decrease lift and increase drag.

For short wings, the flow pattern at the end of the body causes a reduced lift and an added
drag. The induced drag coefficient is given by

C L2
C Di  (7.4)
 b2 A

where b is the wing span and A is the wing area. The total drag is then

V 2

FD  C D  C Di Ap 2
(7.5)

The induced drag is a significant portion of the total drag for an airplane flying at low speeds.
Aircraft that are required to be airborne for a long period of time with minimum energy
expenditure are designed with long and slender wings for their low induced drag.

An airfoil section or vane is also used in racing cars to generate negative lift and improve the
stability and traction of the racing car at high speeds. Other applications of the lift theory
include the estimation of the takeoff weight of an airplane, the determination of the size of
wings needed, and the calculation of the power required.

14
8 Dimensional Analysis & Similitude
The solutions of many engineering problems involving fluid mechanics rely on data acquired
by experimental means. For many problems, the flow conditions require that tests on a
replica of the hydraulic structure be made. For such a case, the replica is called a model
while the actual full-scale structure is called the prototype. The model is made smaller than
the prototype for economic reasons.

8.1 Dimensional Analysis

Fluid mechanics is more heavily involved with empirical work than other fields because the
analytical tools available are not capable of yielding exact solutions to many of the problems
in fluid mechanics. The need for experimental evaluation and verification is therefore more
pressing. For analyzing and correlating the results of the experimental research, it is
appropriate to use dimensionless numbers. By considering dimensionless numbers, a
tremendous reduction in the experimental work is involved, as the number of parameters and
variables involved is reduced.

The dimensionless parameters are derived through dimensional analysis. Dimensional

analysis is used whenever there is no a-priori knowledge of the governing factors in a
particular phenomenon. It is the approach used in experimental investigations. Dimensional
analysis allows the reduction of the large number of variables that might be important in an
experiment to a small set of dimensionless numbers. One also forms non-dimensional
variables to generalize them. There are few known dimensionless numbers that are used
constantly.

To arrive at a dimensionless number, the original variables must be combined in such a way
that the resulting combination has no dimensions. For a given n dimensional variables and
m fundamental dimensions, there will be nm dimensionless numbers. This is known as the
Buckingham  theorem. The m fundamental dimensions can be the length [ L] , the time [T ]
and the mass [ M ] or force [ F ] . All variables should be written in terms of these
fundamental dimensions. The combination process should start by eliminating the [ M ] or
[ F ] dimension first, then the [T ] dimension, and finally the [ L] dimension. The textbook
shows you a more sophisticated approach if you are interested.

The steps are as follows:

 Identify all the variables and dimensions.

 Combine the variables, canceling [ F ] , [T ] , and [ L] in that order.
 Obtain the dimensionless numbers.

8.2 Common Dimensionless Numbers

The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial or kinetic to viscous forces. It is given by

VD
Re  (8.1)


A low Reynolds number implies large viscous shear forces. The Froude number squared is
the ratio of inertial or kinetic to gravity forces. It is given by

V
Fr  (8.2)
gh

15
Dimensional Analysis & Similitude

The Froude number is most significant when the gravitational force affects the pattern of
flow, e.g waves. The Mach number is the ratio of inertial or kinetic to elastic or compressive
forces

V
M  (8.3)
c

It is an indicator of how important compressibility effects are in a fluid flow. Low Mach
number implies no significant density changes and the flow can be treated as incompressible.

The Weber number is a ratio of kinetic to surface-tension force

V 2 L
W  (8.4)


The ratio of the pressure difference to kinetic pressure is given by the pressure coefficient
known also as the Euler number

p
Cp  (8.5)
V 2 2

The ratio of the force to kinetic force is given by the force coefficient

F
CF  (8.6)
V L2 2
2

8.3 Similitude Theory

Similitude is the theory and art of predicting prototype performance from model observations.
The basic requirement of similitude is geometric similitude i.e. an exact geometric replica,
kinematic similitude i.e. the ratio of velocities should be the same anywhere in the flow
domain, and dynamic similitude i.e. the ratio of forces should be the same anywhere in the
flow domain. Therefore, the basic requirement for similarity of flow between model and
prototype is that the significant dimensionless parameters must be equal for model and
prototype.

Similitude is used to relate the results of model experimental tests to the results on the actual
prototype. That is, for a given force obtained on a small airplane model, the force on the
actual airplane can be found using similitude theory. In order to find the relationship
between the model variables and the prototype variables, one has to choose the governing
phenomena. It could be friction, gravity, compressibility, surface tension ... etc. For each
governing force, there is an associated dimensionless number. The Reynolds number Re is
for friction and the Froude number Fr is for gravity dominated flows. The major influence
on free-surface flows is the action of gravity, hence Froude similarity criterion must be used.
For flows without free surface effects (submerged cases), Reynolds number criterion must be
used for dynamic similarity.

Dynamic similarity implies the following relationship

FGp FPp FVp FI p

   (8.7)
FGm FPm FVm FIm

where FG , FP , FV , and FI stand for gravity, pressure, viscous. and inertia forces,
respectively.

16
9 Examples
Example 1-101 Fluid Between Two Plates Origin: Textbook......................................... 23
Example 1-102 Poiseuille Flow Origin: Textbook......................................... 24
Example 1-103 Shear Force Origin: Quiz 801 ......................................... 25
Example 1-104 Plate in Oil Origin: Quiz 901 ......................................... 25
Example 1-105 Moving Plates Origin: Quiz 1801 ....................................... 26
Example 1-106 Unknown Viscosities Origin: Quiz 1801 ....................................... 27
Example 1-107 Couette Flow Origin: Textbook......................................... 28
Example 1-108 Sliding Board Origin: Quiz 1801 ....................................... 28
Example 1-109 Sliding block Origin: Exam 1901 ...................................... 29
Example 1-110 The Falling Shaft Origin: Textbook......................................... 29
Example 1-111 Sliding Piston Origin: Quiz 901S ....................................... 30
Example 1-112 Falling Cylinder Origin: Quiz 1801 ....................................... 30
Example 1-113 The Shaft & The Bearing Origin: Quiz 1001 ....................................... 31
Example 1-114 Minimum Spacing Origin: Quiz 1201 ....................................... 31
Example 1-115 Viscometer Origin: Quiz 901S ....................................... 32
Example 1-116 Sledge on Snow Origin: Quiz 1501 ....................................... 32
Example 1-117 Decelerating Cylinder Origin: Exam 2001 ...................................... 33
Example 1-118 Capillary Rise in Soils Origin: Textbook......................................... 34
Example 1-119 Sewing Needle in Water Origin: Textbook......................................... 34
Example 1-120 Bug on Water Origin: Textbook......................................... 35
Example 1-121 Ring in Water Origin: Textbook......................................... 35
Example 1-122 Weight of an Oxygen Tank Origin: Textbook......................................... 36
Example 1-123 Oxygen Tank Origin: Quiz 1601 ....................................... 36
Example 1-201 Diver in the Ocean Origin: Textbook......................................... 37
Example 1-202 Pressure in a Ski Resort Origin: Textbook......................................... 37
Example 1-203 Pressure in the Mountain Origin: Quiz 1801 ....................................... 38
Example 1-204 Pressure in a Flight Origin: Textbook......................................... 38
Example 1-205 Blood Pressures Origin: Quiz 1501 ....................................... 39
Example 1-206 Oil-Water Tank Origin: Textbook......................................... 39
Example 1-207 Pressure in a Tank Origin: Exam 1901 ...................................... 39
Example 1-208 Multi-Fluid Tank Origin: Textbook......................................... 40
Example 1-209 Fluid X Origin: Quiz 1801 ....................................... 40
Example 1-210 Three Fluids Origin: Quiz 1801 ....................................... 41
Example 1-211 Three Gages Origin: Quiz 1801 ....................................... 41
Example 1-212 Forces on Pistons Origin: Textbook......................................... 42
Example 1-213 The Piston Origin: Quiz 1201 ....................................... 42
Example 1-214 Deflection of the Manometer Origin: Textbook......................................... 43
Example 1-215 Unknown Density Origin: Exam 1901 ...................................... 43
Example 1-216 The Gasoline Pipeline Origin: Quiz 1101 ....................................... 44
Example 1-217 Manometer U Origin: Quiz 801 ......................................... 44
Example 1-218 Manometer X Origin: Quiz 801 ......................................... 45
Example 1-219 Differential Manometer Origin: Quiz 901 ......................................... 45
Example 1-220 Manometer Origin: Quiz 901S ....................................... 46
Example 1-221 Inclined Manometer Origin: Quiz 1001 ....................................... 46

17
Examples

Example 1-222 Forces on a Square Panel Origin: Textbook......................................... 47

Example 1-223 Simple Gate Origin: Quiz 1601 ....................................... 47
Example 1-224 Forces on a Submerged Gate Origin: Textbook......................................... 48
Example 1-225 Forces on a Square Gate Origin: Quiz 801 ......................................... 48
Example 1-226 Partition Gate Origin: Exam 1902 ...................................... 49
Example 1-227 Opening B Origin: Quiz 1802 ....................................... 50
Example 1-228 Tidal Gate Origin: Quiz 901 ......................................... 51
Example 1-229 Slanted Gate Origin: Quiz 1701 ....................................... 52
Example 1-230 Gate AB Origin: Quiz 1802 ....................................... 53
Example 1-231 Gate ABC Origin: Quiz 1802 ....................................... 54
Example 1-232 Circular Gate ABC Origin: Quiz 1802 ....................................... 55
Example 1-233 Force on a Window Origin: Quiz 901S ....................................... 56
Example 1-234 The Force P Origin: Quiz 1001 ....................................... 56
Example 1-235 Will the Gate Fall? Origin: Textbook......................................... 57
Example 1-236 Submerged Rectangular Gate Origin: Quiz 1201 ....................................... 58
Example 1-237 Tension in the Cable Origin: Quiz 901S ....................................... 59
Example 1-238 The L-Gate Origin: Quiz 1101 ....................................... 60
Example 1-239 Force on a Quarter Cylinder Origin: Textbook......................................... 61
Example 1-240 The Cylindrical Dam Origin: Quiz 1101 ....................................... 62
Example 1-241 Submerged Cylindrical Gate Origin: Quiz 1201 ....................................... 63
Example 1-242 Forces on a Hemisphere Origin: Quiz 801 ......................................... 64
Example 1-243 Cylindrical Bulge Origin: Quiz 1701 ....................................... 64
Example 1-244 Spherical Cavity Origin: Quiz 1802 ....................................... 65
Example 1-245 Spherical Bulge Origin: Quiz 1802 ....................................... 66
Example 1-246 Gate BC Origin: Quiz 1802 ....................................... 66
Example 1-247 Unknown Body A Origin: Quiz 1802 ....................................... 67
Example 1-248 Radial Gate Origin: Quiz 901S ....................................... 68
Example 1-249 Tunnel under Water Origin: Quiz 901 ......................................... 68
Example 1-250 Cylindrical Weir Origin: Quiz 1301 ....................................... 69
Example 1-251 Circular Gate Origin: Quiz 1001 ....................................... 70
Example 1-252 Pure Gold Origin: Textbook......................................... 71
Example 1-253 Rock in Water Origin: Quiz 1501 ....................................... 71
Example 1-254 Gold Chain Origin: Quiz 1301 ....................................... 72
Example 1-255 Aluminum Ball Origin: Quiz 1101 ....................................... 72
Example 1-301 The Garden Hose Origin: Quiz 1001 ....................................... 73
Example 1-302 Mean Velocity and Flow Rate Origin: Quiz 801 ......................................... 73
Example 1-303 Flow in a Channel Origin: Quiz 1202 ....................................... 74
Example 1-304 Open-Channel Flow Origin: Quiz 1700 ....................................... 75
Example 1-305 The Nozzle Origin: Quiz 901S ....................................... 76
Example 1-306 Streams to Pipe Origin: Quiz 901 ......................................... 77
Example 1-307 The River and the Lake Origin: Textbook......................................... 78
Example 1-308 Dry up of the Lake Origin: Quiz 1202 ....................................... 78
Example 1-309 Pipes with Two Branches Origin: Textbook......................................... 79
Example 1-310 Moving Pistons Origin: Textbook......................................... 79
Example 1-311 Filling or Emptying Origin: Quiz 1101 ....................................... 80
Example 1-312 Lock of a Ship Canal Origin: Textbook......................................... 80

18
 Similitude Theory

Example 1-313 Duct for a Jet Engine Origin: Textbook......................................... 81

Example 1-401 Piston in Acceleration Origin: Quiz 901S ....................................... 82
Example 1-402 The Water Nozzle Origin: Exam 1102 ...................................... 83
Example 1-403 The Accelerating Tank Origin: Exam 1302 ...................................... 84
Example 1-404 Gasoline Tanker Origin: Quiz 901S ....................................... 85
Example 1-405 Milk Tanker Origin: Quiz 901 ......................................... 86
Example 1-406 Fish Tank Origin: Quiz 1001 ....................................... 87
Example 1-407 The Orifice Origin: Textbook......................................... 88
Example 1-408 Depth in the Tank Origin: Exam 1402 ...................................... 88
Example 1-409 The Sprayer Origin: Exam 1602 ...................................... 89
Example 1-410 The Bicycle Helmet Origin: Textbook......................................... 89
Example 1-411 The Pitot Tube Origin: Textbook......................................... 90
Example 1-412 Pitot Tube – Pressure Gage Origin: Textbook......................................... 90
Example 1-413 Pitot Tube – Airplane Origin: Textbook......................................... 91
Example 1-414 Airspeed of an Airplane Origin: Exam 1402 ...................................... 91
Example 1-415 The Submarine Origin: Exam 1302 ...................................... 92
Example 1-416 The Venturi Meter Origin: Textbook......................................... 92
Example 1-417 The Troublesome Throat Origin: Exam 1102 ...................................... 93
Example 1-418 Faucet Water Origin: Exam 1700 ...................................... 94
Example 1-419 Faucets in a Building Origin: Exam 1502 ...................................... 95
Example 1-420 Time to Empty by Half Origin: Quiz 903 ......................................... 96
Example 1-421 Swimming Pool Origin: Exam 1903 ...................................... 97
Example 1-422 Olympic Swimming Pool Origin: Exam 1903 ...................................... 98
Example 1-423 Time to Drop Origin: Quiz 1700 ....................................... 99
Example 1-424 The Pressurized Tank Origin: Exam 1302 .................................... 100
Example 1-425 Time to Empty Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 101
Example 1-426 Time to Empty – Cylindrical Origin: Textbook....................................... 102
Example 1-501 Pressure in a Pipe Origin: Textbook....................................... 103
Example 1-502 Power of the Pump Origin: Textbook....................................... 103
Example 1-503 The Power of a Turbine Origin: Textbook....................................... 104
Example 1-504 Pumping to a Reservoir Origin: Textbook....................................... 104
Example 1-505 The Pump Power Origin: Exam 1302 .................................... 105
Example 1-506 The Penthouse Origin: Quiz 802 ....................................... 105
Example 1-507 Tank on the Roof Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 106
Example 1-508 Power Loss Origin: Exam 1402 .................................... 107
Example 1-509 Power Generation Origin: Quiz 902 ....................................... 108
Example 1-510 The Power Plant Origin: Exam 1102 .................................... 108
Example 1-511 Power of a Turbine Origin: Exam 302 ...................................... 109
Example 1-512 Fire Hydrant Origin: Exam 1202 .................................... 109
Example 1-513 Pumping a Liquid Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 110
Example 1-514 Oil Pipeline Origin: Exam 1502 .................................... 111
Example 1-515 The Valve Origin: Exam 1102 .................................... 112
Example 1-516 Pump Operation Cost Origin: Textbook....................................... 112
Example 1-601 The Pipe Bend Origin: Textbook....................................... 113
Example 1-602 The Horizontal Bend Origin: Quiz 802 ....................................... 114
Example 1-603 The Bend Anchor Origin: Exam 1603 .................................... 115

19
Examples

Example 1-604 The Reducing Vertical Bend Origin: Textbook....................................... 116

Example 1-605 Reducing Pipe Bend Origin: Exam 1103 .................................... 117
Example 1-606 Filter Cap Origin: Quiz 1303 ..................................... 118
Example 1-607 The Sluice Gate Origin: Textbook....................................... 119
Example 1-608 The Air Nozzle Origin: Textbook....................................... 120
Example 1-609 The Double Nozzle Origin: Textbook....................................... 121
Example 1-610 Converging Nozzle Origin: Exam 1804 .................................... 122
Example 1-611 Diverging Nozzle Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 123
Example 1-612 Pipe Contraction Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 124
Example 1-613 Force on a Contraction Origin: Exam 1203 .................................... 125
Example 1-614 The Single Vane Origin: Textbook....................................... 126
Example 1-615 The Reverse Vane Origin: Textbook....................................... 126
Example 1-616 The Moving Vane Origin: Textbook....................................... 127
Example 1-617 The Rectangular Duct Origin: Quiz 802S ..................................... 128
Example 1-618 Alcohol Jet Origin: Quiz 802S ..................................... 129
Example 1-619 The Circular Nozzle Origin: Textbook....................................... 130
Example 1-620 Tension in a Cable Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 131
Example 1-621 Hydraulic Dredge Origin: Quiz 1002 ..................................... 132
Example 1-622 Jet Ski Origin: Quiz 902 ....................................... 133
Example 1-623 The Concrete in the Cart Origin: Textbook....................................... 134
Example 1-624 The Reaction of a Jet Origin: Textbook....................................... 135
Example 1-701 Terminal Velocity Origin: Textbook....................................... 136
Example 1-702 Free-Fall Velocity Origin: Textbook....................................... 137
Example 1-703 Terminal Velocity Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 138
Example 1-704 Table Tennis Ball Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 139
Example 1-705 Ping-Pong Ball Origin: Exam 1203 .................................... 140
Example 1-706 Drag on a Pipe Origin: Exam 1303 .................................... 141
Example 1-707 The Antenna Origin: Textbook....................................... 142
Example 1-708 Chimney in the Wind Origin: 1805 ............................................. 143
Example 1-709 The Speed of a Bike Rider Origin: Textbook....................................... 144
Example 1-710 Speed of a Biker Origin: Exam 1403 .................................... 144
Example 1-711 Bicycle Power Origin: Quiz 902S ..................................... 145
Example 1-712 Power of a Cyclist Origin: Textbook....................................... 145
Example 1-713 The Cartop Carrier Origin: Quiz 802 ....................................... 146
Example 1-714 Tipping the Truck Origin: Quiz 902 ....................................... 147
Example 1-715 Cruising Car Origin: Quiz 1002 ..................................... 147
Example 1-716 Gas Mileage Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 148
Example 1-717 Sports Car Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 149
Example 1-718 The Paratrooper Origin: Exam 1503 .................................... 150
Example 1-719 The Skydiver Origin: Exam 1503 .................................... 151
Example 1-720 The Glider Origin: Exam 1203 .................................... 152
Example 1-721 Flying Banner Origin: Exam 2005 .................................... 152
Example 1-722 Takeoff of an Airplane Origin: Textbook....................................... 153
Example 1-723 Flying the Airplane Origin: Quiz 902 ....................................... 153
Example 1-724 Landing & Stalling Speeds Origin: Quiz 1002 ..................................... 154
Example 1-725 Are We Flying? Origin: Exam 1303 .................................... 154

20
 Similitude Theory

Example 1-726 Takeoff Speed Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 155

Example 1-727 Take-off Speed Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 156
Example 1-728 Airplane Wing Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 157
Example 1-729 Cessna Jet Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 158
Example 1-730 Power of an Aircraft Origin: Exam 1905 .................................... 159
Example 1-731 Negative Lift on a Race Car Origin: Textbook....................................... 160
Example 1-732 Car Spoiler Origin: Exam 1103 .................................... 160
Example 1-733 Induced Drag Force Origin: Textbook....................................... 161
Example 1-801 Drag of a Sphere Origin: Textbook....................................... 162
Example 1-802 Pressure Drop in Pipe Flow Origin: Exam 1104 .................................... 163
Example 1-803 Pressure Drop Origin: Exam 2006 .................................... 164
Example 1-804 Settling Velocity Origin: Exam 1204 .................................... 165
Example 1-805 Local Velocity Origin: Exam 1806 .................................... 166
Example 1-806 Smokestack Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 167
Example 1-807 Flow over a Spillway Origin: Textbook....................................... 168
Example 1-808 Rectangular Weir Origin: Quiz 903 ....................................... 169
Example 1-809 Period of a Water Wave Origin: Quiz 803 ....................................... 170
Example 1-810 Wave Height in the Sea Origin: Quiz 1003 ..................................... 171
Example 1-811 Ripples Origin: Quiz 1700 ..................................... 172
Example 1-812 Washing Machine Origin: Exam 1403 .................................... 173
Example 1-813 Dam Spillway Origin: Quiz 903 ....................................... 174
Example 1-814 The Blimp Origin: Textbook....................................... 175
Example 1-815 Power of the Blimp Origin: Exam 1204 .................................... 176
Example 1-816 A Boat Model Origin: Textbook....................................... 177
Example 1-817 Ship Model Origin: Exam 1504 .................................... 178
Example 1-818 A Yacht Origin: Exam 1604 .................................... 178
Example 1-819 The Submarine Origin: Exam 1104S .................................. 179
Example 1-820 A Submerged Body in Oil Origin: Textbook....................................... 180
Example 1-821 Venturi Meter Origin: Quiz 803 ....................................... 181
Example 1-822 Drag on a Building Origin: Exam 1304 .................................... 182
Example 1-823 Force on a Seawall Origin: Quiz 1003 ..................................... 182
Example 1-824 Breakwater Origin: Exam 1403 .................................... 183
Example 1-825 Sports Car Origin: Exam 1104 .................................... 184
Problem 1-901 ................................................................................................................ 185
Problem 1-902 ................................................................................................................ 185
Problem 1-903 ................................................................................................................ 185
Problem 1-904 ................................................................................................................ 185
Problem 1-905 ................................................................................................................ 185
Problem 1-906 ................................................................................................................ 185
Problem 1-907 ................................................................................................................ 185
Problem 1-908 ................................................................................................................ 186
Problem 1-909 ................................................................................................................ 186
Problem 1-910 ................................................................................................................ 186
Problem 1-911 ................................................................................................................ 186
Problem 1-912 ................................................................................................................ 186
Problem 1-913 ................................................................................................................ 186

21
Examples

Problem 1-914 ................................................................................................................ 186

Problem 1-915 ................................................................................................................ 187
Problem 1-916 ................................................................................................................ 187
Problem 1-917 ................................................................................................................ 187
Problem 1-918 ................................................................................................................ 187
Problem 1-919 ................................................................................................................ 187
Problem 1-920 ................................................................................................................ 187
Problem 1-921 ................................................................................................................ 187
Problem 1-922 ................................................................................................................ 187
Problem 1-923 ................................................................................................................ 188
Problem 1-924 ................................................................................................................ 188

22
9.1 Fluid Properties

9.1.1 Viscosity

Example 9-101 Fluid Between Two Plates Origin: Textbook

The velocity distribution for viscous flow between stationary plates is

1 dp
u
2 dx
 By  y 2 

Compute the shear stress at a distance of 8 mm from the wall if the spacing B between the
walls is 5 cm and the pressure gradient is dp dx  1.5 kPa/m. The fluid is glycerin with
 1.41 x 10-3 N.s/m2.

Solution

 The shear stress is given by

du

dy

 The derivative of the velocity profile is

du 1 dp
  B  2y 
dy 2 dx

 The shear stress at a distance of 8 mm is

du 1
    1500  0.05  2 x 0.008   25.5 Pa
dy 2

 Note that the shear stress is maximum at the wall and zero at the centerline.

23
Examples

Example 9-102 Poiseuille Flow Origin: Textbook

Compute the shear stress at the wall of a pipe wherein the velocity profile is parabolic
expressed by

 r2 
V  Vo  1  2 
 ro 

where r is the radial position measured from the centerline, Vo is the velocity at the center of
the pipe, and ro is the pipe radius. The fluid is water ( 1.14 x 10-3 N.s/m2), the pipe
diameter is 4 cm, and the centerline velocity is 1 m/s.

Solution

 The shear stress is given by

dV

dy

 In terms of the radial coordinate r that is in opposite direction to y, the viscosity equation
becomes

dV
  
dr

 The derivative of the velocity profile is

dV 2r
 Vo 2
dr ro

 The shear stress at the wall is then

2ro 2
  Vo 2
 0.00114 1  0.114 N/m2
ro 0.02

24
 Fluid Properties

Example 9-103 Shear Force Origin: Quiz 801

Compute the force required to drag the plate at a velocity v of 1.2 m/s if the thickness t of the
separating oil is 0.6 mm. The plate size is 200 mm x 750 mm and the dynamic viscosity of oil
is 0.85 N.s/m2.

Solution

 The force required must be equal to the shear force

dV
F  A   A
dy

 Hence

1.2
F  0.85  0.2 0.75  255 N
0.0006

Example 9-104 Plate in Oil Origin: Quiz 901

Calculate the force required to drag a very thin plate of 4 ft2 area through the SAE 30 Western
lubricating oil at a velocity of 20 ft/min if the plate in 0.4 inches away from the top plate.
The gap width is 1 inch and the viscosity of oil is 0.009 lb.s/ft2.

Solution

 The shear force acting on each side of the plate is given by

dV
F  A   A
dy

 Hence, the shear force on the top side is

20 12
F  0.009 4  0.36 lb.
0.4 60

 On the bottom side F  0.24 lb.

 The total force is F  0.6 lb.

25
Examples

Example 9-105 Moving Plates Origin: Quiz 1801

Calculate the force required to drag a thin 500-cm2 plate at a speed of 2 m/s through a 4-mm
thick oil layer (S 0.85) whereby the top wall is fixed and the bottom wall is moving in the
opposing direction at a constant velocity of 0.5 m/s. The plate is 1 mm away from the top
wall. The kinematic viscosity of the oil is 3 x 10-5 m2/s.

Solution

 The shear force acting on each side of the plate is given by

dV
F  A   A
dy

 The dynamic viscosity is     850(3 x 105 )  0.0255 N.s/m2

 The velocity gradient in the top layer is dV dy  2 0.001  2000 s-1
 The velocity gradient in the bottom layer is dV dy  2.5 0.003  833 s-1
 The shear force on the top side is

F  0.0255  2000  0.05  2.55 N

 The shear force on the bottom side is

F  0.0255  833 0.05  1.06 N

 The total force is then F  3.6 N.

Alternate versions

 For dy  1.5 mm, Ft  1.7 N, Fb  1.275 , and FT  2.975 N

 For dy  3 mm, Ft  0.85 N, Fb  3.1875 , and FT  4.0375 N

26
 Fluid Properties

Example 9-106 Unknown Viscosities Origin: Quiz 1801

A very large thin plate is placed in a gap of 6 cm width with different oils of unknown
viscosities whereby the viscosity above is twice the one below. The plate is 2 cm away from
the top wall. When the plate is pulled at a velocity of 0.3 m/s, the resulting force on one
square meter of plate due to viscous shear on both sides is 30 N. Calculate the viscosities of
the oils.

Solution

 The shear force acting on each side of the plate is given by

dV
F  A   A
dy

 The velocity gradient in the top layer is dV dy  0.3 0.02  15 s-1

 The velocity gradient in the bottom layer is dV dy  0.3 0.04  7.5 s-1
 The total shear force is

dV dV
F  2 A A  30
dy t dy b

 Hence

30
  0.8 N.s/m2
2 15  7.5

 The other viscosity is twice  = 1.6 N.s/m2.

27
Examples

Example 9-107 Couette Flow Origin: Textbook

A 1 m by 1 m board slides down an inclined ramp with a slope of 20o at a constant velocity of
2 cm/s. The board is separated from the ramp by a thin film of oil with a viscosity of 0.05
N.s/m2. Determine the thickness of the oil film if the weight of the board is 25 N.

Solution

 The oil film thickness can be obtained

from the viscosity equation assuming
Couette flow (i.e. linear velocity profile)

dV V
 
dy y

 Since the board is moving at a constant velocity, the forces are in balance. That is

F x
 W sin   A  0

 The shear stress is then   25sin  20  1  8.55 N/m2

 Hence

V 0.02
y  0.05  0.117 mm
 8.55

Example 9-108 Sliding Board Origin: Quiz 1801

Compute the velocity of a 1 m by 1.5 m board that is sliding down an inclined ramp with a
slope of 30o and is lubricated by a thin film of oil (S 0.85) of thickness of 1 mm and a
kinematic viscosity of 2.5 x 10-4 m2/s. The weight of the board is 50 N.

Solution

 The velocity can be obtained from the viscosity equation assuming Couette flow (i.e.
linear velocity profile)

dV V
 
dy y

 Since the board is moving at a constant velocity, the forces are in balance. That is

F x
 W sin   A  0

 The shear stress is then   50 sin  30  1.5  16.67 N/m2

 Hence

y 0.001
V   16.67  0.0784 m/s
 850  2.5 x 104 

28
 Fluid Properties

Example 9-109 Sliding block Origin: Exam 1901

A 10 kg block slides down a 20o inclined surface that is lubricated by a thin film of oil (S
0.85) of thickness of 0.1 mm and a kinematic viscosity of 4.5 x 10-4 m2/s. Compute the
velocity of the block given that its contact area is 0.1 m2.

Solution

 The velocity can be obtained from the viscosity equation assuming linear velocity profile

dV V
 
dy y

 Since the board is moving at a constant velocity, the forces are in balance. That is

F x
 W sin   A  0

 Hence

y W sin  y 10  9.81 sin 20

o
0.0001
V     0.0877 m/s
 A  0.1 850  4.5 x 104 

Example 9-110 The Falling Shaft Origin: Textbook

Calculate the rate of descent of a shaft 100 mm in diameter that slides inside a 100.5 mm pipe
lubricated with SAE 20W oil (0.35 N.s/m2). The shaft is 200 mm long and weighs 15 N.

Solution

 The shear force acting on the perimeter of the cylinder is

dV
F  A    2rl 
dy

 The force equilibrium dictates that F  W . Hence

V
W   2rl 
Rr

 The rate of descent is therefore

15  0.25 103
V   0.17 m/s
0.35  2  0.05  0.2 

29
Examples

Example 9-111 Sliding Piston Origin: Quiz 901S

A piston of 14-cm diameter and 24-cm length slides downward with a velocity V through a
vertical pipe. The downward motion is resisted by an oil film between the piston and the
pipe wall. Estimate V if the oil viscosity is 0.766 N.s/m2, the film thickness is 0.05 mm, and
the cylinder mass is 230 gr.

Solution

 The shear force acting on the perimeter of the cylinder is

dV
F  A    dl 
dy

 The force equilibrium dictates that F  W  mg .

 The velocity distribution in the gap is linear (Couette flow). Hence

V
mg    dl 
y

 The velocity is therefore

0.23  9.81 0.05 x 103

V   0.0014 m/s
0.766    0.14  0.24 

Example 9-112 Falling Cylinder Origin: Quiz 1801

A 20 cm solid cylinder with diameter 100 mm slides in a smooth pipe of diameter 100.5 mm
at a downward constant velocity of 0.5 m/s. The small space between the cylinder and the
pipe is lubricated with oil (S 0.88) with a kinematic viscosity of 2 x 10-4 m2/s. Calculate the
weight of the cylinder.

Solution

 The shear force acting on the perimeter of the cylinder is

dV
F  A    2rl 
dy

 The force equilibrium dictates that F  W . Hence

V 0.5
W   2rl   880  2 x 104  2  0.05 0.2  22.1 N
Rr 2.5 x 104

Alternate versions

 For V = 0.75, W = 33 N
 For V = 0.25, W = 11 N

30
 Fluid Properties

Example 9-113 The Shaft & The Bearing Origin: Quiz 1001

Compute the force P to pull the 25 mm diameter shaft through the cylindrical bearing at a
velocity of 3 m/s. The lubricant that fills the 0.3 mm gap is oil with a kinematic viscosity of 8
x 10-4 m2/s and a specific gravity of 0.91.

Solution

 The shear force acting on the shaft is given by

dV
F  A   A
dy

 The shaft contact area is

A  DL    25x103  0.5  0.0393 m2.
 The kinematic viscosity is defined by     , and the density of oil is o  Sw
 Hence   0.728 Kg/s.m
 For a constant velocity (i.e. zero acceleration), the sum of forces is equal to zero.
 Hence P  F
 The shear stress is

3
  0.728  7280 Pa
0.3x103

 The force P is then

P  7280  0.0393  286 N

Example 9-114 Minimum Spacing Origin: Quiz 1201

SAE 10W-30 oil with a kinematic viscosity of 2.5 x 10-5 m2/s and a specific gravity of 0.88 is
used as a lubricant between two parts of a machine that slide past another with a velocity
difference of 1.8 m/s. Compute the minimum spacing required if the maximum shear stress
must be less than 100 Pa.

Solution

 The shear stress is given by

dV

dy

 For a linear velocity distribution (Couette Flow), the velocity gradient is V y  1.8 y
 The kinematic viscosity is defined by     , and the density of oil is o  Sw
 Hence   S w  0.022 N.s/m2
 The minimum spacing y is therefore

V 1.8
y    0.022  0.000396
 100

 The minimum spacing is 0.04 cm.

31
Examples

Example 9-115 Viscometer Origin: Quiz 901S

The sliding plate viscometer shown below is used to measure the viscosity of a fluid.
Compute the viscosity of the fluid if the top plate is moving to the right with a constant
velocity of 10 m/s in response to a force of 3 N. The bottom plate is stationary.

Solution

 The shear force acting on the plate is given by

dV
F  A   A
dy

 The force is 3 N, the area is 5x10-3 m2, and the velocity gradient is 10000 1/s. Hence
1
F  dV  3 1 3
    3 4
 N.s/m2
A  dy  5x10 10 50

Example 9-116 Sledge on Snow Origin: Quiz 1501

A 30 kg kid is sliding with a sledge on a 10% snowy slope. Determine the terminal velocity
of the sledge if the area of contact is 0.007 m2 and the thickness of the thin layer of water
between the sledge and snow is 0.04 mm. The kinematic viscosity of icy water is 1.68 x 10-6
m2/s.

Solution

 For a sledge moving at a constant velocity, the forces are in

balance. That is

F x
 W sin   A  0

 The shear stress is then   30  9.81 0.0995 0.007  4183

N/m2
 The shear stress is also given by

dV V
 
dy y

 Hence

y 0.04 x 103
V   4183  99.6 m/s
 1.68 x 103

32
 Fluid Properties

Example 9-117 Decelerating Cylinder Origin: Exam 2001

A 10 kg cylinder is sliding in a lubricated vertical pipe. Determine the viscosity of the

lubricating oil if the cylinder is observed to decelerate at a rate of 0.6 m/s2 when the speed is
6 m/s. The diameter of the cylinder is 15 cm, the length is 12 cm, and the spacing between
cylinder and pipe is 0.03 mm.

Solution

 The summation of forces is

 F  ma
 The acting shear force is given by

dV
F  A   A
dy

 Hence

dV
 A  mg  ma
dy

 Solving for , one gets

m a  g 10  0.6  9.81
   8.14 x 103 N.s/m2
dV 6
A   0.15 0.12 
dy 0.03 x 103

33
Examples

9.1.2 Surface Tension

Example 9-118 Capillary Rise in Soils Origin: Textbook

Compute the rise of water in a silty soil of pore diameter of 10 m assuming that the
interconnected pores in soil can be represented as a capillary tube.

Solution

 The rise of water in a capillary tube can be determined by equating the weight of the
column of water with the surface tension force

mg  l cos 

 That is

r 2 h    2r  cos 

 Assuming the contact angle  is nearly zero, one obtains for the capillary rise

2 4
h 
r d

 For a diameter of 10 x 10-6 m, the rise is

4 4  0.0728 
h   2.97 m
d 9810 105 

Example 9-119 Sewing Needle in Water Origin: Textbook

Determine the largest diameter of a sewing needle that can be supported by water. The
specific gravity of the stainless steel needle is S  7.7

Solution

 For the needle to remain suspended on the water surface, the weight must be in
equilibrium with the force of surface tension that is acting at the air-water interface along
each side of the needle, i.e. FT  W or

2l  mg  r 2 l

 Here   7.7 w . Hence

2 2  0.0728 
r   0.78 mm
 9810 7.7  

 The largest diameter is 1.56 mm

34
 Fluid Properties

Example 9-120 Bug on Water Origin: Textbook

Compute the maximum mass in grams of a water bug with six legs if it is to avoid sinking.
Each leg is in contact with the water over a length of 5 mm.

Solution

 For a water bug to remain suspended on the water surface, the weight must be in
equilibrium with the force of surface tension that is acting at the air-water interface along
each side of the leg, i.e. FT  W or

6  2l   mg

 The maximum mass is then

12  0.073 0.005
m  0.004465 Kg
9.81

 The maximum mass is 0.447 gr.

Example 9-121 Ring in Water Origin: Textbook

Determine the surface tension of a liquid given that a force of 0.157 N is required to pull the
ring from the liquid. The ring has an outside diameter of 10 cm and an inside diameter of 9.5
cm. The mass of the ring is 10 gr.

Solution

 Force equilibrium dictates that the upward force is equal to the sum of the surface tension
force plus the weight, i.e. Fu  W  FT .
 The surface tension force is FT    di  do 
 Hence

Fu  W 0.157  0.01  9.81

   0.0961 N/m
  di  do    0.1  0.095

35
Examples

9.1.3 Ideal Gas Law

Example 9-122 Weight of an Oxygen Tank Origin: Textbook

Find the total weight in Newton of a 0.17 m3 tank of oxygen that is pressurized to 2758 kPa at
a temperature of 21oC. The weight of the empty tank is 400 N.

Solution

 The total weight is the weight of the tank plus the weight of the gas
 The weight of nitrogen is obtained from the ideal gas law

P

RT

 The temperature is T  21  273  294 K

 The specific gas constant for oxygen is R  260 J/Kg.K
 Hence, the density is   36 kg/m3
 The specific weight is   36  9.81  354 N/m3
 The weight for a volume of 0.17 is 60 N
 The total weight is then Wt  400  60  460 N

Example 9-123 Oxygen Tank Origin: Quiz 1601

Compute the mass of oxygen that is released from a 10 m3 tank when a valve is opened and
the pressure drops from 800 kPa to 600 kPa. Assume that the temperature of 17oC in the tank
remains constant during the process. R  260 N.m/(Kg.K)

Solution

 The amount of oxygen is obtained from the density as given by the ideal gas law

P

RT

 For a pressure of 800 kPa and temperature of 290 K, the density is 10.61 kg/m3
 For a pressure of 600 kPa and temperature of 290 K, the density is 7.95 kg/m3
 For a volume of 10 m3, the corresponding masses are 106 kg and 79.5 kg, respectively.
 The amount of oxygen that is released is therefore 26.5 kg.

Alternate versions

 For a volume of 20 m3 , a temperature of 290 K and pressures of 500 kPa and 1000 kPa,
the masses are 132 kg and 265 kg, respectively. The mass released is 133 kg.

36
 Fluid Statics

9.2 Fluid Statics

9.2.1 Pressure Variation

Example 9-201 Diver in the Ocean Origin: Textbook

At what depth of seawater (S 1.03) a diver will record a gage pressure of 1.2 atm?

Solution

 The hydrostatic differential equation is dp dz   where z is positive upward.

 For a pressure of 1.2 atm., the depth is

p 1.2 101.3
z    12 m
 1.03  9.81

Example 9-202 Pressure in a Ski Resort Origin: Textbook

Calculate the atmospheric pressure at an elevation of 2000 m if the atmospheric pressure and
temperature at the sea surface is 101.3 kPa and 23oC, respectively.

Solution

 The hydrostatic differential equation is

dp
   g
dz

 The ideal gas law is

p

RT

 The temperature variation with elevation is given by

T  T0    z  z0 

 Here T0 is the temperature at the reference level z0, T0  23  273  296 K, R is the
specific gas constant equal to 287 J/Kg.K, and  is the lapse rate of 5.87 K/km.
 Combining the above equations, one obtains

dp pg

dz R T0    z  z0  

 Upon integration, one gets

g R 9.81*103 (5.87*287)
 T    z  z0    296  5.87  2  
p  p0  0   101.3    80 kPa
 T0   296 

37
Examples

Example 9-203 Pressure in the Mountain Origin: Quiz 1801

Compute the pressure and temperature at 1 km elevation if the atmospheric pressure and
temperature at the sea surface is 101 kPa and 10oC, respectively.

Solution

 The pressure in the atmosphere is given by

g R
p  p0 1    z  z0  T0 

 Here T0 is the temperature at the reference level z0, and  is the lapse rate of 5.87 K/km.
 R is the specific gas constant equal to 287 J/Kg.K and T0  10  273  283 K.
 Substituting the values, one obtains that the pressure at an elevation of 1000 m is 89.4
kPa.
 The corresponding temperature is obtained from T  T0    z  z0  to be .1 oC

Example 9-204 Pressure in a Flight Origin: Textbook

A pressure gage in an airplane indicates a pressure of 95 kPa at takeoff at an elevation of 1

km and a temperature of 10 oC. At what elevation of the plane, a pressure of 75 kPa is read?
What is the expected temperature?

Solution

 The pressure in the atmosphere is given by

g R
p  p0 1    z  z0  T0 

 Here T0  10 oC is the temperature at z0  1000 m, and  is the lapse rate of 5.87 K/km.
 Substituting R  287 J/Kg.K, p0  95 kPa, and T0  10  273  283 K, one obtains that the
pressure of 75 kPa is expected at an elevation of 2910 m.
 The corresponding temperature is obtained from T  T0    z  z0  to be 1.2 oC

38
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-205 Blood Pressures Origin: Quiz 1501

Determine the gage pressure of the blood in mm Hg if the IV fluid and the blood pressures
balance each other when the IV bottle is 1.2 m above the arm level. The density of the blood
is 1050 kg/m3, the density of the IV fluid is 1020 kg/m3, and the density of mercury is 13600
kg/m3.

Solution

 The gage pressure is given by p  h

 The blood pressure is then

p  gh  1020  9.81 1.2  12 kPa

 The equivalent value in mm Hg is

h  p   12 13.6 x 9.81  0.09 m Hg

 The blood pressure is then 90 mm Hg.

Example 9-206 Oil-Water Tank Origin: Textbook

Compute the gage pressure at the bottom of the oil and water tank. The specific gravity of oil
is 0.8.

Solution

 The hydrostatic equation states that

p1 p
 z1  2  z2
o o

p2 p
 z2  3  z3
w w

 The pressure at the interface is then p2   w   z2   9.81  0.9 

 The pressure at the bottom of the tank is

p3  p2   o  z2  z3    o z2   w  z2  z3   0.8  9.81 0.9   9.81  0.9  3  27.7 kPa

Example 9-207 Pressure in a Tank Origin: Exam 1901

Compute the gage pressure at the bottom of a cylindrical tank where water occupies the
bottom 80 cm and kerosene (S 0.8) occupies the top 40 cm.

Solution

 The gage pressure at the bottom of the tank is

pB   w zw   k zk  9.81 .8   .8  9.81 .4  10.98 kPa

39
Examples

Example 9-208 Multi-Fluid Tank Origin: Textbook

Determine the specific gravity of the oil and the pressure reading on gage C.

Solution

 The hydrostatic equation gives

p1 p
 z1  B  zB
o o

 Here p1  pA  50 kPa, pB  58.5 kPa, z1  zB  1 m

 Hence  o  8.5 kN/m3 and S  8500 9810  0.87
 The pressure reading on gage C is obtained from

pB   o zB  p2   o z2

p2   w z2  pC   w zC

 Combining the two equations, one gets

pB   o zB   o z2   w z2   w zC  pC

 Hence pC  72.56 kPa-gage

Example 9-209 Fluid X Origin: Quiz 1801

Compute the specific gravity of fluid X if the absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank is
240 kPa.

Solution

 The pressure at the bottom of the tank is

pB  pT   o zo   w zw   x zx   m zm

 Hence, the specific weight of fluid X is

pB  pT   o zo   w zw   m zm
x 
zx

 That is

240  101  0.87  9.81 1  9.81  2   13.6  9.81 0.5

x   14.7
3

 The specific gravity is then S  1.5

Alternate versions

 For pB  250 kPa,  x  18 , and S  1.84

 For pB  260 kPa,  x  21.4 , and S  2.18

40
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-210 Three Fluids Origin: Quiz 1801

Determine the elevations z in the tubes B and C if the pressure gage A reads 2 kPa. The
specific gravity of gasoline and glycerin are 0.7 and 1.25.

Solution

 The pressure at the bottom of the tank is

pb  2  1.5  0.7  9.81  1 1.25 9.81  24.6 kPa

 The equivalent height of glycerin in tube C is

pb
zc   2m
1.25 w

 Similarly, the height in tube B is obtained from

pb  1 1.25 9.81   zb  1 0.7  9.81  24.6 kPa

 Hence, the height is zb  2.8 m.

Example 9-211 Three Gages Origin: Quiz 1801

Determine the specific gravity of oil and the pressure reading on gage C in psi given that gage
B reads 1.25 psi less than gage C. 1 psi  6895 Pa; 1 ft  30.48 cm.

Solution

 The hydrostatic relationship between B and C gives

pB   o  zB  zI    w  zI  zC   pC

 Hence

1.25 144   2  62.4 

o   55
1

 The specific gravity is

55
S  0.88
62.4

 The hydrostatic relationship between A and C gives

pA   o  zJ  zI    w  zI  zC   pC

 Hence

pC  15 144   55  2   62.4  2   2395 psf or 16.6 psi

41
Examples

Example 9-212 Forces on Pistons Origin: Textbook

Determine the load F2 that the large piston can support if one exerts a force F1  200 N on
the smaller piston. Neglect the weights of the pistons.

Solution

 The pressures at the same elevation are equal.

 Therefore

p1  p2   o h

 In terms of forces

F1 F
 2  oh
A1 A2


Here h  2 m, F1  200 N, A1    0.02  , A2    0.05 , and  o  0.85  9810  N
2 2

 Hence F2  1119 N

Example 9-213 The Piston Origin: Quiz 1201

Compute the force F2 that can be supported by the hydraulic jack if the applied force F to the
handle of the jack is 100 N.

Solution

 The force acting on the 1.5 cm piston is

obtained from the moment equilibrium

M C  Fr  F1 r1  0

 The force F1  0.33 100  0.03  1100 N

 The corresponding pressure is

F1 1100
p1    6.225 x 106 Pa
A1   0.0075 2

 The pressures at the same elevation are equal.

 Therefore p2  p1
 In terms of the force F2 A2  p1
The area A2    0.025
2

 The corresponding force is then F2  p1 A2  12222 N

42
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-214 Deflection of the Manometer Origin: Textbook

Compute the deflection h of the manometer.

Solution

 The pressure at the bottom of the tank is

pb  0.15 w  0.2  3  w  7.35 kPa

 The equivalent height of water in the fitted manometer is

pb
h  0.2 
3 w

 Hence h  0.05 m

Example 9-215 Unknown Density Origin: Exam 1901

Determine the density of the unknown fluid.

Solution

 Expressing the pressure between the two water surfaces, one obtains

pl  0.9 w  0.6    w  0.3   w  0.6    x  0.3  pr

 Hence

 x 0.9  0.6   0.3

Sx    0.8
w 0.3

 The density of the unknown fluid is 800 Kg/m3.

43
Examples

Example 9-216 The Gasoline Pipeline Origin: Quiz 1101

Determine the pressure in the gasoline pipeline.

Solution

 Expressing the manometer equation between the gage

and the pipeline by adding the pressure term as one
goes down or subtracting the pressure term as one
goes up, one obtains

pg  0.45 a  0.45 w  0.5 o  0.1 m  0.22 G  PG


 Hence

PG  260  0.45 1  0.0012  9.81  0.5  0.79  9.81  0.1 13.6  9.81  0.22  0.7  9.81  245 kPa

Example 9-217 Manometer U Origin: Quiz 801

Compute the height h given that H  30 cm and L  25 cm. The specific gravity of SAE 30 oil
is S  0.9.

Solution

 Expressing the pressure at the level of the water-oil interface

in the right and left leg of the manometer, one obtains

pa   L  h   w  pa   h  H   o

 Solving for h, one gets

 o H   w L SH  L 0.9  0.3  0.25

h    0.2 m
w  o 1 S 1  0.9

44
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-218 Manometer X Origin: Quiz 801

Estimate the specific gravity of fluid X. The specific gravity of SAE 30 oil is S  0.9.

Solution

 Expressing the pressure at any horizontal level in Fluid X in the

right and left leg of the manometer, one obtains

pa  0.1 o  0.07 w  0.04  x  pa  0.09 o  0.05 w  0.06 x

 Solving for x, one gets

0.02 x  0.01 o  0.02 w  0.01  0.9   0.02  w

 Or

0.029
Sx   1.45
0.02

Example 9-219 Differential Manometer Origin: Quiz 901

Compute the pressure at A if the pressure at B is 210 kPa. The specific gravity s of liquid A,
B, and Hg are 0.85, 1.26, and 13.56, respectively.

Solution

 Expressing the gage equation between A and B, one

obtains

PA   A  za  zc    Hg  za  zb    B  zb  zd   PB

 Hence

PA  210  0.85  2.4   w  13.56  0.4   w  1.26  5  w

 That is PA  115 kPa

45
Examples

Example 9-220 Manometer Origin: Quiz 901S

Compute the pressure at the center of pipe A

Solution

 Expressing the gage equation between A and the free

surface, one obtains

PA  1.5 w  1.8 oil  0.6 Hg  0.9 w  0

 Hence

PA  1.5  1.8  0.8   0.6 13.6   0.9  w  9.12 w  89.5 kPa

Example 9-221 Inclined Manometer Origin: Quiz 1001

Compute the difference in pressure between points A and B.

The elevations z A and zB are 10 m and 11 m, respectively. The manometer deflection is
l2  50 cm and l1  1 m.

Solution

 Expressing the gage equation between A

and B, one obtains

PA  l1  o  l2  a  l2  o   l1  zB  z A   o  PB


 Hence

PA  PB  l2  a  l2  o   zB  zA   o   zB  z A  l2   o  0.5  0.85 9.81  4169 Pa

46
 Fluid Statics

9.2.2 Hydrostatic Force – Planar Surfaces

Example 9-222 Forces on a Square Panel Origin: Textbook

Determine the magnitude and location of the hydrostatic force on the square panel.
Use d  1 m and h  2 m.

Solution

 The horizontal hydrostatic force is given by

Fh  hc A

 The vertical distance to the centroid is hc  2 m

 The area is A  22  4 m2.
 Hence Fh  78.4 kN

 The location of the horizontal hydrostatic force (center of pressure) is from

Ic bh 3 24 1
y p  yc   hc   2  2   2.167 m
yc A 12hc A 12  2  22
6

Example 9-223 Simple Gate Origin: Quiz 1601

Compute the force F to keep the 1 m wide gate closed. Here, h  1 m and L  0.3 m

Solution

 The hydrostatic force is Fl  hc A    0.5 1  4905 N

 The center of pressure is at 2/3 the distance from the
water surface since the gate extends from the free
surface. Hence y p  2 3
 The force F is obtained from the moment equilibrium
equation when applied at the hinge, i.e.

 M  4905  2 3  F 1  0
 Hence F  3270 N.

47
Examples

Example 9-224 Forces on a Submerged Gate Origin: Textbook

Find the force of the gate on the block

Solution

 The horizontal hydrostatic force is given by Fh  hc A

 The vertical distance to the centroid is hc  10 m
 The area is A 16 m2.
 Hence Fh  1570 kN

 The location of the hydrostatic force is

Ic 44 4
y p  yc   10   10   10.1333 m
yc A 12 10  4 2
30


 The sum of moments about the pivot

 M  F  2  F  y
b h p  yc   0

 Hence Fb  1570 10.1333  10  2  105 kN is the reaction to the force on the block.
 The force on the block is equal and opposite acting to the right.

Example 9-225 Forces on a Square Gate Origin: Quiz 801

Determine the value of h above which the square gate opens automatically. Set l  1 m.

Solution

 The gate will open when the center of pressure, i.e. the
resultant force, is just above the pivot.
 The center of pressure is given by

Ic
y p  yc 
yc A

 The distance to the centroid of the area is yc  h  0.5l

 The area is l2.
 The moment of inertia of the area about its centroidal axis I c  l 4 12
 The value of h is therefore the solution of

l4
h  0.6l  h  0.5l 
12  h  0.5l  l 2

 Hence

l  10 1  l
h  0.5l     l 
12  0.1  12 2  3

48
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-226 Partition Gate Origin: Exam 1902

A 2-m wide 4-m high gate separates water and gasoline (S 0.7). Determine the depth h at
which the gate will start to open.

Solution

 The gate opens when the moment about the hinge is just greater than zero.
 The moment is

M  Fy l l  Fr yr  0

 The freshwater hydrostatic force is Fl   w hc A  9.81  h 2  2h  9.81h 2

 The location of the force is at 2h 3 from the water surface.
 The gasoline hydrostatic force is Fl   sw hc A  700  9.81 2  8  110 kN
 The location of that force is at 8 3 from the water surface.
 The moment equation about the hinge is

 M  9.81h  h 3  110  4 3  0
2

 Solving for h, one gets h  9.85 m. This is the limiting value.

49
Examples

Example 9-227 Opening B Origin: Quiz 1802

Determine the minimum depth h to open the 60 cm high gate. The gate is 60 cm wide and
hinged at the top.

Solution

 The horizontal hydrostatic force is given by

Fh  hc A

 The area is A  dw m2.

 The distance to the centroid is hc  h  d 2
 The location of the horizontal hydrostatic
force (center of pressure) is from

Ic bd 3 bd 3
y p  yc   hc   hd 2 m
yc A 12hc A 12  h  d 2  dw

 The air pressure causes a force of F  10dw kN

 The location of this force is 0.3 m below the hinge
 The sum of moments about the hinge

M  F a d 2  Fh  d  h  y p   0

 That is

 bd 3 
 M  10 dw d 2  dw  h  d 2   d 2    0
12  h  d 2  dw 


 For d  w  0.6 m

 0.6  0.6  
3

 M  3  0.3  0.36  9.81  h  0.3  0.36  0.3  0

12  h  0.3 0.36 


 Solving for h by iteration, one gets h  1.22 m

Alternate versions

 For d  w  0.75 m, one gets h  1.27 m

 For d  w  0.9 m, one gets h  1.32 m

50
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-228 Tidal Gate Origin: Quiz 901

Gate AB is 5 ft wide and opens to let fresh water out when the ocean tide is falling. The hinge
at A is 2 ft above the freshwater level. Find h at which the gate first opens.

Solution

 The gate opens when the moment about the hinge A is just greater than zero.
 The moment is

M  Fy l l  Fr yr  0

 The freshwater hydrostatic force is Fl   w hc A  62.4  5 50  15600 lbf

 The location of the force is at

5 10 
3
I
y p  yc  c  5   6.66 ft
yc A 12  50  5

 The seawater hydrostatic force is Fl   sw hc A  62.4 1.025 h 2  5h  160 h 2 lbf

 The location of that force is at 2h 3 .
 The moment equation is

 M  15600  2  6.66   160h 12  h 3  0

2

 Solving for h, one gets h  9.85 ft.

51
Examples

Example 9-229 Slanted Gate Origin: Quiz 1701

Compute the reaction at A. The dimensions of the rectangular gate is 6 m by 4 m.

Solution

 The hydrostatic force is

Fl  hc A    3  3cos30  24  1318 kN

 The slanted distance to the centroid is

3
yc  3   6.464
cos30

 The center of pressure is

4 6
3
I
y p  yc   6.464   6.92
yc A 12  6.464  24

 The reaction at A is obtained from the moment equilibrium equation when applied at the
stop, i.e.

 M  1318 3.46  6  6.92  R  6   0

 Hence R  557 kN acting normal to the gate.

52
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-230 Gate AB Origin: Quiz 1802

Compute the force P required to keep the gate in equilibrium. The gate is 2 m wide and
weighs 2 kN, L 2 m and  o

Solution

 The hydrostatic force is

L
sin   9.81  2  sin 60  34 kN
2
Fh  hc A   2 L
2

 The slant distance to the centroid is

yc  l 2  1 m

 The point of application of Fh is at

2  2
3
bl 3
y p  yc   1  1.333 m
12yc A 12 1 4

 The sum of moments about the hinge is

M  F r h h  Wrw  PL

 Hence

Fh rh  Wrw 34  2  1.333  2cos 60

P   11.84 kN
L 2

Alternate versions

 For  45o, Fh  27.75 kN, yp  1.33 m, P  9.96 kN

53
Examples

Example 9-231 Gate ABC Origin: Quiz 1802

Determine the minimum depth h to open the 2 m wide gate. The gate is hinged at B.

Solution

 The horizontal hydrostatic force is

given by Fh  hc A
 The area is A  2  h  1 m2.
 The distance to the centroid is
hc  ( h  1) 2
 The horizontal hydrostatic force is then
Fh    h  1
2

 The location of the horizontal

hydrostatic force is hc  ( h  1) 3 from
the hinge.
 The vertical force Fv    h  1 0.2  2  is acting at the midpoint, 0.1 m away from the
hinge.
 The sum of moments about the hinge B

 M    h  1 2 6    h  1 0.2  2  0.1  0
3

 Solving for h, one obtains h  1.346 m

54
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-232 Circular Gate ABC Origin: Quiz 1802

Compute the minimum force P required to keep the gate from opening when h  6 m. The
gate is circular and hinged at B.

Solution

 The horizontal hydrostatic force is given by

Fh  hc A

 The vertical distance to the centroid is hc  6 m

The area is A   1   m2.
2

 Hence Fh  185 kN

 The location of the horizontal hydrostatic force (center of pressure)
is from

 1
4
Ic r 4
y p  yc   hc  6  6.0417 m
yc A 4 hc A 4 6 

 The sum of moments about the pivot

 M  P 1  F  y
h p  yc   0

 Hence

P  185  0.0417   7.715 kN

Alternate versions

 For h  5 m, Fh  154.1 kN, yp  5.05 m, P  7.705 kN

 For h  7 m, Fh  215.7 kN, yp  7.04 m, P  7.702 kN
 For h  8 m, Fh  246.5 kN, yp  8.03 m, P  7.715 kN

55
Examples

Example 9-233 Force on a Window Origin: Quiz 901S

Determine the magnitude and line of action of the hydrostatic force acting on the round
window of diameter 0.5 m situated in a large tank of seawater ( S  1.03 ). The top of the
window is 1.5 m below the water surface.

Solution

 The horizontal hydrostatic force is Fh  hc A

 The vertical distance to the centroid is

D 0.5 3
hc  h  sin 60o  1.5   1.717 m
2 2 2

 The area is A  (0.25)2 m2.

 Hence

Fh  1.03  9.81 1.717  0.25  3.4 kN

2

 The slant distance to the centroid is

h D 1.5 0.5
yc  o
    1.982 m
sin 60 2 3 2 2

 The location of the horizontal force (center of pressure) is from

  0.25
4
I r 4
y p  yc  c  y c   1.982   1.99 m
4yc r 4 1.982    0.25
2 2
yc A

Example 9-234 The Force P Origin: Quiz 1001

Compute the minimum force P required to open the 2 m-wide gate.

Solution

 The area of the gate is A  2 42  32  10 m2.

 The hydrostatic force is Fl   w hc A  9.81  3 10  294.3 kN
 The location of the force is at

2  5
3
I 5
y p  yc  c  2.5    4.3 m
yc A 4 12  2.5  5 4  2  5

 The moment equation about the hinge yields

 M  294.3  4.3  1.25  3P  0

 Hence P  300 kN

56
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-235 Will the Gate Fall? Origin: Textbook

Will the 1-m wide gate fall or stay in position if it weighs 80 kN?
Here y1  1, y2  2, and   45o.

Solution

 The sum of moments about the hinge is

M  F r h h  Wrw

 The hydrostatic force is

 y   y2 
Fh  hc A    y1  2  1    55.525 kN
 2   sin 45o 

 The slant height of the gate is l  y2 sin 45o  2 2  8 m

 The slant distance to the centroid is

1  y2  2 4
yc   y1    1  1  2 2 m
sin 45o  2 2 2

 The point of application of Fh is at

 
3
bl 3 1 8
y p  yc   8  3.06 m
12yc A 12 8   8

 The moment arm is therefore rh   y1  y2  sin 45o  y p  6 2  3.06  1.18 m

 The moment arm of the weight force is rw  0.5 y2 tan 45o  1 m
 The sum of moments is

M  F r h h  Wrw  55.525 1.18   80 1  14.5  0

 The gate will therefore fall since the torque due to weight exceeds the torque due to the
hydrostatic force.

57
Examples

Example 9-236 Submerged Rectangular Gate Origin: Quiz 1201

Compute the reaction at A for the rectangular gate of width w. Use l 2 m and w 4 m.
Neglect the weight of the gate.

Solution

 The hydrostatic force on the planar surface is

 
FH  hc A   l 4  l 2 4 lw  wl 2 1  2 1 4  9.66   
 The horizontal hydrostatic force is

 
Fh  hc A  wl 1 4  2 4 l 2 2  wl 2 1  2   2 8  6.82

 The vertical hydrostatic force is equivalent to

Fv  V  w  l 2 2  
2 2  l 2 2  l 4    wl 2  
2
2 1 2 8  6.82
 

 One notices that FH  Fh2  Fv2 as expected.


 The vertical location of the hydrostatic force is

bh 3 wl 3
y p  yc  
l4 l
  
l
 2 21   l
 1.9 m
12yc A 
2 2 2 12l 1 2 2  1 2 lw 2  6  2 21 
 The moment about the hinge gives  M  FH rH  R A rA  0
 The reaction at A is RA  FH rH rA
 The moment arm rA  l 2 2  0.707 m
 The moment arm rH  y p  l 2 2  y p  yc  l 2  1.2 m
 The reaction at A is then

 
1 2  l l 1
RA  wl 2    0.510wl 2  8.16  80 kN
4 6
  2 2  1 2 l 2 2
 

58
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-237 Tension in the Cable Origin: Quiz 901S

A cable is holding a 1.2 m wide rectangular gate that weighs 3.6 kN as shown below.
Compute the tension in the cable.

Solution

 The hydrostatic force is

FH  hc A    0.9sin 60o  1.8 1.2   16.5 kN

 The point of application is

bh 3 1.2 x 1.83
y p  yc   0.9   1.2 m
12yc A 12  0.9  1.8 1.2 

 The moment about the hinge gives

M  F r  WrW  TrT  0
H H

 The moment arms are

rH  1.8  1.2  0.6 rW  1.2cos 60o rT  2.4 sin 60o

 The tension in the cable is

16.5  0.6   3.6 1.2  1 2

T   5.8 kN
2.4 3 2

59
Examples

Example 9-238 The L-Gate Origin: Quiz 1101

The 5-ft wide L-shaped gate is hinged at A and controls the flow of water from the reservoir.
Determine the weight W to keep the gate closed when the water level rises to 12 ft.

Solution

 The hydrostatic force is

FH   w hc A  62.4  6  12  5  22464 lbf

 The point of application is at two-third distance from

the free surface, i.e. at 8 ft. One can also use

bh 3 5 x 123 12
y p  yc  6 6  8 ft
12yc A 12  6  5 12  6

 The moment about the hinge A gives

M  F r  WrW  0
H H

 The moment arms are

rH  8  3  11 rW  8 ft

 The required weight is

11
W  22464  30888 lbf
8

60
 Fluid Statics

9.2.3 Hydrostatic Force – Curved Surfaces

Example 9-239 Force on a Quarter Cylinder Origin: Textbook

Determine the magnitude, direction, and line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force
acting on the curved surface. Here l  1 m.

Solution

 The horizontal hydrostatic force is

Fh  hc A  9.81 1.5 12  14.715 kN

 The vertical hydrostatic force is equivalent to

 
Fv  V  9.81  12 1  12 1   17.515 kN
4 

 The vertical location of the horizontal force is

bh 3 1x 13
y p  yc   1.5   1.555 m
12yc A 12 1.5 12

 The horizontal location of the vertical force is obtained from x p Fv  x1 F1  x2 F2 where x

is the horizontal distance from the vertical line passing through B, F1 and F2 correspond
to the area of the quarter circle and the overlying square, respectively, while Fv
corresponds to the total area. Hence

x1 F1  x2 F2   4 1 2 1 2 
xp    1   1 1  1 1   0.5332 m
Fv 17.515  3  4 2 

 The resultant force is

FR  Fh2  Fv2  14.7152  17.5152  22.876 kN

 The line of action is at an angle of

F 
  arctan  v   50o
 Fh 

61
Examples

Example 9-240 The Cylindrical Dam Origin: Quiz 1101

Determine the magnitude and line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force that acts on the
dam per meter of length.

Solution

 The horizontal hydrostatic force is given by

Fh   w hc Ap  9.81 1.5 3  44.145 kN

 The vertical hydrostatic force is equal in magnitude to

F  V where V is the volume of water above the
cylindrical dam

  
Fv  V  9.81 32  32  1  18.95 kN
 4 

 The line of action of the horizontal force is

bh 3 1x 33
y p  yc   1.5  2 m
12yc A 12 1.5 3 1

 The line of action of the vertical force is obtained from the application of the moment
principle that states xt Ft  x1 F1  x2 F2 . Here x is the horizontal distance from the vertical
line passing through the center, Ft corresponds to the total square area, while F1 and F2
correspond to the area of the quarter circle and the overlying area, respectively.
 Hence

r 2 4r 2 r r r 1
r  r 
xt Ft  x1 F1 2 34 2
x2    2 3  6  2   2.33 m
F2   2    4
1   r 1  1  1 
 4 4 4 4

 The resultant force is

FR  Fh2  Fv2  44.1452  18.952  48 kN

 The line of action is at an angle of

 18.95 
  arctan    23.23
o

 44.145 

 The line of action of the resultant force that is acting at (1, 2.33) passes through the center
of the circular dam as expected.

62
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-241 Submerged Cylindrical Gate Origin: Quiz 1201

Compute the reaction at A for the cylindrical gate of width w. Use l 2 m and w 4 m.
Neglect the weight of the gate.

Solution

 The horizontal hydrostatic force is the same as for the

planar surface.


Fh  hc A   l 4  l 2 4 wl 2 2  6.82
 The vertical hydrostatic force is equivalent to


Fv  V  w  l 2 2  2 2  l 4    4.55
2
1   4   l
 

 The vertical location of the horizontal hydrostatic force is

 
3
bh 3 wl 3 2 2
y p  yc 
l l 2
  
l
 1 2 
l
 1.35 m  
12yc A 4 4 
12l 1 4  2 4 wl 2 2 4 
6 1 2  
 The horizontal location of the vertical hydrostatic force is obtained from the application of
the moment principle that states xt Ft  x1 F1  x2 F2 . Here x is the horizontal distance
from the vertical line passing through B, Ft corresponds to the total rectangle area, while
F1 and F2 correspond to the area of the quarter circle and the outer area, respectively,

r 4 r r 2
r  r  l 4 
xt Ft  x1 F1 2 3  4  2  1 2  2 2 3  0.855 m
x2  
F2 r 2  r 2 4  r l 4 2 2 2 2

 The moment about the hinge gives  M  Fh rh  Fv rv  RA rA  0

 The moment arm rA  l 2 2  0.707 m
 
The moment arm rh  y p  yc  l 2 4  l 6  6 2  l 2 4  0.85 m 
 The moment arm rv  x2
 The reaction at A is then

Fh rh  Fv rv 6.82  0.85  4.55  0.855

RA    6.85  67 kN
rA 0.707

 The reaction at A is smaller for the curved surface than for the planar surface as there is
less volume of water above the curved gate.

63
Examples

Example 9-242 Forces on a Hemisphere Origin: Quiz 801

Calculate the horizontal and vertical hydrostatic force components needed to hold the
hemispherical dome in place given that y1  1 m and y2  2 m. Determine also the line of
action of the horizontal and vertical force components.

Solution

 The horizontal force is given by Fh  hc Ap

 The vertical distance to the centroid is hc  2 m
The projected area is Ap   1
2

 Hence Fh  61.64 kN

 The vertical force is equivalent to the volume of water
above the surface of the top and bottom dome.
 Since the pressure on both surfaces are in opposite
direction, the net force is the volume of water in the
hemisphere Fv  V   2  4r 3 3  20.6 kN

 The location of the horizontal force (center of pressure) is from

 1
4
Ic
y p  yc   2  2.125 m
4  2   1
2
yc A

 The vertical force is applied at a distance of x p  3r 8  0.375 from the wall.

Example 9-243 Cylindrical Bulge Origin: Quiz 1701

Determine the magnitude, direction, and line of action of the resultant force acting on the 2-m
long semi-circular bulge. Assume the color of water to be turquoise.

Solution

 The horizontal force is given by Fh  hc Ap

 The vertical distance to the centroid is hc  2.7 m. The projected area
is Ap  1.8  2  . Hence Fh  95.35 kN
 The vertical force is equivalent to the volume of water above the
surface of the top and bottom part of the semi-circular section.
 Since the pressure on both surfaces are in opposite direction, the net
force is the volume of water in the bulge

Fv  V   lr 2 2  9.81  0.9  2 2  24.96 kN

2

 The location of the horizontal force (center of pressure) is

2 1.8 
3
I
y p  yc  c  2.7   2.8 m
yc A 12  2.7  1.8  2 

 The vertical force is applied at a distance of x p  4 r 3  0.38 from the center.

 The resultant force is 98.6 kN acting at an angle of 14.74o with the horizontal.

64
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-244 Spherical Cavity Origin: Quiz 1802

Determine the magnitude, direction, and line of action of the resultant force acting on the
spherical cavity. Use d  m and h 4 m.

Solution

 The horizontal force is given by Fh  hc Ap

 The vertical distance to the centroid is hc  3.2 m. The
projected area is Ap    0.8  . Hence Fh  63.12 kN
2

 The vertical force is equivalent to the volume of water

above the top hemisphere and bottom hemisphere
 Since the pressure on both surfaces are in opposite
direction, the net force is the volume of water in the bulge

Fv  V   2 d 3 6  10.52 kN upward

 The location of the horizontal force (center of pressure) is

  0.8 
4
Ic
y p  yc   3.2   3.25 m
4  3.2    0.8 
2
yc A

 The vertical force is applied at a distance of x p  3r 8  0.3 from the center.

 The resultant force is 64 kN acting at an angle of 9.44o with the horizontal.

Alternate versions

 For d  1.4, Fh  46.81 kN, Fv  7.05 kN, yp  3.14 m, xp  0.263 m, Fr  47.33 kN,
  8.57o
 For d  1.2, Fh  33.28 kN, Fv  4.44 kN, yp  3.03 m, xp  0.225 m, Fr  33.6 kN ,
  7.59o

65
Examples

Example 9-245 Spherical Bulge Origin: Quiz 1802

Determine the magnitude, direction, and line of action of the resultant force acting on the
spherical bulge. Use d 1.6 m and h 4 m.

Solution

 The horizontal force is given by Fh  hc Ap

 The vertical distance to the centroid is hc  3.2 m. The
projected area is Ap    0.8  . Hence Fh  63.12 kN
2

 The vertical force is equivalent to the volume of water

above the top hemisphere and bottom hemisphere
 Since the pressure on both surfaces are in opposite
direction, the net force is the volume of water in the
bulge

Fv  V   2 d 3 6  10.52 kN downward

 The location of the horizontal force (center of pressure) is

  0.8 
4
Ic
y p  yc   3.2   3.25 m
4  3.2    0.8 
2
yc A

 The vertical force is applied at a distance of x p  3r 8  0.3 from the center.

 The resultant force is 64 kN acting at an angle of  9.44o with the horizontal.

Alternate versions

 For d  1.4, Fh  46.81 kN, Fv  7.05 kN, yp  3.14 m, xp  0.263 m, Fr  47.33 kN,
  8.57o
 For d  1.2, Fh  33.28 kN, Fv  4.44 kN, yp  3.03 m, xp  0.225 m, Fr  33.6 kN ,
  7.59o

Example 9-246 Gate BC Origin: Quiz 1802

Find the force P to hold the quarter circle gate stationary. The gate is 4 m wide and hinged at
C.

Solution

 The horizontal force is given by

Fh  hc Ap   1 2  4   78.48 kN
 The location of the horizontal force is at
y p  2 R 3  1.33 m

 The vertical force is equivalent to the
volume of water above the quarter circle Fv  V  4  22 4  123 kN
 The vertical force is applied at a distance of x p  4 R 3  0.849
 The sum of moments about the hinge C

 M  78.48  2  1.333  123  0.849  2 P  0

 Solving for P, one obtains P  78.3 kN

66
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-247 Unknown Body A Origin: Quiz 1802

Determine the specific gravity of body A if it is in equilibrium when R  1 and h  1. The

gate is hinged at O and has a unit width.

Solution

 The horizontal force is given by Fh  hc Ap   bR 2 2

 The location of the horizontal force is at y p  2 R 3

 The vertical force is equivalent to the volume of water
above the quarter circle Fv  V   bR 2 4
 The vertical force is applied at a distance of x p  4 R 3
from the center.
 The weight of the unknown body A is

 R 2 
Sb   hR 
 4 

 The sum of moments about the hinge O

bR 2 R bR 2 4 R bR 2 4 R R
M   2 3

4 3
 S
4 3
 SbhR  0
2

 Solving for S, one obtains

R3 R3

S  63 3  3
R hR 2 2  3h

3 2 R

 For h  R  1 , S  3 5 (Fh  4.905 kN, Fv  7.705 kN, yp  2/3 m, xp  0.424 m, W  17.5

S kN)

Alternate versions

 For R  1 and h  1 2 , S  6 7 (W  12.61 S kN)

 For R  1 and h  1 4 , S  12 11 (W  10.16 S kN)

67
Examples

Example 9-248 Radial Gate Origin: Quiz 901S

Determine the magnitude and line of action of the hydrostatic force acting on the radial gate
that is 12 m long (normal to the page).

Solution

 The horizontal hydrostatic force is

Fh  hc A  9.8 7.5 15 12   13230 kN

 The vertical hydrostatic force is equal in magnitude to

F  V where V is the volume of the area delineated by
the arc and the chord

 60 
 15  15cos30o 7.5  12  2399.4 kN
2
Fv  V  9.8 
 360 

 The vertical location of the horizontal force is

bh 3 12 x 153
y p  yc   7.5   10 m
12yc A 12 7.5 15 12 

 Since all elementary forces pass through the center of curvature of the gate, so does the
resultant force. That is the line of action.

Example 9-249 Tunnel under Water Origin: Quiz 901

A semicircular 40-ft-diameter tunnel is to be built under a 150-ft-deep, 800-ft-long Lake.

Determine the magnitude and line of action of the hydrostatic force acting on the tunnel.

Solution

 The vertical force is the volume of water above the tunnel. That is

Fv    Vr  Vt    150  40   0.5  20   800  4.3 x 106   268.15 x 106 lbf.

2
 

 The horizontal force acting on each side of the tunnel is Fh  hc Ap  140  20  800 lbf.
 The resultant force on the whole tunnel is equal to the vertical force since the horizontal
force cancels.
 The line of action of the total force is therefore vertically downward.

68
 Fluid Statics

Example 9-250 Cylindrical Weir Origin: Quiz 1301

A cylindrical hydraulic structure has a diameter of 3 m and a length of 6 m. Determine the

magnitude, direction, and location of the resultant force acting on the structure. Assume the
color of water to be turquoise.

Solution

 The left horizontal hydrostatic force is given by

Fh   w hc Ap  9.81 1.5 3  6   264.87 kN

 The right horizontal hydrostatic force is given by

Fh   w hc Ap  9.81  0.75 1.5  6   66.22 kN

 The total horizontal force is 198.65 kN rightward

 The line of action of the total horizontal force is

264.87 1  66.22  0.5

yp   1.1667 m from the bottom
198.65

 The vertical hydrostatic force is equal in magnitude to F  V where V is the volume of

water above each circular segment


1.5 6  208 kN upward
2
Fl  V  9.81
2


1.5 6  104 kN upward
2
Fr  V  9.81
4

 The total vertical force is Fvt  312 kN upward

 The line of action of the vertical force is obtained from the application of the moment
principle that states xt Ft   xi Fi . Here xi is the horizontal distance from the vertical
line passing through the center to the point of application of each force component Fi .
 The centroid of the two components of the vertical force are

4r 2 4r 2
xr   xl   
3  3 

 The line of action of the total vertical force is then

xl Fl  xr Fr 2 104
xp    0.21 m
Fvt  312

 The resultant force is FR  Fht2  Fvt2  370 kN located at the point ( x p , y p )

 The line of action of the resultant force is at an angle of   arctan  312 198.65  1 or
57.5o with the horizontal.

69
Examples

Example 9-251 Circular Gate Origin: Quiz 1001

A 4-m-long quarter-circular gate of radius 3 m is hinged at A and controls the flow of water
over the ledge at B. Compute the minimum force at B to keep the gate closed when the water
level rises to A. Neglect the weight of the gate.

Solution

 The horizontal force is Fh  hc A   1.5 4  3  176.6 kN

 The vertical force is the volume of water above the gate
 Hence Fv  V  4[3(3)  (3)2 4]  75.8 kN

 The vertical point of application is

4  3
3
I
y p  yc  c  1.5  2 m
yc A 12 1.5 4  3

 The horizontal point of application is obtained from x p Fv  x1 F1  x2 F2 .

 Here F1 and F2 correspond to the area of the inner and outer circle, respectively, and Ft
corresponds to the total square area.
 Hence, the point of application of the force above the gate is

 4 3   3 
2
1 1
x2   p t 1 1
x F  x F    
1.5 3 3    2.33 m
3  3   3  4  3  4 
2
F2

 The moment equation about the hinge A yields

 M  2F h  2.33 Fv  3 P  0

 Hence P  177 kN.

70
 Fluid Statics

9.2.4 Buoyancy

Example 9-252 Pure Gold Origin: Textbook

A gold piece of jewelry has a mass of 102 g. in air and an apparent mass of 96 g. when
submerged in water. Is the piece made of pure gold (24-carat)? The specific gravity of 24-
carat gold is 19.3 and the specific gravity of 22-carat gold is 17.8.

Solution

 The weight of the gold piece in air must be equal to the apparent weight in water plus the
buoyant force

W  Wa  Fb

 The buoyant force is Fb   w V , and the weight is by definition W  mg

 The volume of the gold piece is the displaced volume

 0.102  0.096  9.81

V   6 x 106 m3
9810

 The density is then

0.102
  17000 kg/m3
6 x 106

 The specific gravity is

 17000
S   17
w 1000

 The piece of jewelry is made of impure gold with less than 22-carat.

Example 9-253 Rock in Water Origin: Quiz 1501

An object weighs 65 N in air and 42 N in water. Determine its specific gravity.

Solution

 The weight of the rock in air must be equal to the apparent weight in water plus the
buoyant force

Wa  W  Fb  W  V

 The volume of the rock is the displaced volume

65  42
V   2.34 x 103 m3
9810

 The density is then   65 (9.81x 2.34 x 103 )  2831.6 kg/m3

 The specific gravity is therefore S   w  2.83

71
Examples

Example 9-254 Gold Chain Origin: Quiz 1301

A gold chain has a mass of 20 g. in air and an apparent mass of 18.8 g. when submerged in
water. Is the piece made of pure gold (24-carat)? The specific gravity of 24-carat pure gold is
19.32 and the specific gravity of 22-carat gold is 17.7.

Solution

 The weight of the gold piece in air must be equal to the apparent weight in water plus the
buoyant force

W  Wa  Fb  Wa  V

 The volume of the gold piece is the displaced volume

 0.02  0.0188  9.81

V   1.2 x 106 m3
9810

 The density is then   0.02 1.2 x 106  16667 kg/m3

 The specific gravity is therefore S   w  16.67
 The piece of jewelry is made of impure gold (20-carat) since S  19.32 ,

Example 9-255 Aluminum Ball Origin: Quiz 1101

Determine the maximum diameter of an aluminum ball that can float on the water. The
specific gravity of aluminum is S  2.7

Solution

 For the aluminum ball to remain suspended on the water surface, the weight must be in
equilibrium with the force of surface tension that is acting at the air-water interface along
the circumference of the ball as well as the buoyancy, i.e. FT  FB  W or

l   wVd  mg

 The maximum diameter occurs when the ball is half-submerged in water

D3 D3
D   w  a
12 6

 The maximum diameter is then

6 6  0.0728 
D   0.0045 m
 a  0.5 w  2.7  0.5 9.81 1000

 The maximum diameter is 4.5 mm.

72
 Fluid Flow

9.3 Fluid Flow

9.3.1 Velocity and Flow Rate

Example 9-301 The Garden Hose Origin: Quiz 1001

A nozzle is attached to a garden hose that is used to fill a 40-liters bucket in 50 s. The
diameter of the hose is 2 cm and the diameter of the nozzle exit is 8 mm. Compute the flow
rate and the average velocity in the hose and in the nozzle.

Solution

 The flow rate is Q  V t  40x103 50  0.8x103 m3/s or 0.8 l/s.

The average velocity in the hose is V  Q A  0.8x103   0.01  2.54 m/s
2

The average velocity in the nozzle is V  Q A  0.8x10   0.004   15.9 m/s
3 2


Example 9-302 Mean Velocity and Flow Rate Origin: Quiz 801

Calculate the mean velocity and the discharge in the canal given that the rectangular channel
is 1.5 m wide.

Solution

 The flow rate is by definition

Q   udA

 Substituting the velocity profile

d d
B 43 3
Q   y Bdy 
13
y  Bd 4 3
0 43 0
4

 The depth in the y direction is d  1 cos30o  0.866

The flow rate is Q  0.75 1.5 0.866   0.93 m3/s
43

 The mean flow is

Q 0.93
V    0.72 m/s
A 1.5  0.866 

73
Examples

Example 9-303 Flow in a Channel Origin: Quiz 1202

The velocity distribution in a horizontal rectangular channel is given by u  umax  y d  ,

n

where u is the velocity at a distance y meters above the floor of the channel. Calculate the
discharge and the mean velocity for a 2.4 m wide channel given that the depth d of flow is
1.2 m, umax  3 m/s, and n  1 6 .

Solution

 The flow rate is by definition

Q   udA

 Substituting the velocity profile and integrating

d d
Bumax 7 6 6
Q   umax  y d 
16
Bdy  16
y  Bumax d
0 7 6d 0
7

 The flow rate is then Q  6 7  2.4  3 1.2   7.4 m3/s

 The mean velocity is

Q 7.4
V    2.57 m/s
A 1.2  2.4 

Alternate versions

 For n  1/7, B  2.0 m, Q  6.3 m3/s, V  2.625 m/s

 For n  1/8, B  2.2 m, Q  7.0 m3/s, V  2.667 m/s

74
 Fluid Flow

Example 9-304 Open-Channel Flow Origin: Quiz 1700

Determine the flow discharge Q and the velocity V in the 1 m wide channel.

Solution

Type: Fluid Flow or Continuity Equation

Equations:
dV
Qin  Qout 
dt

Q   udA

Q  VA

Unknowns: Discharge Q, Velocity V

Derivation:
 The flow rate is obtained by integrating the velocity profile
d
d
 4 y 2 2y 3  2 d 3
Q    4 y  2y  bdy  b 
2
   2bd  1   m /s
0  2 3 0  3

 The velocity V is obtained from

Q 2 2 d
V   d  1   m/s
A 0.2  3

Answers:
 The flow rate is 0.162 m3/s
 The velocity is 0.81 m/s

Alternate versions

 For b = 2 m, Q = 0.32 m3/s, V = 0.81 m/s

 For b = 3 m, Q = 0.48 m3/s, V = 0.81 m/s

75
Examples

9.3.2 Acceleration

Example 9-305 The Nozzle Origin: Quiz 901S

Compute the acceleration at the station halfway through the nozzle given that the velocity in
the nozzle varies as

u0
u
1  0.5 x L

where u0 is the entrance velocity equal to 10 m/s and L  0.5 m is the nozzle length.

Solution

 Since the velocity is time-independent,

the local acceleration is zero.
 The acceleration is therefore given by the
convective term

du
ac  u
dx

 The derivative du dx is

du u0  0.5 
  
1  0.5 x L 
2
dx  L 

 Halfway through the nozzle, x  L 2

 The acceleration is therefore

du u0 u0 100
ac  u    237 m/s2
dx 1  0.25 1  0.25 2
0.753

76
 Fluid Flow

Example 9-306 Streams to Pipe Origin: Quiz 901

Two streams discharge into a pipe. The flow rate of stream A and B are QA  0.01t m3/s and
QB  0.005t 2 m3/s, where t is in seconds. Compute the velocity and acceleration of the flow
at the exit at t  2 s.

Solution

 The flow rate at the exit is Q  QA  QB  0.01t  0.005t 2

 The velocity is V  Q A  t  0.5t 2
 The acceleration is a  1  t
 At t  2 s, Q  0.04 m3/s, V  4 m/s and a  3 m/s2.

77
Examples

9.3.3 Continuity Equation

Example 9-307 The River and the Lake Origin: Textbook

A river discharges into a lake at a rate of 11300 m3/s. The outflow from the lake is 7080
m3/s. The lake area is 100 km2. At what rate is the water level rising or declining?

Solution

 The continuity equation states that

dV
Qin  Qout 
dt

 The storage or volume can be expressed as V  Ah .

 For a small change in height h, the area can be considered to be constant.
 Hence

dh
Qin  Qout  A
dt

 Therefore

dh 11300  7080
  42.2 x 106 m/s
dt 100 x 106

 The water level is rising at a rate of 3.65 m/day.

Example 9-308 Dry up of the Lake Origin: Quiz 1202

A lake with no outlet is fed by a river with a constant flow of 34 m3/s. Water evaporates
from the surface at a constant rate of 0.36 m3/s per square kilometer of surface area. The
area A in square kilometers varies with depth h in meters as A  4.5  5.5h . Compute the
equilibrium depth of the lake and the minimum discharge to prevent the lake from drying up.

Solution

 The continuity equation states that

dV
Qin  Qout 
dt

 Equilibrium is reached when dV dt  0 . Hence, Qin  Qout  0.36 A

 Substituting the expressions for the inflow and outflow

34  0.36  4.5  5.5h 

 Solving for h, one obtains h  16.4 m.

 The lake dries up when h  0 .
 The minimum inflow is then Qin  0.36  4.5  1.62 m3/s.

78
 Fluid Flow

Example 9-309 Pipes with Two Branches Origin: Textbook

A 30 cm pipe divides into a 20 cm branch and a 15 cm branch. The flow in the 20 cm branch
is twice the flow in the 15 cm branch. Compute the mean velocity in each branch if the total
discharge is 0.4 m3/s.

Solution

 The continuity equation states that

Q in   Qout  0

 There is one inflow pipe and two outflow pipes. Hence

Qt  Q15  Q20

 Using Q20  2Q15 , one gets

3Q15  0.4

 Hence Q15  0.133 m3/s and Q20  0.266 m3/s. The mean flows are

Q15 0.133
V15    7.54 m/s
A15   0.0752

Q20 0.266
V20    8.49 m/s
A20   0.12

Example 9-310 Moving Pistons Origin: Textbook

Both pistons are moving to the left, but the speed of piston A is twice the speed of piston B.
Is the water level rising or falling?

Solution

 The continuity equation states that

dV
 Qin  Qout
dt

 The storage or volume is V  Ah and the flow rate is given by Q  AV . Hence

dh
A  AB VB  AAVA
dt

 Using VA  2VB and AA  AB 4 , one obtains

dh
A   AB  2 AA  VB   AB  2 AB 4  VB  AB VB 2
dt

 Therefore, the water surface is rising since AB VB  0

79
Examples

Example 9-311 Filling or Emptying Origin: Quiz 1101

Is the tank filling or emptying? Determine the rate of rise or fall of the water level.

Solution

 The continuity equation states that

dS
  Qin   Qout
dt

 The storage is S  Ah and the flow rate is given by

Q  AV . Hence

dh
   0.1 2  3    0.075 2 1.2     0.15 2   2.1  0.006 m3/s
2 2 2
A
dt

 The tank is therefore emptying at a rate of

dh 0.006
  0.0074 m/s
 0.9 
2
dt

Example 9-312 Lock of a Ship Canal Origin: Textbook

Water enters the lock of a ship canal through 180 ports. Each port has a cross-section area of
60 x 60 cm. The lock is 275 m long and 32 m wide. Compute the required mean velocity of
each port so that the maximum rate of rise of the water surface is 1.8 m/min.

Solution

 The continuity equation is

dV
  Qin   Qout
dt

 The outflow is here zero and the storage term is V  Ah . Hence

dh
A   Qin  180 ApVp
dt

 Substituting the rate of rise dh dt  1.8 60 and the lock size A  LW  275 x 32 , one gets

275  32  1.8
Vp   4.1 m/s
180  0.6 x 0.6  60

80
 Fluid Flow

Example 9-313 Duct for a Jet Engine Origin: Textbook

Compute the required diameter of a round duct that will supply air to a jet engine at a speed
of 200 m/s, mass rate of 415 kg/s, pressure of 60 kPa, and a temperature of 17oC.

Solution

 By definition, the mass rate is

  AV
m

 The air density is

p 60000
   0.8166 kg/m3
RT 287  273  17 

 The area is therefore

m 415
A   2.54 m3
V 0.8166  200 

 The required diameter is then

D  1.8 m

81
Examples

9.4 Pressure Variation

9.4.1 Euler Equation

Example 9-401 Piston in Acceleration Origin: Quiz 901S

Compute the pressure at the piston if the piston and water are accelerated upward at a rate of
0.5g.

Solution

 Euler’s equation states

d
  p  z   as
ds

 Along the vertical direction

dp
   az
dz

 Integrating for constant acceleration

pt  pb    az  g  zt  zb 

 Here pt is the atmospheric pressure at the top surface, i.e. pt  0

 For going up az  0.5g m/s2, the pressure at the piston is

pb   1.5g  1  1.5 Pa

82
 Pressure Variation

Example 9-402 The Water Nozzle Origin: Exam 1102

Determine the pressure gradient dp dx halfway through the nozzle.

Solution

 Euler’s equation states

d
  p  z   as
ds

 Along the horizontal direction

dp
 ax
dx

 The acceleration is by definition

du du
ax  u
dt dx

 The velocity variation in the nozzle is assumed to be linear expressed as

u9 x 15
 or u  x  9  50 x  9
24  9 0.3 0.3

 The local acceleration is zero while the convective acceleration is

du
ax  u   50 x 0.15  9  50  825 m/s2
dx

 Hence

dp
 1000  825  825 kPa/m
dx

83
Examples

Example 9-403 The Accelerating Tank Origin: Exam 1302

Determine pC  pA if the closed full tank is accelerated to the right at 0.9g and downward at
1.5g. The specific gravity of the liquid is 1.2. Here L  0.9 m and H  1.2 m.

Solution

 Euler’s equation states

d
  p  z   as
ds

 Along the horizontal direction

dp
 ax
dx

 Along the vertical direction

dp
   az
dz

 Integrating along the horizontal direction for constant acceleration

pC  pB  ax  xC  x B   1200  0.9 g  0.9   972 g  9.54 kPa

 Integrating along the vertical direction for constant acceleration

pB  pA    az  g   zB  zA   1200  0.5 g  1.2   720 g  7.06 kPa

 Hence

pC  pA  972 g  720 g  252 g  2.47 kPa

84
 Pressure Variation

Example 9-404 Gasoline Tanker Origin: Quiz 901S

Find the maximum pressure in the gasoline tanker if the minimum pressure is atmospheric
and the truck is decelerating at a rate of 3.05 m/s2. The specific weight of the gasoline is 6.60
kN/m3.

Solution

 The maximum pressure is at the lower

front corner of the tanker.
 Euler’s equation states

d
  p  z   as
ds

 Along the length of the tanker, the equation becomes

dp
  ax
dx

 Integrating for constant acceleration p1  p0  ax  x1  x0  where pt is the pressure at

the upper rear corner of the tanker
 Hence pt    6.1 3.05 6.6  9.81  12.5 kPa
 Along the vertical direction

dp
  0
dz

 Integrating, one gets pb  pt  z

 The pressure at the bottom is pb  pt  z  12.5  6.6  1.83  24.6 kPa
 This is the maximum pressure

85
Examples

Example 9-405 Milk Tanker Origin: Quiz 901

Milk with a density of 1020 kg/m3 is transported on a level road in a 7-m-long, 3-m-diameter
cylindrical tanker. The tanker is completely filled with milk, and it accelerates at 2.5 m/s2. If
the minimum pressure in the tanker is 100 kPa, determine the maximum pressure and its
location.

Solution

 The minimum pressure is at the upper front corner of the tanker and the maximum
pressure is at the lower rear corner of the tanker.
 Euler’s equation states

d
  p  z   as
ds

 Along the length of the tanker, the equation becomes

dp
  ax
dx

 Integrating for constant acceleration pt  po  ax  xt  xo  where pt is the pressure at

the upper rear corner of the tanker
 Along the vertical direction

dp
  0
dz

 Integrating, one gets pb  pt  z

 Hence pt  100  1020  2.5 0  7  1000  100  17.85  117.85 kPa
 The maximum pressure at the bottom is pb  pt  z  117.85  9.8 1.02  3  147.8 kPa

86
 Pressure Variation

Example 9-406 Fish Tank Origin: Quiz 1001

A 60-cm-high fish tank is moved in the cabin of an elevator. Compute the pressure at the
bottom of the tank when the elevator is (a) moving up with an upward acceleration of 3 m/s2
and (b) moving down with a downward acceleration of 3 m/s2. When is the fish under more
stress? (i.e. while going up or while going down).

Solution

 Euler’s equation states

d
  p  z   as
ds

 Along the vertical direction

dp
   az
dz

 Integrating for constant acceleration

pt  pb    az  g  zt  zb 

 Here pt is the atmospheric pressure at the top surface, i.e. pt  0

 For going up az  3 m/s2 so

pb  1000  3  9.81 0.6  7686 Pa

 For going down az  3 m/s2 so

pb  1000  3  9.81 0.6  4086 Pa

 The fish is under more stress while going up

87
Examples

9.4.2 Bernoulli Equation

Example 9-407 The Orifice Origin: Textbook

Compute the velocity of the water through an orifice that is draining a 10-m high tank.

Solution

 Expressing Bernoulli’s equation between the water surface and the outlet port, one gets

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

 At the water surface and exit port, the gage pressure is zero.
 Using the continuity equation, one finds that for a diameter ratio of D2  D1 10 , the
velocity ratio is V1 V2  1 100 . Hence, the velocity at the water surface is relatively small
and the velocity-squared (kinetic energy) term is negligible.
 Bernoulli’s equation becomes

V22
 z1  z2
2g

 The velocity at the outlet is therefore V2  2 g  z1  z2   2 gh  2  9.81 10  14 m/s.

Example 9-408 Depth in the Tank Origin: Exam 1402

Determine the water depth, hA .

Solution

 Expressing Bernoulli’s equation between the

tank surface and orifice, one obtains

VA  2 ghA VB  2 ghB

 The outflow velocity of the second tank is

VB  6.26 m/s
 The flow rate is then QB  0.0123 m3/s.
 The flow rate Q  QA  QB
 Hence VA  QA AA  17.4 m/s
 The water depth in the first tank is then

VA2
hA   15.4 m
2g

88
 Pressure Variation

Example 9-409 The Sprayer Origin: Exam 1602

Compute the velocity of the water-fertilizer solution  S  1.01 at the outlet of the pressurized
tank if the pressure is p  20 kPa gage and the height is h  0.9 m.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between the water surface

and the outlet

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

 The velocity at the outlet is

p   20 
V2  2 g  1   z1  z2   19.62   0.9   7.6 m/s
    9.81 

Example 9-410 The Bicycle Helmet Origin: Textbook

Calculate the pressure at points A and B given that the velocity at point B is 3/2 the velocity
of the free stream.

Solution

 Expressing Bernoulli’s equation along a

streamline between an upstream point in the
free stream and point A, one gets

V12 pA

2g 

 The pressure at point A is therefore

V 2 1.2 12 
2

pA  1   86.4 Pa gage
2 2

 Expressing Bernoulli’s equation along a streamline between an upstream point in the free
stream and point B, one gets

V12 pB VB2
 
2g  2g

 The pressure at point B using VB  3V1 2 is therefore

12  18 
2 2
V 2  VB2
pA   1  1.2  108 Pa gage
2 2

89
Examples

Example 9-411 The Pitot Tube Origin: Textbook

Calculate the velocity in the kerosene pipe if the deflection on the mercury manometer is 18
cm. The specific gravity of kerosene is S  0.81.

Solution

 Expressing Bernoulli’s equation between the stagnation

point 1 and point 2 along a streamline in the pipe, one gets

V2  2 g  h1  h2 

 The manometer equation gives also

p1   l  z1  z2   k  p2   l  y   k  y  m

 The pressure difference is then

p1  p2  y   m   k    z1  z2   k

 The piezometric head difference is therefore

 
h1  h2  y  m  1 
 k 

 Substituting into Bernoulli’s equation, one obtains

   13.55 
V2  2 gy  m  1   2  9.81 0.18   1   7.45 m/s
 k   0.81 

Example 9-412 Pitot Tube – Pressure Gage Origin: Textbook

Calculate the air velocity if the pressure gage reading is 730 Pa.

Solution

 The Pitot-tube equation is

V2  2 g  h1  h2 

 The taps of the Pitot tube are at the same elevation. Therefore

V2  2 g  p1  p2   a  2  p1  p2  a

 Substituting the values, one gets

V2  2 730 1.2   35 m/s

90
 Pressure Variation

Example 9-413 Pitot Tube – Airplane Origin: Textbook

Compute the airspeed of an airplane if a pressure difference of 25 cm of water is measured at

an altitude of 3050 m where the temperature is 5oC and the pressure is 69 kPa.

 The Pitot-tube equation is

V2  2 g  h1  h2   2  p1  p2  a

 The pressure difference is 25 cm of water, i.e. p  h  9810  0.25  2453 Pa

 The density of air at high altitude is

p 69000
a    0.897 kg/m3
RT 287  268 

 Substituting the values, one gets

V2  2  2453 0.897   74 m/s

Example 9-414 Airspeed of an Airplane Origin: Exam 1402

Compute the airspeed of an airplane in m/s flying at an altitude of 3 km where the local
temperature is 4oC, the local pressure is 67 kPa, and the differential pressure measured on the
Pitot tube is 3.5 kPa.

Solution

 The Pitot-tube equation is

V2  2 g  h1  h2   2  p1  p2  a

 The pressure difference is 3.5 kPa. The density of air at high altitude is

p 67000
a    0.8428 kg/m3
RT 287  273  4 

 Substituting the values, one gets

V2  2  3500 0.8428   91 m/s

Alternate versions

 For a temperature of 4oC and a pressure of 70 kPa,  0.907 and V  316 km/h
 For a temperature of 4oC and a pressure of 66 kPa,  0.855 and V  326 km/h
 For a temperature of 4oC and a pressure of 60 kPa,  0.777 and V  341 km/h
 For a temperature of 4oC and a pressure of 55 kPa,  0.712 and V  357 km/h

91
Examples

Example 9-415 The Submarine Origin: Exam 1302

Find the speed in km/h of the submarine that is moving horizontally in sea ( S  1.025 ) at 16
m below the water surface if a pitot tube connected to a U-tube mercury manometer shows a
deflection of 200 mm.

Solution

 Expressing Bernoulli’s equation between the stagnation point 1 and point 2 along a
streamline in the pipe, one gets

V2  2 g  h1  h2   2  p1  p2  s

 The pressure difference on the manometer is given by

p1  p2    m   s  h

 Hence

V2  2 g  m s  1 h  2  9.8113.6 1.025  1 0.2  6.93 m/s

 The speed in km/h is 25 km/h.

Example 9-416 The Venturi Meter Origin: Textbook

Compute the velocity in the throat section given that the velocity in the throat section is twice
the velocity in the approach section. The piezometric head is 1 m in the approach section
and 0.5 m in the throat section.

Solution

 Expressing Bernoulli’s equation along the

streamline between section 1 and 2, one gets

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

 In terms of the piezometric head, Bernoulli’s

equation becomes

V12 V2
h1   h2  2
2g 2g

 Substituting the known values

V12 4V 2
1  0.5  1
2g 2g

 Solving for the velocity in the approach section, one gets V1  1.81 m/s.
 The velocity in the throat section is then V2  3.62 m/s

92
 Pressure Variation

Example 9-417 The Troublesome Throat Origin: Exam 1102

Determine the maximum theoretical flow rate above which the liquid starts vaporizing. The
specific gravity of the liquid is 0.86, the vapor pressure is 3.8 psia, and the atmospheric
pressure is 14.7 psia.

Solution

 Bernoulli equation states

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

 Using Q  A1V1  A2V2 , Bernoulli equation becomes

p1  p2 Q2  1 1  Q2 16  1 1 
  2  2 2 
 4
 2 g  A2 A1  2 g   D2 D1 
4

 The pressure at the entrance is 10 psig while the minimum pressure at the throat is

p2  pv  pa  3.8  14.7  10.9 psig

 Hence

10  10.9144  Q2 16  1 1
   
0.86  62.4  2  32.2  2  14 34 

 Solving for Q, one obtains Q  47.5 cfs.

93
Examples

Example 9-418 Faucet Water Origin: Exam 1700

The circular jet of water from a faucet is observed to taper from a diameter of 20 mm to 10
mm in a distance of 50 cm. Determine the flowrate.

Solution

Type: Energy or Bernoulli Equation

Equations:
p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

Q  AV

Unknown: Flow rate Q

Derivation:
 Expressing the energy equation between the faucet and the contracted point, one gets

Q2 Q2
 z 
2 gA12 2 gA22

 Solving for the flow rate, one obtains

2 gz 2 gz
Q  A1 A2  A2
A1  A2 1   D2 D1 
2 2 4

Answer:
 Substituting the values, the flow rate is 0.254 l/s.

94
 Pressure Variation

Example 9-419 Faucets in a Building Origin: Exam 1502

Calculate the maximum water velocity from the basement faucet and the faucet on the first
floor given that the maximum water velocity at the ground floor faucet is 6 m/s.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between the main and the

ground faucet, one obtains

pg Vg2 pm Vm2
  zg    zm
 2g  2g

 A similar equation between the main and the basement faucet

is

pb Vb2 p V2
  zb  m  m  zm
 2g  2g

 Equating the two

pb Vb2 pg Vg2
  zb    zg
 2g  2g

 Substituting the values, one gets

Vb2 62
0 0 0  3.6
2g 2g

 Hence, Vb  10.3 m/s

 A similar calculation between the ground faucet and the first faucet gives

V12 62
0  3.6  0  0
2g 2g

 Solving for V1 , one gets a negative answer. That is, no flow from the first-floor faucet.

95
Examples

Example 9-420 Time to Empty by Half Origin: Quiz 903

Calculate the time that it will take for a 15-cm circular tank to empty by half given that the
initial height of water above the 3-mm diameter orifice is 30 cm. Assume ideal conditions.
Would the actual time to empty be shorter or longer?

Solution

 The mass balance in the cylindrical tank is

dh Dt2
Qi  Qo  At At  Qi  0
dt 4

 The flow rate exiting the tank is given by the orifice discharge equation

d 2
Qo  a 2 gh a
4

 Substituting into the mass balance equation

dh
d 2 2 gh  Dt2
dt

 Separating and integrating, one obtains

Dt2 h0  h1
t1  2
d2 2g

 Substituting the values, one obtains

 0.15
2
0.3  0.15
t1  2  181 s
 0.003 2  9.81
2

 The actual time will be longer by at least 40% for Cd  0.7.

96
 Pressure Variation

Example 9-421 Swimming Pool Origin: Exam 1903

Calculate the time to empty an 8-m diameter, 3-m high above-ground swimming pool through
a 3-cm diameter attached at the bottom of the pool.

Solution

 The mass balance in the cylindrical swimming pool is

dh Dt2
Qi  Qo  At At  Qi  0
dt 4

 The flow rate exiting the tank is given by the orifice discharge equation

d 2
Qo  a 2 gh a
4

 Substituting into the mass balance equation

dh
 d 2 2 gh  Dt2
dt

 Separating and integrating, one obtains

Dt2 h0  h1
t1  2
d2 2g

 Substituting the values, one obtains

8
2
3 0
t1  2  55613 s
 0.03 2  9.81
2

 The time to empty is therefore 15.45 h.

97
Examples

Example 9-422 Olympic Swimming Pool Origin: Exam 1903

Compute the time it takes to fill an Olympic swimming pool of size of 50 m x 25 m x 3 m.

The pool is being recharged from 150 ports, spread 1-m apart and located at the top of the
swimming pool. The diameter of each port is 10 cm, and the outflow velocity is 60 cm/s.

Solution

 The mass balance in the Olympic swimming pool is

dh
Qi  Qo  At Qo  0
dt

 The flow rate entering the pool is given by the orifice discharge equation

d 2
Qo  n p AV A  r 2
4

 Substituting into the mass balance equation and integrating

Ah
t
n p aV

 Substituting the values, one obtains

50  25 3
t  4421 s
180  0.05 0.6
2

 The time to fill is therefore 1.22 h or 74 min.

98
 Pressure Variation

Example 9-423 Time to Drop Origin: Quiz 1700

A 10 cm jet issues from a tank with a 1 m diameter. Compute the time it takes for the water
surface to drop from 2 m to 0.5 m.

Solution

Type: Continuity Equation

Equations:
dV
Qin  Qout 
dt

pi Vi2 p V2
  zi  o  o  zo
 2g  2g

D 2
V  Ah A
4

Unknowns: Time to empty t

Derivation:
 The mass balance in the cylindrical tank is

dh
Qi  Qo  A Qi  0
dt

 The flow rate exiting the tank is given by the orifice discharge equation obtained from
Bernoulli’s equation

d 2
Qo  a 2 gh a
4

 Substituting into the mass balance equation

dh
 d 2 2 gh  D 2
dt

 Separating and integrating, one obtains

Dt2 h0  h1
t2
d2 2g

Answers:
 The time elapsed is then

1
2
2  0.5
t2  32 s
 0.1 2  9.81
2

99
Examples

Example 9-424 The Pressurized Tank Origin: Exam 1302

Compute the time required to empty a pressurized tank filled to a depth of water of 2.2 m
above the orifice. The cross-sectional area of the tank is 1.2 m2, the orifice area is 9 cm2, and
the pressure in the tank is maintained at 10 kPa. Compare your result with the time required
if the tank is not pressurized.

Solution

 The continuity equation states

dV
Qin  Qout 
dt

 The volume is V  Ah where A is the cross-sectional area of the flow

 The outflow from the port is Q  aV
 The outflow velocity at the orifice is given by Bernoulli’s equation

V  2 g  h  p    2 gh  2 p 

 Here, h is the height of water above the port

 Hence

dh
a 2 gh  2 p   A
dt

 Separating and integrating, one obtains

2A
t1  t0   2 gh0  2 p   2 gh1  2 p  
2 ga  

 Substituting the values, one obtains

A 1.2  2  9.81 2.2  2 10   2 10    472 s

t1   2 gh0  2 p   2 p   
ga   9.81  0.0009   

 It takes 7.87 minutes to empty the pressurized tank.

 If the tank is not pressurized, the time required is

A 1.2  2  9.81 2.2   892 s

t1   2 gh0  
ga   9.81  0.0009   

 It would have taken 14.9 minutes for the tank to empty if it were not pressurized.

Alternate versions

 For d  2.4, a  10 cm2, P  10 kPa, t  455 s

 For d  2.0, a  10 cm2, P  20 kPa, t  315 s
 For d  2.2, a  10 cm2, P  30 kPa, t  295 s

100
 Pressure Variation

Example 9-425 Time to Empty Origin: Quiz 1700

Compute the time required to empty a pressurized tank filled to a depth of water of 2.2 m
above the orifice. The cross-sectional area of the tank is 1.2 m2, the orifice area is 10 cm2,
and the pressure in the tank is maintained at 1.4 atm.

Solution

Type: Continuity Equation

Equations:
dV
Qin  Qout 
dt

pi Vi2 p V2
  zi  o  o  zo
 2g  2g

V  Ah

Unknowns: Time to empty t

Derivation:
 The gage pressure is 0.4 atm that is equivalent to 40.5 kPa
 The volume is V  Ah where A is the cross-sectional area of the flow
 The outflow from the port is Q  aV
 The outflow velocity at the orifice is given by Bernoulli’s equation

V  2 g  h  p    2 gh  2 p 

 Here, h is the height of water above the port

 Hence

dh
a 2 gh  2 p   A
dt

 Separating and integrating, one obtains

2A
t1  t0   2 gh0  2 p   2 gh1  2 p  
2 ga  

 Substituting the values with t0  0 and h1  0 , one obtains

1.2  2  9.81 2.2  2  40.5  2  40.5   262 s

t1 
9.81  0.001  

Answer:
 It takes around 4.4 minutes to empty the pressurized tank.

101
Examples

Example 9-426 Time to Empty – Cylindrical Origin: Textbook

Compute the time to empty the horizontal cylindrical tank by half from a 5-cm diameter
orifice at the bottom. The tank is 1.2 m long and 0.6 m in diameter.

Solution

 The continuity equation states

dV
Qin  Qout 
dt

 The outflow velocity at the orifice is given by

Bernoulli’s equation

V  2 gh

 The outflow is then Q  aV  a 2 gh

 The volume is V  AL where A is the cross-sectional area of the flow and L is the length
 Hence

dA
0  a 2 gh  L
dt

 To solve this equation, one must first express the area in terms of h. A better approach is
to express both A and h in terms of polar coordinate lower angle .
 Defining 2 as the lower arc angle that spans the width of flow, the area is

2 2 r2
A r  r cos    r sin      2  sin 2 
2 2

 The depth of flow is also defined by h  r  r cos   

 Substituting into the continuity equation, one obtains

d
 a 2 gr 1  cos      2 Lr 2 sin 2 
dt

 That is

32 1
a 2 gr t 0
sin 2 
1
1  u2
1
1  u  23 2  1
2r 2 L 0   
dt   d  du  1  udu  
 2 1  cos  1 u
0 0
32 32
0

 Hence, the time it takes to empty is

 23 2  1  2  0.3 1.2 
32
23 2  1 2r 2 L
t    55.5 s
3 2 a 2 gr  3 2  0.00196 9.81

102
 Energy Equation

9.5 Energy Equation

Example 9-501 Pressure in a Pipe Origin: Textbook

A 20-cm diameter horizontal pipe at an elevation of 20 m carries cooling water to a thermal

power plant from a reservoir with a water surface elevation of 100 m. Compute the pressure
at a distance of 2 km for a flow rate of 0.06 m3/s if the head loss in the pipe is given by
hl  0.02  L D   V 2 2 g  .

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between

the reservoir and the point of interest

p1 V12 p V2 L V2
  z1  2  2  z2  0.02
 2g  2g D 2g

 At the water surface in the reservoir, the gage pressure is zero and the velocity-squared
(kinetic energy) term is negligible.
 Using the flow rate equation Q  VA , the velocity is V 1.91 m/s
 Substituting into the energy equation, one gets

p2 1.912 2000 1.912

100    20  0.02
 2  9.81 0.2 2  9.81

 Hence, the pressure head is p   42.6 m and the pressure is p  418 kPa.

Example 9-502 Power of the Pump Origin: Textbook

Compute the power of the pump required to drive the system shown in the figure given that
the pump efficiency is 68%.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between

section 1 and 2

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  hp  2  2  z2  hl
 2g  2g

 Since the diameter is the same in section

1 & 2, the velocities are equal.
 Substituting the known values into the
energy equation, one gets

70 350
 30  hp   40  3
9.81 9.81

 The pump head required is hp  41.5 m

 The ideal pump power required is P  Qhp  9.81  0.5 41.5 kW
 The actual pump power required is Pa  P   204 0.68  300 kW

103
Examples

Example 9-503 The Power of a Turbine Origin: Textbook

Compute the rate of power generation by the powerhouse for a drop in elevation of 61 m and
a discharge of 14.1 m3/s. The total head loss through the intakes, penstock, and outlet works
is 1.5 m and the combined efficiency of the turbine and electrical works is 87%.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between the inlet

and outlet

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  ht  2  2  z2  hl
 2g  2g

 Substituting the known values, one gets

0  0  61  ht  0  0  0  1.5

 The head of the turbine is then ht  59.5 m

 The power output is P  Qht  9.81 14.1 59.5  8.23 MW
 The actual power generated is Pa  P  0.87  8.23  7.16 MW

Example 9-504 Pumping to a Reservoir Origin: Textbook

Compute the power of the pump required to drive the system shown in the figure given that
the pump efficiency is 66%. The head loss in the pipe is given by hl  0.01  L D   V 2 2 g 

Solution

 The energy equation between reservoir 1 and 2 gives

p1 V12 p V2 L V2
  z1  hp  2  2  z2  0.01
 2g  2g D 2g

 Using the flow rate equation Q  VA , the velocity is V  2.83 m/s

 Substituting the known values into the energy equation, one gets

1525 2.832
0  0  160  hp  0  0  190  0.01
0.3 2  9.81

 The pump head required is hp  50.75 m

 The ideal pump power required is P  Qhp  9.81  0.2  50.75  99.5 kW
 The actual pump power required is Pa  P   99.5 0.66  151 kW

104
 Energy Equation

Example 9-505 The Pump Power Origin: Exam 1302

Water is being pumped at a rate of 0.35 m3/s from the reservoir to the gage. Compute the
pump power required if the head loss in the 30-cm pipe is 2 V 2 2 g and the pump efficiency is
70%.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between the reservoir

and the gage, one obtains

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  hp  2  2  z2  hl
 2g  2g

 Substituting the values, one gets

100 0.352
0  0  6  hp   10  1  2 
2  9.81 2  0.15
4
9.81

 The head of the pump is then hp  17.95 m

 The ideal pump power is P  Qhp  9.81  0.35 17.95  61.6 kW
 The required pump power is P  61.6 0.7  88 kW

Example 9-506 The Penthouse Origin: Quiz 802

In order to supply water to the penthouse in a building, a pump draws water through a 20-cm
suction pipe from an open tank in the basement. The water is discharged through a 15-cm
pipe in which the velocity is 4-m/s. What is the maximum elevation h to which the pumped
water can reach if 35 kW is delivered to the pump? The pump operates at 70% efficiency and
the total head loss in the pipe system is 2V2/2g.

Solution

 The energy equation between the 20-cm inlet section and the 15-cm outlet section is

pi Vi2 p V2 V2
  zi  hp  o  o  zo  2 o
 2g  2g 2g

 The power of the pump is expressed by P  Qhp , the discharge is Q  VA , and the
elevation is h  zo  zi .
 Hence

0.7  35 42 42 3 16
 35.32  h h
9.81  0.0707  2g g 2 9.81

 Solving for h, one gets h  32.8 m

105
Examples

Example 9-507 Tank on the Roof Origin: Quiz 1700

Water is pumped from the reservoir at the ground floor to a tank on the roof at a rate of 250
l/min in a 30 cm pipe where the head loss is 1.5 V 2 2 g . Compute the pump supply power if
the pump efficiency is 70% and the roof is 11 m above the ground.

Solution

Type: Energy Equation

Equations:
p1 V12 p V2
  z1  hp  2  2  z2  hl
 2g  2g

Q  AV

P  Qhp

  Pout Pin

Unknown: Power P
Derivation:
 Expressing the energy equation between the ground floor and the roof, one gets

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  hp  2  2  z2  hl
 2g  2g

 Solving for the pump head, one obtains

V2
hp  z2  z1  1.5
2g

 The velocity in the pipe is

Q 4 0.25 1
V    0.059 m/s
A  0.32 60

 Substituting the values, the pump head

 0.059
2

hp  11  1.5  11.0003 m
2  9.81

Answer:
 The ideal pump power is P  Qht  9.81  0.25 60  11  450 W.
 The actual pump power required Pa  P  for   0.7 is 643 W

Alternate versions

 For Q  500 l/min, D  5 cm, V  4.24 m/s, hp  12.37, P  1.01 kW, Pa  1.44 kW
 For Q  500 l/min, D  10 cm, V  1.06 m/s, hp  11.1, P  0.91 kW, Pa  1.30 kW

106
 Energy Equation

Example 9-508 Power Loss Origin: Exam 1402

A vertical pipe carrying oil (S  0.8) at a rate of 145 l/s changes in diameter. The pressure at
the 450 mm section is 60 kN/m2 while the pressure at the 150 mm section is 90 kN/m2. The
smaller section is 4 m below the other. Compute the power loss and the energy loss as a
fraction of the total available energy.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between the 150 mm and 450 mm section, one obtains

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2  hl
 2g  2g

 The hydraulic head at the 150 mm section is

p1 V12 90 0.1452 16
  z1   2  0  14.9 m
 2g 0.8  9.81   0.15 2  9.81
4

 The hydraulic head at the 450 mm section is

p2 V22 60 0.1452 16
  z2   2  4  11.7 m
 2g 0.8  9.81   0.45 2  9.81
4

 Hence, the flow is upward from 150 mm to 450 mm and the energy loss is

hl  14.9  11.7  3.2 m

 The power loss is P  Qhl  3.64 kW.

 The fraction of energy loss is 3.2 14.9  0.215 , i.e. a 21.5% loss.

Alternate versions

 For S  0.85, the heads are 14.22 and 11.24 m, the head loss is 3 m, and the power loss is
3.62 kW while the % energy loss is 21.5%
 For S  0.9, the heads are 14.22 and 11.24 m, the head loss is 2.78 m, and the power loss
is 3.58 kW while the % energy loss is 20.5%

107
Examples

Example 9-509 Power Generation Origin: Quiz 902

Compute the electric power output from the turbine generator given that its overall efficiency
is 80% and the total head loss in the pipe system is 35 m.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between 1 and 2

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  ht  2  2  z2  hl
 2g  2g

 Substituting the values, one gets ht  120  35  85 m

 The power output is P  Qht  9.81 100  85  83.4 MW
 The actual power generated is 0.8(83.4) 66.7 MW

Example 9-510 The Power Plant Origin: Exam 1102

Compute the power produced by the turbine given that the discharge through the system is
14.2 m3/s, the turbine efficiency is 90%, and the overall head loss is 1.5 V 2 2 g .

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between the reservoir

and the pond water surface, one obtains

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  ht  2  2  z2  hl
 2g  2g

 Substituting the values, one gets

14.22
0  0  10.5  ht  0  0  0  1.5
2  9.81 2 1.05
4

 The head of the turbine is then ht  9.21 m

 The ideal turbine power is P  Qhp  9.81 14.2  9.21  1283 kW
 The actual turbine power is P  1283  0.9   1155 kW

108
 Energy Equation

Example 9-511 Power of a Turbine Origin: Exam 302

A turbine is located at an elevation 300 m below that of the surface of the water at intake.
Compute the power delivered by the turbine given that the flow is 4 m3/s, the head loss in
the pipeline is 10 m, and the turbine efficiency is 85%.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between the intake and the outlet of the turbine, one gets

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  ht  2  2  z2  hl
 2g  2g

 Solving for the turbine head, one obtains

ht  300  10  290 m

 The ideal power expected from the turbine is P  Qht  9.81  4  290  11380 kW.
 The actual power is P  11380  0.85  9673 kW.

Example 9-512 Fire Hydrant Origin: Exam 1202

Determine the pump power required to deliver a flow of 0.042 m3/s to a maximum elevation
of 18 m above the hydrant. The pressure at the 10 cm diameter outlet of the hydrant is 69
kPa.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between

the outlet of the hydrant and the maximum
elevation, one obtains

pi Vi2 p V2
  zi  hp  o  o  zo
 2g  2g

 Solving for the head of the pump and

simplifying, one gets

pi Vi2
hp  zo  
 2g

 Substituting the values

2
69 1  0.042 
hp  18      9.5 m
9.81 2  9.81    0.052 

 The pump power required is P  Qhp  9.81  0.042  9.5  3.91 kW

109
Examples

Example 9-513 Pumping a Liquid Origin: Quiz 1700

A liquid (S  1.4) is being pumped from point A at elevation 8 m, where the pipe diameter is
50 cm and the pressure is 300 kPa, to point B at elevation 7 m, where the pipe diameter is
30 cm and the pressure is 330 kPa. Determine the flow rate Q if 20 kW is delivered to the
pump that has an efficiency of 85%.

Solution

Type: Energy Equation

Equations:
p1 V12 p V2
  z1  hp  2  2  z2  hl
 2g  2g

Q  AV

P  Qhp

  Pout Pin

Unknown: Flow rate Q

Derivation:
 The energy equation between point A and point B can be expressed by

p1 1 Q2 P p2 1 Q2
  z1     z2
 2 g A12 Q  2 g A22

 Substituting the values, one obtains

300 16 Q2 0.85  20  330 16 Q2

  8    7
1.4  9.81 2  9.81 2 0.54 1.4  9.81 Q 1.4  9.81 2  9.81 2 0.34

 Simplifying

1.24
2.18  8.88Q2  1  0
Q

Answer:
 Solving for the flow rate Q iteratively, one gets Q  0.434 m3/s.

Alternate versions

 For S  1.2, Q  0.441 m3/s

 For S  1.5, Q  0.430 m3/s

110
 Energy Equation

Example 9-514 Oil Pipeline Origin: Exam 1502

Estimate the power required to pump crude oil (S 0.83) a distance of 1.6 km at a rate of
13,250 l/min given that the exit of the pipe is 60 m higher than the entrance, the pressure
loss in the system is 415 kPa, and the normal efficiency of pumps is around 80%.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between the entrance and exit of the pipeline, one obtains

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  hp  2  2  z2  hl
 2g  2g

 Solving for the head of the pump, one obtains

hp  60  hl

 The head loss is equal to the pressure loss per unit weight, i.e.

p1 p2 415000
hl   
  

 The ideal power of the pump is then

P  Qhp  60Q  415000Q  60  0.83 9810  415000  13.25 60  199.5 kW

 The actual power of the pump is

199.5
P  249 kW
0.8

111
Examples

Example 9-515 The Valve Origin: Exam 1102

The head loss of the valve varies as hl  kl V 2 2 g . Determine kl given that the air pressure
in the tank is 100 kPa gage, the water surface level is 8 m above the outlet, and the water exit
velocity is 10 m/s.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between

the water surface in the tank and the
outlet, one obtains

p1 V12 p V2 V2
  z1  2  2  z2  kl
 2g  2g 2g

 Substituting the values, one gets

100 102
 0  8  0  0  1  kl 
9.81 2  9.81

 Solving for the loss coefficient kl, one gets kl  2.57 .

Example 9-516 Pump Operation Cost Origin: Textbook

Calculate the cost of operating a pump for one year if the electricity rate is $0.10 per kWh and
the pump operates 20 hours per day. The pump power is 1500 kW.

Solution

 The cost per hour is 1500(0.1)150 USD

 The cost per day is 20(150)3000 USD
 The cost per year is 3000(365)=1,095,000 USD

112
 Momentum Equation

9.6 Momentum Equation

Example 9-601 The Pipe Bend Origin: Textbook

Estimate the net force required to hold the 1-m diameter horizontal bend in place given that
the steady flow rate of crude oil (S  0.94) is 2 m3/s. The empty weight of the bend is 4 kN
and it can hold 1.2 m3 volume of oil. Assume that the pressure in the bend is constant and
equal to 75 kPa gage.

Solution

 The momentum equation states

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

F y  2Q2V2 y  1Q1V1y

F z 0

 The forces acting are the pressure forces and the reaction force.

 The momentum equation in the x-direction becomes

p1 A1  p2 A2 cos30o  Rx  Q  V2 cos30o  V1 

 Here p1  p2  75 kPa, A1  A2   4 ,   940 Kg/m3, V1  V2  Q A  2 0.52   2.55 m/s.

 Hence Rx  8.53 kN

 The momentum equation in the y-direction becomes

0  p2 A2 sin 30o  Ry  Q  V2 sin 30o  0 

 Hence Ry  31.8 kN

 The momentum equation in the z-direction gives

Rz  Wb   o V  0

 Hence Rz  4  0.94  9.811.2   15.1 kN

113
Examples

Example 9-602 The Horizontal Bend Origin: Quiz 802

Water enters a horizontal reducing 90o bend from the west with a velocity of 3 m/s and a
pressure of 30 kPa and leaves toward the north. The diameter is 500 mm at the entrance and
400 mm at the exit. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the
bend.

Solution

 The momentum equation states

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

F y  2Q2V2 y  1Q1V1y

 The forces acting are the pressure forces and the reaction force. The pressure at the exit
is obtained from Bernoulli’s equation

pi Vi2 p V2
  zi  o  o  zo
 2g  2g

Here zi  zo and V2  V1 A1 A2  3  5 4   4.69 m/s.

2

 Hence po   2.4 m and po  23.5 kPa.

 The momentum equation in the x-direction becomes

p1 A1  Rx  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

where A1    0.25 , V1x  3 m/s, Q  A1V1  3  0.25  0.59 , and V2 x  0 .

2 2

 Hence Rx  7.66 kN

 The momentum equation in the y-direction becomes

 p2 A2  Ry  2Q2V2 y  1Q1V1y

where A2    0.2  , V2 y  4.69 m/s, p2  po and V1y  0 .

2

 Hence Ry  5.72 kN
 The resultant force of water on the bend is F  7.662  5.722  9.56 kN
 It is acting at an angle of   tan 1   5.72 7.66   0.64 or 36.75o.

114
 Momentum Equation

Example 9-603 The Bend Anchor Origin: Exam 1603

Determine the vertical force that must be supported by the bend anchor that carries water at
a rate of 0.9 m3/s. The pressure p1 is 70 kPa and the pressure p2 is 60 kPa. The elevation of
the lower end of the bend is 30 m while the elevation of the upper end is 31 m. The bend
itself weighs 1350 N, the length is 1.2 m, the diameter is 0.6 m, and the color is dark gray.

Solution

 The momentum equation in the vertical direction states

F z  2Q2V2 z  1Q1V1z

 The forces acting in the vertical direction are the

weights, the pressure forces, and the reaction force.
 The velocity is

Q 0.9
V    3.2 m/s
A   0.32

 The velocity and the pressure force at the inlet have no component in the z direction
 The momentum equation becomes

R  We  Ww  p2 A2 sin 30o  QV2 sin 30o

 Substituting the values, one obtains

R  1.35  9.81 AL  60 A sin 30o  0.9  3.2 sin 30o A    0.3

2
L  1.2

 Hence

R  14.595 kN

115
Examples

Example 9-604 The Reducing Vertical Bend Origin: Textbook

Estimate the force to hold the reducing vertical bend in place given that the flow rate of water
is 0.25 m3/s and the pressure at the center of the inlet section is 150 kPa gage. The empty
weight of the bend is 500 N and the bend volume is 0.1 m3.

Solution

 The momentum equation states

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

F z 0

 The forces acting are the pressure forces and the reaction force.
 The pressure at the exit is obtained from Bernoulli’s equation

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

 Here z1  0.4 , z2  0.075 , V1  Q A1  0.25 0.152   3.54 m/s, and V2  14.15 m/s.
 Hence p2  59.3 kPa.

 The momentum equation in the x-direction becomes

p1 A1  p2 A2  Rx  Q  V2  V1 

 Hence Rx  16 kN

 The momentum equation in the z-direction gives

Rz  Wb   o V  0

 Hence Rz  0.5  9.81  0.1  1.48 kN

116
 Momentum Equation

Example 9-605 Reducing Pipe Bend Origin: Exam 1103

Estimate the force required to hold the pipe bend in place given that the flow rate of water is
5 m3/s, the pressure at the inlet is 650 kPa, and the head loss is 10 m.

Solution

 The momentum equation states

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

F y  2Q2V2 y  1Q1V1y

 The forces acting are the pressure forces and the

reaction force. The pressure at the exit is obtained from Bernoulli’s equation

pi Vi2 p V2
  zi  o  o  zo  hl
 2g  2g

Here zi  zo , Vi  5   0.25  25.5 m/s and Vo  5   0.4   9.95 m/s.

2 2

 Substituting the values, one gets

650 25.52 p 9.952

  o   10
9.81 19.62  19.62

 Hence po   84.36 m and po  827.5 kPa.


 The momentum equation in the x-direction becomes

pi Ai cos 60o  po Ao  Rx  QVo  QVi cos 60o

 Substituting the values, one gets

650000  0.25  0.5  827500  0.4   Rx  1000  5 9.95  25.5 x 0.5
2 2

 Hence Rx  593 kN

 The momentum equation in the y-direction becomes

pi Ai sin 60o  Ry  QVi sin 60o

 Substituting the values, one gets Rx  221 kN

 The resultant force of water on the bend is F  5932  2212  633 kN
 It is acting at an angle of   tan 1  221 593  0.357 or 20.4o with the horizontal

117
Examples

Example 9-606 Filter Cap Origin: Quiz 1303

Determine the head loss for the water flow through the filter cap. The flow is in the
horizontal plane and the axial component of the anchoring force needed to keep the end cap
stationary is 270 N.

Solution

 Expressing the energy equation between the inlet and outlet

pi Vi2 p V2
  zi  o  o  zo  hl
 2g  2g

 The head loss is then

pi Vi2 Vo2
hl   
 2g 2g

 The momentum equation in the y-direction is

pi Ai  Ry  QVoy  QViy

 The inlet pressure is then

pi Ai  Ry  AoVo2 sin 30o  AiVi2

 The flow rate is Q  Vi Ai  3 111x 104   0.0333

 The velocity at the outlet is Vo  Q Ao  3.58 m/s
 Substituting the values

pi Ai  270  1000  0.0093 3.58  sin 30o  1000  0.0111 32  110.5 N

2

 The pressure is pi  9955 Pa

 The head loss is then

9955 32 3.582
hl     0.82 m
9810 2  9.81 2  9.81

118
 Momentum Equation

Example 9-607 The Sluice Gate Origin: Textbook

Estimate the force on the sluice gate. The gate is 20 ft wide.

Solution

 Using a control volume that encloses the inner surface of

the gate, the incoming and outgoing flow sections, the
momentum equation in the horizontal direction becomes

F x  p1 A1  p2 A2  R  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

 Here, the forces acting are the pressure forces and the
reaction force of the gate on the water body. Assuming a
hydrostatic pressure distribution, the pressure forces are

p1 A1  hc d1 w  wd12 2
p2 A2  hc d2 w  wd22 2

 The incoming and outgoing velocity are related by the flow rate equation

Q  V1 A1  V2 A2

 The unknown velocities are obtained from Bernoulli’s equation along the streamline ab
noting that for hydrostatic conditions p   z is constant across the section

V12 V2
 d1  2  d2
2g 2g

 Using V2  V1 A1 A2  V1 d1 d2 where d1  20 and d2  3, one obtains V1  5 ft/s.

 Hence V2  33.5 ft/s and the flow rate is Q  2010 ft3/s.
 The momentum equation becomes

wd12 wd22
  R  Q  V2  V1 
2 2

 Substituting the known values

 202  32 
62.4  20     R  1.94  2010  33.5  5
 2 

 Hence R  132850 lbf

119
Examples

Example 9-608 The Air Nozzle Origin: Textbook

The nozzle has an inlet diameter of 60 mm and an exit diameter of 10 mm. It is connected to
the supply pipe by flanges. Estimate the force required to hold the nozzle stationary if the
inlet pressure is 105 kPa abs and the outlet pressure is 101.3 kPa abs. Assume a constant air
density of 1.22 kg/m3.

Solution

 Using a control volume that encloses the force on the

flange, the incoming and outgoing flow sections, the
momentum equation in the horizontal direction becomes

F x  p1 A1  p2 A2  R  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

 The incoming and outgoing velocity are related by the flow rate equation

Q  V1 A1  V2 A2

 The unknown velocities are obtained from Bernoulli’s equation using gage pressures

p1 V12 V2
  z1  0  2  z2
 a 2g 2g

 Using p1  3.7 kPa, p2  0 , V2  V1 d12 d22 and z1  z2 , one gets V1  2.16 m/s.
 Hence V2  77.9 m/s.
 The momentum equation becomes

3700  0.06   4  0  R  1.22  2.16  0.06   4 77.9  2.16 

2 2

 Solving for the reaction, one gets R  9.9 N. This is the force on the control surface.
 The force on the flange is equal and opposite, i.e. in the positive x-direction.

120
 Momentum Equation

Example 9-609 The Double Nozzle Origin: Textbook

Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force that is exerted on the double
nozzle lying on a horizontal plane. The velocity of both nozzle jets is 12 m/s.

Solution

 The momentum equation states

F x  3Q3V3 x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1 x

F y  3Q3V3y  2Q2V2 y  1Q1V1y

 Here V2  V3  12 m/s and A1V1  A2V2  A3V3

 Hence V1  8.33 m/s and Q1  Q2  Q3  0.1473 m3/s
 Also Q2  0.0942 m3/s and Q3  0.0530 m3/s

 The forces acting are the pressure forces and the
reaction force.
 The pressure at the entrance is obtained from
Bernoulli’s equation expressed between the inlet and
one of the outlet with zi  zo

pi Vi2 p V2
  zi  o  o  zo
 2g  2g

 Hence pi   3.8 m and p1  pi  37.3 kPa.


 The momentum equation in the x-direction becomes

p1 A1  Rx  Q3V3 cos30o  Q2V2 cos15o  Q1V1

 Hence Rx  0.242 kN

 The momentum equation in the y-direction becomes

Ry  Q3V3 sin 30o  Q2V2 sin15o  0

 Hence Ry  0.025 kN, i.e. the force acts in the negative y-direction
 The resultant force of water on the double nozzle is F  0.2422  0.0252  0.243 kN
 It is acting at an angle of   tan 1  0.025 0.242  5.9o with the horizontal.

121
Examples

Example 9-610 Converging Nozzle Origin: Exam 1804

A 10 cm horizontal pipe is connected to a converging nozzle that discharges a 2-cm diameter

jet into the atmosphere. Find the magnitude and direction of the force required to hold the
nozzle stationary given that the exit velocity is 20 m/s.

Solution

Type: momentum problem

Equations:

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

Q  AV

Unknowns: Reaction R, inner pressure p1 , inner velocity V2 , and the flow rate Q.
Derivation:
 The forces are the pressure force in the pipe and the reaction force to counteract it.

p1 A1  Rx  Q2V2  Q1V1

The flow rate is Q  AV    0.01 20  6.28 x 103 m3/s

2

The inner velocity is V1x  V2 x  D2 D1   0.8 m/s
2

 The inner pressure is obtained from Bernoulli’s equation

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

 Hence p1  200 kPa.

Therefore, the reaction force is Rx  200  0.05  1  0.00628  20  0.8   1.45 kN
2

 The force components in the y-direction cancel each other

Answer:
 The force the water exerts is equal and opposite to the reaction acting to the right
 F  1450 N.

122
 Momentum Equation

Example 9-611 Diverging Nozzle Origin: Quiz 1700

An 8-cm horizontal pipe is connected to a diverging nozzle that discharges a 12-cm diameter
jet into the air. Find the magnitude and direction of the force the water exerts on the nozzle
given that the velocity in the pipe is 4 m/s.

Solution

Type: momentum problem

Equations:

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

Q  AV

Unknowns: Reaction R, inner pressure p1 , outer velocity V2 , and the flow rate Q.
Derivation:
 The forces are the pressure force in the pipe and the reaction force to counteract it.

p1 A1  Rx  Q2V2  Q1V1

The flow rate is Q  AV    0.04  4  0.02 m3/s

2

The outer velocity is V2 x  V1 x  D1 D2   1.78 m/s
2

 The inner pressure is obtained from Bernoulli’s equation

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

 Hence p1  6.415 kPa.

Therefore, the reaction force is Rx  6.415  0.04   1  0.02 1.78  4   12.15 N
2

 The force components in the y-direction cancel each other

Answer:
 The force the water exerts is equal and opposite to the reaction
 F 12.15 N.

123
Examples

Example 9-612 Pipe Contraction Origin: Quiz 1700

A 30-cm diameter pipe that carries water at a rate of 0.5 m3/s under a pressure of 200 kPa
contracts to a 20-cm diameter pipe section. Compute the resultant axial force on the
horizontal pipe contraction.

Solution

Type: momentum problem

Equations:

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

pi Vi2 p V2
  zi  o  o  zo
 2g  2g

Q  AV

Unknowns: Force F, pressures, and velocities.

Derivation:
 The forces acting are the pressure forces and the reaction force. The pressure at the
contracted section is obtained from the energy equation
 Here zi  zo , Vi  Q Ai  7.07 m/s, and Vo  Q Ao  15.9 m/s
 Hence po  98.4 kPa.
 The momentum equation in the x-direction becomes

pi Ai  po Ao  Rx  oQoVox  i QiVix

 Hence Rx  6.6 kN acting to the left

Answer:
 The axial force required to hold the pipe in place is equal and opposite to the reaction
 F  6.6 kN acting to the right

124
 Momentum Equation

Example 9-613 Force on a Contraction Origin: Exam 1203

A 30-cm diameter pipe that carries water at a rate of 0.707 m3/s under a pressure of 250 kPa
contracts to a 20-cm diameter pipe section. Compute the force on the horizontal pipe
contraction given that the head loss through the contraction is hl  0.1 V 2 2 g .

Solution

 The momentum equation states

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

 The forces acting are the pressure forces and the reaction force. The pressure at the
contracted section is obtained from the energy equation

pi Vi2 p V2
  zi  o  o  zo  hl
 2g  2g

Here zi  zo , Vi  Q Ai  10 m/s, Vo  Q Ao  22.5 m/s, & hl  0.1  22.5 19.62  2.58 m

2

 Hence po  21.5 kPa.

 The momentum equation in the x-direction becomes

pi Ai  po Ao  Rx  o QoVox  i QiVix

 Hence Rx  8.16 kN

Alternate versions

 For a flow rate of 0.75 with no hl, the pressure is 21.3 kPa and the force is 7.05 kN
 For a flow rate of 0.50 with no hl, the pressure is 148.3 kPa and the force is 8.58 kN
 For a flow rate of 0.25 with no hl, the pressure is 224.6 kPa and the force is 9.51 kN

125
Examples

Example 9-614 The Single Vane Origin: Textbook

Find the force exerted by the water jet on the vane.

Solution

 The momentum equation states

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

F y  2Q2V2 y  1Q1V1y

 Selecting the reaction in the negative x- and y-directions

 Fx  Q  V2 x  V1 x   1000  0.015  30   30 cos 60o  30   318.1 N

2

 Fy  Q  V2 y  V1y   1000  0.015  30   30 sin 60o  0   551 N

2

 The force of the jet on the vane is equal and opposite.

Example 9-615 The Reverse Vane Origin: Textbook

Find the force required to hold the axisymmetric vane stationary in terms of the velocity v
and angle .

Solution

 The momentum equation states

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

 That is

 Fx  Q  V2 x  V1 x   Av   v cos   v   Av2   cos   1

 Hence, the force of the jet on the axisymmetric vane is

Fx  Av2  cos   1

 It is acting to the left and provides reverse thrust on aircraft engines

126
 Momentum Equation

Example 9-616 The Moving Vane Origin: Textbook

The 2-in-diameter water jet with a velocity of 100 ft/s impinges on a single vane moving in
the same direction at a speed of 60 ft/s. Calculate the force acting on the vane and the
horsepower transferred to the vane if the velocity leaving the vane is v2  0.9v1 due to
friction losses.

Solution

 The momentum equation states

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

F y  2Q2V2 y  1Q1V1y

 That is

 Fx  Q  V2 x  V1 x   Av  v2 x  v1 x   1.94  1 12  40   36 cos150o  40   120.5 lb

2

 Fy  Av  v2 y  v1y   1.94  1 12   40   36 sin 150o  0   30.5 lb

2

 The force of water on the vane is equal and opposite.

 The resultant force is 124 lb at 14.2o with the horizontal.
 The horsepower transferred to the vane is P  Fv 550  120  60  550  13.1 hp.

 If the blade were one of a series of blades, the flow rate becomes
Q  AV   1 12  100  2.18 cfs
2

 The horizontal force acting on the series of blades would become 300 lb.
 The horsepower transferred to the blades is P  Fv 550  300  60  550  32.73 hp.
 The power loss due to friction is

Q  v12 v22  62.4  2.18   402  362 

Ploss        1.17 hp.
550  2 g 2 g  550  64.4 

127
Examples

Example 9-617 The Rectangular Duct Origin: Quiz 802S

Water flows through the rectangular duct, which is 50 cm wide and 1 m deep into the page.
Gate BC completely closes the duct when the angle  is 90o. For what angle  will the force of
the exit jet on the plate be 3kN?

Solution

 Using a control volume that encloses the exiting and

the deflected jets, the momentum equation becomes

 F  1Q1V1x

 The discharge is Q  1.2  0.5  0.6 m3/s

 The exiting jet is from the continuity equation

Q  A1V1  0.6

 Using trigonometry

0.6
V1 
0.5 1  sin  

 Substituting into the momentum equation

0.6
3000  1000  0.6 
0.5 1  sin  

 Solving for the angle , one gets sin   0.76 or  49.5o.

128
 Momentum Equation

Example 9-618 Alcohol Jet Origin: Quiz 802S

A jet of alcohol strikes the vertical plate as shown. Determine the pressure at section 1 if the
force F required to hold the plate stationary is 425 N.

Solution

 Using a control volume that encloses the exiting and

the deflected jets, the momentum equation becomes

 F  2Q2V2 x

 The discharge is Q  V2x A and the area is A  r 2

 Solving for the velocity, one gets

F 425
V2 x    41.4 m/s
A 1000  0.79    0.01
2

 Using the continuity principle, the velocity in the larger diameter is

V2 A2 41.4   0.01
2

V1    6.62 m/s
  0.025
2
A1

 Applying Bernoulli’s equation between D1 and D2

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 2g  2g

 The pressure at section 1 is therefore

V2 V2 
p1    2  1   85.2  85.2  0.79  9.81  660 kPa gage
 2g 2g 

129
Examples

Example 9-619 The Circular Nozzle Origin: Textbook

Water exits through a circular nozzle as a jet and strikes the plate as shown. Determine the
mercury manometer reading h if the force F required to hold the plate steady is 70 N.

Solution

 Using a control volume that encloses the exiting and the

deflected jets, the momentum equation becomes

 F  2Q2V2 x

 The discharge is Q  V2x A and the area is A  r 2

 Solving for the velocity, one gets

F 70
V2 x    9.95 m/s
A 1000  0.015
2

 Using the continuity principle, the velocity in the larger diameter is

V2 A2 9.95  0.015
2

V1    0.9 m/s
  0.05
2
A1

 Applying Bernoulli’s equation between D1 and D2

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2
 w 2g  w 2g

 The difference is pressure is therefore

p1 p2 V22 V12
   5 m
 w  w 2g 2g

 The manometer principle gives

p1   w h  p2   m h

 Or

p1 p
 h  2  Sm h
w w

 The manometer reading is therefore

1  p1 p2  5
h     0.4 m
Sm  1   w  w  13.6  1

130
 Momentum Equation

Example 9-620 Tension in a Cable Origin: Quiz 1700

A jet of 4 cm diameter and a velocity of 8 m/s is deflected by a blade. Compute the tension
in the cable restraining the frictionless cart.

Solution

Type: momentum problem

Equations:

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

Q  AV

Unknowns: Tension T, flow rate Q.

Derivation:
 Using a control volume that encloses the tank, the cable, and the deflected jet, the
momentum equation gives

T  2Q2V2 x

The discharge is Q  VA  8  0.02   0.0101 m3/s

2

 The velocity in the x-direction is Vx  8 cos 60o
 The tension in the cable is therefore

T  1000  8  0.02  8 cos 60o  40.2 N

2

Answer:
 The tension is 40.2 N.

131
Examples

Example 9-621 Hydraulic Dredge Origin: Quiz 1002

The hydraulic dredge is used to dredge sand from a river bottom. Estimate the thrust needed
from the propeller to hold the boat stationary. Assume the specific gravity of the sand-water
mixture to be 1.4.

Solution

Type: momentum problem

Equations:

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

Q  AV

.   Sw .

Unknowns: thrust T, flow rate Q, and the density .

Derivation:
 Expressing the momentum equation in the x-direction, the only force acting is the thrust
of the propeller to counteract the jet reaction force. The inlet velocity is also
perpendicular to the x-direction. Hence

 Ft  2Q2V2 x

 The velocity is V2 x  10 cos   6   8.66 m/s

 The flow rate is Q  AV    0.62 4  10  2.83 m3/s
 The density is 1.4(1000)
 Therefore, the jet reaction is 34.28 kN

Answer:
 The thrust is equal and opposite to the jet reaction, T  34.28 kN.

132
 Momentum Equation

Example 9-622 Jet Ski Origin: Quiz 902

The thrust developed to propel the Jet Ski is a result of water pumped through the vehicle
and exiting as a high-speed water jet. Compute the flowrate needed to produce a 1300 N
thrust for the conditions shown below. Take the exiting water jet to be horizontal and
assume the inlet and outlet jets of water are free jets.

Solution

 The momentum equation in the x-direction is

 F  Q V
x-dir
o o  QiVi

 The only force acting is the thrust force

exerted by the ski jet.
 The corresponding force exerted on the control surface is in the opposite direction.
 The exit flow velocity is given by AiVi  AoVo , or Vo  2.5Vi .
 Hence

R  Q 2.5  cos  30   Vi    0.016  2.5  cos  30   Vi2

 For a thrust of R  1300 N, the velocity is 7 m/s

 Thus, the flow rate is 0.112 m3/s.

133
Examples

Example 9-623 The Concrete in the Cart Origin: Textbook

Determine the tension in the cable and the weight on the scale if the concrete stream is
flowing in the cart at an angle of 60o with the horizontal. The weight of the cart plus the
concrete is 3.6 kN at the instant shown.

Solution

 Selecting a control volume that provides the force on

the cable and the weight on scale, the momentum
equation becomes

F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1x

F z  2Q2V2 z  1Q1V1z

 The momentum equation in the x-direction becomes

T  1Q1V1x  Av  v cos 60o 

 Hence, the tension is T  2400  0.1 32 cos 60o  1080 N


 The momentum equation in the z-direction becomes

N  W  1Q1V1z  Av   v sin 60o 

 Hence, the force on the scale is N  3600  2400  0.1 32 sin 60o  5471 N
 The weight recorded by the scale is larger than W because of the momentum flux.

134
 Momentum Equation

Example 9-624 The Reaction of a Jet Origin: Textbook

Compute the resultant force on the curved pipe section 40 ft long. Also determine the jet
reaction. Assume an ideal liquid with   55 lbf/ft3.

Solution

 Using a control volume that encloses the curved

pipe section

p2 A2  Fx  Q  V3 x  V2 x   Q  V3 cos 20o  V2 

 The flow rate in the pipe is obtained from

Bernoulli’s equation

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  3  3  z3
 2g  2g

 For p1  30 144  psf, z1  35 ft, and z3  20 ft, one gets V3  77.6 ft/s
 Hence Q  A3V3  A2V2  3.81 cfs and V2  43.6 ft/s
 The pressure at section 2 is also obtained from the application of Bernoulli’s equation

p2 V22 p V2
  z2  3  3  z3
 2g  2g

 Substituting the values, the pressure at section 2 is p2  28.3 psi

 The force in the x direction is therefore

55
28.3  2   Fx   3.81 77.6 cos 20o  43.6 
2

32.2

 That is Fx  165 lb.

 The force in the y-direction is

55
Fy  W  3.81 77.6 sin 20o  0 
32.2

Assuming W  V  r 2 l  55 1.75 12  40  150 lb, the force Fy  323 lb.
2

 The volume of a truncated cone is actually

l 2 40  22 2 1.5 1.52 

V 
3
 2 2 3 3  3  144 12 12  144   2.69 ft3
r  r r  r 2
 
 

 The resultant force of liquid on the curved pipe is equal and opposite Fr  363 lb.
 The direction is downward and to the right at an angle of 63o with the horizontal

 The jet reaction is obtained by selecting a control volume that includes the entire system.
 Hence

Fx  Q  V3 cos 20o  0   475 lb.

 The jet reaction is equal and opposite, i.e. it is the force of the liquid on the system that
tends to move the entire system to the left.

135
Examples

9.7 Drag and Lift

9.7.1 Drag Force

Example 9-701 Terminal Velocity Origin: Textbook

Compute the terminal velocity of a 20 mm plastic sphere (S  1.3) dropped in water.

Solution

 The terminal velocity is attained when all the forces acting on a sphere are in equilibrium.
 Hence

F z  W  FB  FD  0

 The drag force is

V 2  V2
 C D  0.02  1000 
2
FD  C D A N
2 4 2

 The buoyant force is the weight of the volume displaced, i.e.

  0.02 
3
D3
FB   o  9810  0.0411 N
6 6

 The weight is

  0.02 
3
D3
W  p  9810 1.3  0.0534 N
6 6

 Thus

0.1571C D V 2  0.0123 or V  0.280C D1 2

 Since CD is function of the velocity through the Reynolds number Re  VD  , a trial-and-

error solution is required using the drag coefficient graph for axisymmetric bodies.
 Alternatively, one can use one of the fitted correlations between CD and Re

24 0.42
CD 
Re
 1  0.15 Re0.687  
1  42500 Re1.16
Re  3 x 105

 Selecting C D  0.4 , one finds V  0.44 m/s

 The Reynolds number is around Re  8855
 The corresponding drag coefficient is C D  0.41 , which is close to the previous value.
 The terminal velocity is then V  0.44 m/s.

136
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-702 Free-Fall Velocity Origin: Textbook

Find the free-fall velocity of a 16 lb. 8.5-in-diameter bowling ball in crude oil (S  0.925).
The kinematic viscosity of crude oil is 0.001 ft2/s.

Solution

 The free-fall velocity is attained when all the forces acting on a sphere are in equilibrium.
The acceleration becomes zero and the sphere attains a constant free-fall velocity, also
known as terminal velocity. Hence

F z  W  FB  FD  0

 The buoyant force is the weight of the volume displaced, i.e.

FB   o D3 6  0.925  62.4  8.5 12   6  10.75 lb

3

 The drag force is

2
AV 2  8.5   V
2
FD  C D   C D  0.925 1.94   lb
2  12  4 2

 Thus

2
 8.5   V
2
C D  0.925 1.94    16  10.75  5.25 lb
 12  4 2

 Or

0.354C DV 2  5.25 lb

 Since CD is function of the velocity through the Reynolds number Re  VD  , a trial-and-

error solution is required using the drag coefficient graph for axisymmetric bodies.
 Selecting C D  0.4 , one finds V  6.1 ft/s.
 The Reynolds number is around 4320
 The corresponding drag coefficient value is from the graph C D  0.39 , which is close to
the previous value. The terminal velocity is then V  6.2 ft/s.

137
Examples

Example 9-703 Terminal Velocity Origin: Quiz 1700

Estimate the terminal velocity of a 5 mm plastic sphere in oil. The oil has a specific gravity of
0.95 and a kinematic viscosity of 10-4 m2/s. The plastic has a specific gravity of 1.2.

Solution

Type: Drag problem

Equations:

F z  W  FB  FD  0

V 2
FD  C D A
2

D3
FB   a
6

W  mg  V

Unknowns: Velocity V, Drag coefficient CD.

Derivation:
 The forces acting on the ping pong ball are in equilibrium. Thus

   V2
1.2  9810   0.005  0.95  9810   0.005  C D  0.005 0.95  999  0
3 3 2

6 6 4 2

 i.e.

0.25 0.95
 0.005  C DV 2  0 or C DV 2  0.0172
6 8  9.81

 Since CD is function of the velocity through the Reynolds number Re  VD  , a trial-and-

error solution is required using the drag coefficient graph for axisymmetric bodies.
 Selecting C D  0.4 , one finds V  0.21 m/s
 The Reynolds number is Re  10.4 and the corresponding drag coefficient can be
approximated by C D  24 Re

24 2
V  0.0172 or 24V   0.0172 D
Re

 Solving for V, one gets V  0.036 m/s.

 The Reynolds number is Re  1.79 and C D  14

Answer:
 The terminal velocity is then V  0.035 m/s.

138
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-704 Table Tennis Ball Origin: Quiz 1700

A 38.1 mm diameter, 2.5 g table tennis ball is released from the bottom of a swimming pool.
Compute the velocity as it reaches the water surface.

Solution

Type: Drag problem

Equations:

F z  W  FB  FD  0

V 2
FD  C D A
2

D3
FB   a
6

W  mg

Unknowns: Velocity V, Drag coefficient CD.

Derivation:
 The forces acting on the ping pong ball are in equilibrium. Thus

  V2
0.0025  9.81  999  9.81  0.0381  C D  0.0381  999  0
3 2

6 4 2

 i.e.

0.0245  0.284  0.569C DV 2  0 or C DV 2  0.454

 Since CD is function of the velocity through the Reynolds number Re  VD  , a trial-and-

error solution is required using the drag coefficient graph for axisymmetric bodies.
 Selecting C D  0.4 , one finds V  1.067 m/s
 The Reynolds number is Re  37000 and the corresponding drag coefficient is C D  0.4
 A further iteration yields a value close to the previous one.

Answer:
 The terminal velocity is then V  1.067 m/s.

139
Examples

Example 9-705 Ping-Pong Ball Origin: Exam 1203

Determine the velocity of air to keep the ball suspended in mid-air. The Ping-Pong ball has a
mass of 3.1 g and a diameter of 4.2 cm. The density and kinematic viscosity of air is  1.18
kg/m3 and  1.56 x 10-5 m2/s.

Solution

 For the Ping-Pong ball to remain suspended, the forces acting

on the ball must be in equilibrium

F z  W  FB  FD  0

 The drag force is

V 2  V2
 C D  0.042  1.18 
2
FD  C D A N
2 4 2

 The buoyant force is the weight of the volume displaced, i.e.

  0.042 
3
D3
FB   a  9.81 1.184   0.000451 N
6 6

 The weight is

W  mg  0.0031  9.81  0.0304 N

 Thus

0.000817C DV 2  0.0299 or V  6.05C D1 2

 Since CD is function of the velocity through the Reynolds number Re  VD  , a trial-and-

error solution is required using the drag coefficient graph for axisymmetric bodies.
 Selecting C D  0.4 , one finds V  9.56 m/s
 The Reynolds number is Re  25000 and the corresponding drag coefficient is C D  0.43
 A further iteration yields a value close to the previous one.
 The terminal velocity is then V  9.2 m/s or 33 km/h.

140
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-706 Drag on a Pipe Origin: Exam 1303

Compute the drag force exerted on the 2.2-cm diameter pipe. The velocity of water in the
river is 4 m/s. The kinematic viscosity is  1.13 x 10-6 m2/s.

Solution

 The drag force is

V 2 V2
FD  C D A  C D  30  0.022 1000 
2 2

 The drag coefficient CD is function of the velocity through the Reynolds number
Re  VD  as depicted in the drag coefficient graph for cylindrical bodies.
 For V  4 m/s and   1.13 x 106 , the Reynolds number is around Re  78000
 The corresponding drag coefficient is C D  1
 The drag force is therefore

42
FD  1  0.022  30 1000   5280 N
2

141
Examples

Example 9-707 The Antenna Origin: Textbook

Calculate the drag force and bending moment acting on a 30 m high and 30 cm in diameter
cylindrical support for a transmitting antenna that is exposed to a wind speed of 35 m/s.

Solution

 The drag force is given by

FD  C D Ap V 2 2

 Since L D  100  20 , the drag coefficient is obtained from the figure for 2D bodies.
 For Re  VD   35  0.3 1.51x 105  7 x 105 , C D  0.2
 Hence, the drag force is

352
FD  0.2  30  0.3 1.2   1323 N
2

 The point of application of this force is at mid-height as the force distribution is uniform
 The bending moment about the base is

M  FD L 2  1323 15  19800 N.m

142
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-708 Chimney in the Wind Origin: 1805

A cylindrical chimney 0.9 m in diameter and 22.5 m high is exposed to a 56 km/h wind.
Estimate the bending moment at the bottom of the chimney.

Solution

Type: Drag problem

Equations:
M  FD rD

V 2
FD  C D A
2

Unknowns: Moment M, drag force FD, drag coefficient CD.

Derivation:
 Since L D  24.4  20 , the drag coefficient is obtained from the figure for 2D bodies.
 For Re  VD   15.5  0.9  1.5 x 105  9.3 x 105 , C D  0.3
 Hence, the drag force is

15.52
FD  0.3 1.22  0.9  22.5  890 N
2

 The point of application of this force is at mid-height as the force distribution is uniform
 The bending moment about the base is

M  FD L 2  890 11.25  10 kN.m

Answer:
 The bending moment is M  10 kN.m.

Alternate versions

 For V  60 km/hr, Cd  0.28, F  950 N, M  10.7 kN.m.

 For V  70 km/hr, Cd  0.30, F  1400 N, M  15.75 kN.m.

143
Examples

Example 9-709 The Speed of a Bike Rider Origin: Textbook

Compute the speed of a cyclist of mass 70 kg who is supplying 300 watts of power and riding
in a 3 m/s headwind. The frontal area of the cyclist and bicycle is 0.362 m2, the drag
coefficient is 0.88, and the coefficient of rolling resistance is 0.007.

Solution

 The power is expressed by P  FVc where F is

the drag force plus the friction force (rolling
resistance) and Vc is the velocity of the cyclist.
 The friction force is F f  W
 The drag force is FD  C D Ap Va2 2 .
 Here Va  Vc  Vw is the acting wind velocity, i.e.
the speed of air relative to the bike rider
 The power for biking in a 3 m/s headwind is then

 V 2 
P   W  C D Ap a  Vc
 2 

 Substituting the values, one gets

 1.2  Vc  3 
2

300  0.007  70  9.81  0.88  0.362   Vc

 2 

 Solving for V by iterations, one obtains Vc  9.1 m/s

Example 9-710 Speed of a Biker Origin: Exam 1403

A bicyclist is capable of delivering 100 W of power to the wheels. How fast can the bicyclist
travel in a 20 km/h head wind if his projected area is 0.5 m2, and the drag coefficient is 0.4?

Solution

 The power is given by P  FV where F is the drag force and V is the velocity of the
biker.
 The drag force is expressed by FD  C D Ap V 2 2 .
 The acting wind speed on the biker in a head wind of 5.55 m/s is V  5.55
 The power for biking is

1 1
C D ApVw2Vb  C D Ap  Vb  5.55 Vb  100 W
2
P
2 2

 Solving for Vb , one gets Vb  6.12 m/s or 22 km/hr.

144
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-711 Bicycle Power Origin: Quiz 902S

Calculate the extra energy required to pedal a bicycle for 1 hour at 24 km/h into a 32 km/h
headwind than at 24 km/h through still air. Assume a drag coefficient of Cd  0.88 and a
frontal area of 0.4 m2. Express your answer in terms of chocolate bars needed noting that a
typical 100 gr. chocolate bar contains 550 kcal. The energy unit conversion is 1 J  0.2388
cal.

Solution

 The power is expressed by P  FV where F is the drag force and V is the velocity.
 The drag force is given by FD  C D Ap V 2 2 .
 The bike speed is 24 km/hr or 6.67 m/s and it is equal to the acting wind speed
 The power for biking in still air is then

ApV 2 6.672
P  CD V  0.88 1.2  0.4  6.67  62.7 W
2 2

 For a 32 km/hr headwind, the acting wind speed is 56 km/hr or 15.6 m/s.
 Hence

ApV 2 15.62
P  CD V  0.88 1.2 0.4  6.67  342.8 W
2 2

 The extra power is P  342.8  62.7  280 W.

 To ride for 1 hour, the energy required is 280  3600   1008000 Joule or 240 kcal
 This is equivalent to 44 gr. of a chocolate bar.

Example 9-712 Power of a Cyclist Origin: Textbook

Calculate the power of a cyclist and the energy needed to ride for 1 hour at a speed of 40
km/hr using a force of 22 N to overcome the aerodynamic drag.

Solution

 The power is P  FV , i.e. P  22  40000 3600   244 W

 The energy is E  P t , i.e. E  244  3600   878400 J or 210 kcal

145
Examples

Example 9-713 The Cartop Carrier Origin: Quiz 802

Estimate the extra power needed to drive the car at 100 km/hr in a 25 km/hr head wind
when the cartop carrier is mounted.

Solution

 The power is expressed by P  FV where F is the drag force in this case and V is the
velocity of the car.
 The drag force is given by FD  C D Ap V 2 2 .
 The acting velocity is 125 km/hr or 34.7 m/s.
 The 3D drag coefficient for a width/height ratio of 7.5 is 1.25
 Hence

FD  1.25 1.2 1.5  0.2  34.72 2  271 N

 The additional power is P  271.6  27.8   7.55 kW.

146
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-714 Tipping the Truck Origin: Quiz 902

Compute the wind velocity that will tip the truck on its side given that the mass of the truck
is 5 tons. The drag coefficient for a body of rectangular cross-section is 2.2 and the air
density is 1.1 kg/m3. Assume the weight of the truck to be uniformly distributed.

Solution

 The truck will start to tip when the moment about the longitudinal axis passing through
the side wheels is just above zero.

M  F r  WrW  2 FD  W  0
D D

 The weight is 5000*9.81

 The drag force is given by FD  C D A V 2 2
 The drag force is then 24525N
 The projected area is 2.5 x 9 m2.
 The wind velocity that can produce this drag is 31.5 m/s
 This is equivalent to 113 km/hr.

Example 9-715 Cruising Car Origin: Quiz 1002

Compute the maximum velocity of a cruising car in km/h when it is rolling down a very long
hill. The mass of the car is 900 kg, the frontal area is 1.67 m2, and the drag coefficient is
0.29. The slope of the hill is 6% and the rolling friction coefficient is 0.01. The air density is
1.03 kg/m3.

Solution

 The maximum velocity occurs when all the forces along the direction of motion are in
equilibrium. That is

F  F D  Fr  W sin   0

 The angle of the hill  is   arctan  0.06   0.0599 or 3.43o

 The rolling force is

Fr  N  W cos   0.01  900  9.81cos  0.0599   88.1 N

 The drag force is

FD  C D Ap V 2 2  0.29 1.03 1.67 V 2 2  0.2494V 2 N

 Summing up the forces, one obtains

0.2494V 2  88.1  528.8  0

 Hence, V  42 m/s or 151 km/hr.

147
Examples

Example 9-716 Gas Mileage Origin: Quiz 1700

The mass of an automobile is 1500 Kg and its frontal area is 126.5 cm x 160 cm. The drag
coefficient is 0.4 and the coefficient of rolling friction is 0.1. Determine the percentage
savings in gas mileage from driving at 100 km/hr instead of 120 km/hr.

Solution

Type: Drag problem

Equations:
 The power is expressed by P  FV where F is the drag force plus the friction force
(rolling resistance) and V is the velocity of the car.
 The drag force is FD  C D Ap Va2 2 .
 The friction force is Fr  W

P  FV ; F  FD  Fr

V 2
FD  C D A ; Fr  W
2

Unknowns: Power P.
Derivation:
 The power for a car at a speed of 100 km/hr is

 V 2   1.2  100    100 

2

P   W  C D Ap  V   0.1 1500  9.81  0.4  2.02        51 kW

 2   2  3.6    3.6 

 The power for a car at a speed of 120 km/hr is

 V 2   1.2  120    120 

2

P   W  C D Ap  V   0.1  1500  9.81  0.4  2.02       67 kW

 2   2  3.6    3.6 

Answer:
 The percentage savings is 1  51 / 67  0.239 , i.e. 24%.

Alternate versions

 For a head wind of 20 km/h, P100  55.8 kW, P120  73.5 kW, 24% saving
 For a head wind of 40 km/h, P100  61.2 kW, P120  81 kW, 24.7% saving
 For a head wind of 50 km/h, P100  64.2 kW, P120  85 kW, 24.5% saving

148
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-717 Sports Car Origin: Quiz 1700

A convertible sports car has a mass of 800 Kg, a frontal area of 2 m2, and a coefficient of
rolling friction of 0.1. The drag coefficient with the roof closed is 0.3 and it increases to 0.42
when the roof is open. Compute the maximum possible speed in km/hr with the roof closed
and with it open if the maximum power delivered to the wheels is 80 kW.

Solution

Type: Drag problem

Equations:
 The power is expressed by P  FV where F is the drag force plus the friction force
(rolling resistance) and V is the velocity of the car.
 The drag force is FD  C D Ap Va2 2 .
 The friction force is Fr  W

P  FV ; F  FD  Fr

V 2
FD  C D A ; Fr  W
2

Unknowns: Velocity V.
Derivation:
 The power expression is given by

 V 2 
P   W  C D Ap  V kW
 2 

 For a closed roof with a power of 80000 W, the speed is given by

 1.2 2 
P  0.1  800  9.81  0.3  2  V  V  80000 kW
 2 

 For an open roof with a power of 80000 W, the speed is given by

 1.2 2 
P  0.1  800  9.81  0.42  2  V  V  80000 kW
 2 

 Solving for V iteratively, one gets the maximum speed for each case

Answer:
 The maximum speed for closed roof is 48.76 m/s or 175 km/h
 The maximum speed for open roof is 44.67 m/s or 160 km/h

149
Examples

Example 9-718 The Paratrooper Origin: Exam 1503

The mass of a paratrooper and parachute is 90 kg. Compute the rate of descent if the
parachute is 7 m in diameter, the pressure and temperature at 2000 m are 80 kPa and 4oC,
respectively. Assume C D  1.2 .

Solution

 At equilibrium, the forces acting on the paratrooper are balanced

F z  W  FD  0

 The weight is

W  mg  90  9.81  883 N

 The air density at high altitude is

p 80000
a    1.01 kg/m3
RT 287  273  4 

 The drag force is

V 2  2 V2
FD  C D A  1.2 7  1.01 N
2 4 2

 Thus

23.3V 2  883

 The velocity V is 6.15 m/s or 22 km/hr.

 For a mass of 70, the velocity is 5.4 m/s or 19.5 km/hr.

Alternate versions

 For m  80 kg, p  80 kPa, T  4o C,   1.01 kg/m3, V  5.8 m/s  20.9 km/h .

 For m  85 kg, p  85 kPa, T  4o C,   1.07 kg/m3, V  5.81 m/s  20.91 km/h .
 For m  90 kg, p  90 kPa, T  4o C,   1.13 kg/m3, V  5.82 m/s  20.94 km/h .

150
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-719 The Skydiver Origin: Exam 1503

The mass of a skydiver is 70 kg. Compute the rate of descent if the frontal area is 0.4 m2, the
pressure and temperature at 2000 m are 80 kPa and 4oC, respectively. Assume C D  0.9 .

Solution

 At equilibrium, the forces acting on the paratrooper are balanced

F z  W  FD  0

 The weight is

W  mg  70  9.81  687 N

 The air density at high altitude is

p 80000
a    1.01 kg/m3
RT 287  273  4 

 The drag force is

V 2 V2
FD  C D A  0.9  0.4 1.01 N
2 2

 Thus

0.182V 2  687

 The velocity V is 61.5 m/s or 221 km/hr.

 For a mass of 90 kg, the velocity is 69.6 m/s or 251 km/hr.

151
Examples

Example 9-720 The Glider Origin: Exam 1203

A glider at 500 m altitude has a mass of 180 kg, a wing area of 20 m2, and a lift coefficient of
0.83. Calculate the time it will take the glider to reach the sea level given that the glide angle
is 1.7o and the air density is 1.2 kg/m3.

Solution

 For a steady glide, the lift force must equal to the weight, i.e. FL  W . Hence

2W 2 180  9.81
V    13.32 m/s
AC L 20 1.2  0.83

 For an angle of 1.7o, the travel distance from an elevation of 500 m to sea level is

500
x   16850 m
sin 1.7 

 The travel time is then

16850
t   1266 s
13.32

 That is, it would take 21 minutes to land.

Example 9-721 Flying Banner Origin: Exam 2005

A light plane is towing a "Cheating Feels Good" banner over a beach. The banner is 13.5 m
long and 1.2 m tall. Estimate the power required to tow the banner at 88 km/h given that the
drag coefficient for such a banner is expressed by C D  0.05 L h where L is the banner
length and h is the banner height.

Solution

 The power is P  FV where F is the drag force and V is the velocity of the plane.
 The drag force is FD  C D Ap V 2 2 .
 The speed is 88 km/h or 24.4 m/s
 The drag coefficient is C D  0.05 13.5 1.2   0.5625
 The drag force is

ApV 2 24.42
FD  C D  0.5625 1.2  13.5 1.2   3.255 kN
2 2

 The power is then

P  FDV  3255  24.4   79.4 kW

152
 Drag and Lift

9.7.2 Lift Force

Example 9-722 Takeoff of an Airplane Origin: Textbook

A two-passanger light plane with a weight of 10 kN has a wingspan of 10 m and a chord

length of 1.5 m. Determine the angle of attack for a takeoff speed of 140 km/hr and compute
the stall speed. Assume standard atmospheric conditions and the weight of each passanger to
be 800 N.

Solution

 In order to determine the angle of attack, one must first compute the lift coefficient
needed.
 For a steady flight, the lift force must equal to the weight, i.e. FL  W . Hence

2W 2 11600 
CL    0.852
AV 10 1.5 1.2  38.88 
2 2

 For an aspect ratio of b c  10 1.5  6.67 and lift coefficient of 0.852, the corresponding
angle of attack from the textbook graph is 7o.
 The stall speed is obtained from the lift force equation using the maximum lift coefficient
 The maximum lift coefficient shown in the graph is C L  1.18 .
 Hence, the stall speed is

2W 2 11600 
V    33 m/s
AC L 10 1.5 1.2 1.18 

 The stall speed is 119 km/hr, which is less than the takeoff speed.

Example 9-723 Flying the Airplane Origin: Quiz 902

An airplane has a mass of 50 tons, a wing area of 300 m2, a maximum lift coefficient of 3.2,
and a cruising drag coefficient of 0.03 at an altitude of 12 km. Determine the safe takeoff
speed assuming it is 20% over the stall speed. The air density at sea level is 1.225 kg/m3.

Solution

 The airplane will take off when the lift force equals the total weight

W  FL  C L AV 2 2

 The stall velocity is the minimum takeoff velocity and corresponds to the maximum lift
coefficient. Hence

2W 2  50000  9.81
V    28.9 m/s
AC L 1.225  300  3.2

 Thus the safe takeoff velocity is V  1.2Vmin  1.2  28.9   34.7 m/s or 125 km/hr.

153
Examples

Example 9-724 Landing & Stalling Speeds Origin: Quiz 1002

Compute the landing speed and stalling speed of an airplane given that the landing speed is 8
m/s faster than its stalling speed. The lift coefficient at landing speed is 1.2 and the
maximum lift coefficient is 1.4.

Solution

 The maximum lift coefficient is the one that corresponds to stalling, i.e. C L, s  1.4
 In both landing and stalling conditions, the lift force is equal to the weight of an airplane

W  FL,l  C L,l A Vl 2 2

W  FL, s  C L, s A Vs2 2

 Equating the two equations, one obtains

C L,l Vl 2  C L, sVs2

 The landing speed is 8 m/s faster than the stalling speed, i.e. Vl  Vs  8
 Substituting in the previous equation

1.2  Vs  8   1.4Vs2
2

 Taking the square root of both sides and solving, one obtains Vs  99.8 m/s
 Therefore, the landing speed is Vl  107.8 m/s or 388 km/hr.

Example 9-725 Are We Flying? Origin: Exam 1303

A jumbo jet airplane has a mass of 300 tons when fully loaded, a maximum take-off speed of
290 km/h, a wing area of 510 m2, and a maximum lift coefficient of 1.5. Please advise
whether the aircraft can take-off at standard atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 45oC
at the airport.

Solution

 The airplane will take off when the lift force equals the total weight

W  FL  C L AV 2 2

 The minimum air density for take-off is

2W 2  300000  9.81
   1.185 kg/m3
C L AV 2
1.5  510  80.552

 The ideal gas law gives

p 101300
   1.11 kg/m3
RT 287  273  45

 The air density at the airport is less than required for take-off.

154
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-726 Takeoff Speed Origin: Quiz 1700

Compute the takeoff speed of a Jumbo jet at Mexico City airport (El. 2250 m) if its takeoff
speed is 190 km/h at Beirut Airport (El. 25 m). Assume  1.0 kg/m3 in Mexico City.

Solution

Type: Lift problem

Equations:
V 2
FL  C L A
2

FL  W

Unknowns: Velocity V
Derivation:
 The aircraft will take off when the lift is equal to the total weight, i.e. FL  W . Hence

2W
V2 
AC L

 The ratio of the velocities at the two cities are

VM2 
 B  1.2
VB  M
2

 The takeoff velocity at Mexico City is given by

VM  1.21VB  1.1VB

Answer:
 The takeoff speed at Mexico City is 209 km/h (58 m/s).

Alternate versions

 For p  600 mm Hg, T  12o C,   0.978 Kg/m3, V  1.12(190)  212.7 km/hr.

155
Examples

Example 9-727 Take-off Speed Origin: Quiz 1700

A jumbo jet airplane has a mass of 400 tons, when fully loaded with 400 passengers, and
takes off at a speed of 250 km/h. Determine the take-off speed when the airplane is half-
empty. Assume a mass of 140 kg for each passenger with luggage, standard atmospheric
pressure conditions, and a temperature of 40oC at the airport.

Type: Lift problem

Equations:
V 2
FL  C L A
2

FL  W

Unknowns: Take-off speed V

Derivation:
 The aircraft will take off when the lift is equal to the total weight, i.e. FL  W . Hence

2W
V2 
AC L

 The ratio of the velocities of the half-loaded and fully loaded aircraft is

Vh2 Wh M 400000  200 140 

2
  h   0.93
Vf Wf Mf 400000

 The takeoff velocity of the half-loaded aircraft is given by

Vh  0.93V f km/h

Answer:
 The takeoff velocity of the half-loaded aircraft is 241 km/h.

156
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-728 Airplane Wing Origin: Quiz 1700

Determine the length of an airplane wing with an aspect ratio of 5 to lift 800 kg when it flies
at a speed of 220 km/h with an angle of attack of 4o. Assume  0.9 kg/m3.

Type: Lift problem

Equations:
V 2
FL  C L A
2

FL  W

Unknowns: Area A, length b

Derivation:
 The aircraft will take off when the lift is equal to the total weight, i.e. FL  W . Hence

2W
A
C L V 2

 For an aspect ratio of 5 and an angle of attack of 4o, the lift coefficient is 0.6 (see graph)
 The wing area is then 7.78 m2.
 The length b is then obtained from

A  bc  b2 5

Answer:
 The length of the wing is b  6.24 m.

Alternate versions

 For p  525 mm, T 10o C,   0.93 kg/m3.

 For   4o, Cl  0.60, A  9.42 m2, b  6.86 m.
 For   6o, Cl  0.74, A  7.63 m2, b  6.18 m.
 For   8o, Cl  0.86, A  6.57 m2, b  5.73 m.

157
Examples

Example 9-729 Cessna Jet Origin: Quiz 1700

The Cessna executive jet has a mass of 7 tons and a wing area of 30 m2. Compute the power
required to maintain a level flight as it cruises at 8 km standard altitude with a lift coefficient
of 0.21 and a drag coefficient of 0.015. Assume  0.4 kg/m3.

Type: Lift problem

Equations:
P  FV

F  FD

V 2
FD  C D A
2

V 2
FL  C L A
2

FL  W

Unknowns: Power P
Derivation:
 For a steady flight, the lift force must equal to the weight, i.e. FL  W . Hence

2W 2 7000  9.81
V2  
AC L 30  0.4  0.21

 The cruise speed is therefore V  233.5 m/s.

 The power is given by

V2 233.53
P  FDV  C D A V  0.015  0.4  30
2 2

Answer:
 The power required is 1.145 MW.

Alternate versions

 For   0.75, Cl  0.21, Cd  0.2, V  175 m/s, and P  1.2 MW.

158
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-730 Power of an Aircraft Origin: Exam 1905

Compute the power required to maintain a level flight of a light airplane with a wing area of
20 m2 and a weight of 9000 N as it cruises at 4 km altitude where the temperature is 11oC,
the pressure is 66 kPa, and the tailwind is 10 km/h. The aircraft has a lift coefficient of 0.41
and a drag coefficient of 0.05.

Solution

 For a steady flight, the lift force must equal to the weight, i.e. FL  W . Hence

2W
V2 
AC L

 The air density at high altitude is

p 66000
a    0.88 kg/m3
RT 287  273  11

 The relative or resultant airspeed is then

2W 2  9000 
V    50 m/s
AC L 20  0.88  0.41

 The aircraft speed is therefore V  50  2.78  52.8 m/s.

 The drag force is

50 
2
V2
FD  C D A  0.05  0.88  20  1100 N
2 2

 The power required is then

P  FDV  1100  52.8   58 kW

159
Examples

Example 9-731 Negative Lift on a Race Car Origin: Textbook

A racing car with a rear vane travels at a speed of 270 km/hr. The rear vane is 1.5 m long
with a chord length of 250 mm. It has an angle of attack of 8o that produces a negative lift,
i.e. a downward thrust. Compute the drag and the negative lift force from the rear vane.

Solution

 The drag force formula is

FD  C D A V 2 2

 The lift force formula is

FL  C L A V 2 2

 For an aspect ratio of b c  1.5 0.25  6 , the drag and lift coefficients are (see graph)

C D  0.07 C L  0.93

 The drag force is

FD  0.07 1.5 0.25 1.2  752 2  88.6 N

 The lift force formula is

FL  0.93 1.5 0.25 1.2  752 2  1177 N

Example 9-732 Car Spoiler Origin: Exam 1103

Compute the extra tractive force that could be generated at a speed of 320 km/h by using a
spoiler that produces a negative lift. The lift coefficient is Cl  1.1 and the coefficient of
friction between the wheels and the ground is 0.6.

Solution

 The tractive force is defined as F  N

where N is the normal force.
 The extra tractive force due to negative lift
is then

AV 2
F  N  Fl  C l
2

 Hence

1.22  0.45 1.2  89.6 

2

F  0.6 1.1  1.75 kN

2

160
 Drag and Lift

Example 9-733 Induced Drag Force Origin: Textbook

Calculate the induced drag force of an airplane with a weight of 10,000 lbf flying at 600 ft/s at
36,000 ft, where the pressure is 3.3 psia and the temperature is 67oF. The lift coefficient is
0.2 and the span of the wing is 54 ft2.

Solution

 The induced drag force formula is

FDi  C Di A V 2 2

 The induced drag coefficient is given by

C L2 b2 b
C Di   
 A c

 The density of air is obtained from the ideal gas law using R  1716 ft-lbf/slug-oR

p 3.3 144 
   0.000705 slugs/ft3
RT 1716  67  460 

 The area is computed from the force equilibrium equation. For a steady flight, the lift
force is equal to the weight. That is

W  FL  C L AV 2 2

 Hence, the area is

2W 2 10000 
A   394 ft2
V C L 0.000705  600 2 0.2
2

 The induced drag coefficient is then

0.22
C Di   0.00172
  542 394 

 The induced drag force is

FDi  0.00172  394  0.000705 6002 2  86 lbf

161
Examples

9.8 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

9.8.1 Dimensional Analysis

Example 9-801 Drag of a Sphere Origin: Textbook

Using dimensional analysis, derive an expression for the drag on a sphere as a function of the
viscosity , density , velocity V, and diameter D.

Solution

 The drag relationship in term of the given physical variables is

F  f  D, V , ,  

 There are 5 variables and 3 dimensions. Hence, one can find 2 dimensionless groups.
The dimensions of each term are

 ML   L M M 
F  2  D   L V    3 
T  T  L   LT 

 Eliminating [M], one gets

F  L4   L   L2 
  D   L V    
 T 2  T   T 

 Eliminating [T], one gets

F 
  L2  D   L   L
V 2
V

 Eliminating [L], one gets

F 
     
V 2 D 2 VD

 Hence

F   
 f   f  Re 
V D
2 2
 VD 

162
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Example 9-802 Pressure Drop in Pipe Flow Origin: Exam 1104

Derive an expression for the pressure drop p for a steady flow in a straight horizontal pipe
as a function of the pipe length L, the pipe diameter D, the average velocity V, the fluid
viscosity , the fluid density , and the height  of the roughness of the pipe (   0 for
smooth pipes).

Solution

 The variables that affect the pressure drop p are the pipe length L, the pipe diameter D,
the average velocity V, the fluid viscosity , the fluid density , and the height  of the
roughness of the pipe

p  f  L, D, V , , ,  

 There are 7 variables and 3 dimensions. Hence, one can find 4 dimensionless groups.
 The dimensions of each term are

F  M   L M M 
p   2    L   L D   L V    3     L
 L   LT   LT 
2
T  L 

 Eliminating [M], one gets

p  L2   L   L2 
  2 L   L D   L V        L
 T  T   T 

 Eliminating [T], one gets

p 
   L   L D   L   L    L
V 2 V

 Eliminating [L], one gets

p L  
           
V 2 D VD D

 Hence

p  L 
 f  Re , , 
V 2  D D

163
Examples

Example 9-803 Pressure Drop Origin: Exam 2006

Derive an expression for the pressure drop across a sudden contraction in a pipe as a function
of the pipe diameters D1 and D2, the velocity V, the fluid density , and the viscosity .

Solution

 There are 6 variables p  f  D1 , D2 , V , ,   and 3 dimensions. Hence, one can find 3

dimensionless groups. The dimensions of each term are

F  M   L M M 
p   2    V    3  D1   L  D2   L 
 L   LT   LT 
2
T  L 

 Eliminating [M] using  as a control variable, one gets

p  L2   L   L2 
  2 V     D1   L  D2   L 
 T  T   T 

 Eliminating [T] using V as a control variable, one gets

p 
     L D1   L  D2   L 
V 2 V

 Eliminating [L] using L as a control variable, one gets

p  D2
        
V 2 VD1 D1

 Hence

p   D 
 f , 2
V 2
 VD1 D1 

 Or

 D 
Eu  f  Re, 2 
 D1 

164
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Example 9-804 Settling Velocity Origin: Exam 1204

The falling velocity V of a solid particle through a viscous fluid is believed to be a function of
the fluid density f, the particle density p, the fluid viscosity , the particle diameter D, and
the acceleration due to gravity g. Derive the expression for V using dimensional analysis.

Solution

 There are 6 variables V  f  D, g, ,  f ,  p  and 3 dimensions. Hence, one can find 3

dimensionless groups. The dimensions of each term are

 L  L M  M 
V   D   L g   2  f  p   3  
T  T  L   LT 

 Eliminating [M], one gets

 L  L p   L2 
V   D   L g   2     
T  T  f f  T 

 Eliminating [T], one gets

V p 
  L1 2  D   L      L3 2 
g   f f g

 Eliminating [L], one gets

V p 
        
gD f f gDD

 One can also express the past  group in terms of the first one to get

V  
 f  p ,R e 
gD  
 f 

 The exponent method yields the above result directly. Using V a  bf cp  d D e g f , one gets

M :0  bcd
T : a  d  2 f
L : a  3b  3c  d  e  f

 Hence c  b  d and after algebraic manipulation e  f  d . Therefore

V d  2 f  bf pb  d  d D f  d g f

 Combining exponents

f b d
 V2   f    
      
 gD   p    p DV 

 One again obtains the above functional equation.

165
Examples

Example 9-805 Local Velocity Origin: Exam 1806

Derive by dimensional analysis an expression for the local velocity v as a function of the
mean velocity V, pipe diameter D, distance from pipe wall y, density , and viscosity  of the
fluid.

Solution

Type: Dimensional Analysis

Method | Equation: Elimination Method | v  f  V , D, y, ,  
Unknown: 3 Dimensionless Groups
Derivation:
 There are 6 variables and 3 dimensions. Hence, one can find 3 dimensionless groups.
 The dimensions of each term are

 L  L M  M 
v  V   D   L y   L  3 
T  T  L   LT 

 Eliminating [M], one gets

 L  L   L2 
v  V   D   L y   L  
T  T   T 

 Eliminating [T], one gets

v 
   D   L y   L   L
V V

 Eliminating [L], one gets

v y 
        
V D VD

 One of the dimensionless groups is known as the Reynolds number

Answer:
 The expression for v is

v y   y 
 f ,   f  ,R e 
V  D VD   D 

166
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Example 9-806 Smokestack Origin: Quiz 1700

The flowrate Q of a gas from the smokestack is a function of the density of the ambient air
a , the density of the gas  g , the acceleration of gravity g, the height of the stack h, and the
diameter of the stack d. Derive the dimensionless groups.

Solution

Type: Dimensional Analysis

Method | Equation: Elimination Method | Q  f   g , a , h, d, g 
Unknown: 3 Dimensionless Groups
Derivation:
 There are 6 variables and 3 dimensions. Hence, one can find 3 dimensionless groups.
 The dimensions of each term are

 L3   L M 
Q  h   L d   L g   2  g   3   a
T  T  L 

 Eliminating [M], one gets

 L3   L g
Q  h   L d   L g   2   
T  T  a

 Eliminating [T], one gets

Q g
  L5 2  h   L d   L   
g  a

 Eliminating [L], one gets

Q h g
        
gdd 2 d a

Answer:
 The dimensionless groups are

Q  h g 
 f , 
 d a 
2
gdd

167
Examples

Example 9-807 Flow over a Spillway Origin: Textbook

Using dimensional analysis, derive an expression for the flow rate q per unit width (q Q/B)
as a function of the height of the spillway P, and the height of water above the spillway H.
Neglect the effect of friction.

Solution

 The physical variables that influence the flow rate q per

unit width is the spillway height P, the head H, and the
acceleration of gravity g since the flow is driven by gravity.
If friction effects are important, one must also include the
viscosity  and density  Hence

q  f  H , P, g 

 There are 4 variables and 2 dimensions. Hence, one can find 2 dimensionless groups.
The dimensions of each term are

 L2   L
q  H   L P   L g   2
T  T 

 Eliminating [T], one gets

Q
  L3 2  H   L P   L
g

 Eliminating [L], one gets

q H
     
gH3 2 P

 Hence

q H
 f 
gH 32
P

168
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Example 9-808 Rectangular Weir Origin: Quiz 903

A weir is a structure for determining the flow rate in a channel by measuring the height of
water H relative to the weir crest. (Using dimensional analysis) Derive an expression for the
discharge (q) per unit crest length of a rectangular weir of height P over which water of
density  and dynamic viscosity  is flowing with a head H (under the influence of gravity g).

Solution

 The physical variables that influence the flow rate q per unit width are the head H, the
acceleration of gravity g, the weir height P, density , and viscosity 

q  f  H , P , g, ,  

 There are 6 variables and 3 dimensions. Hence, one can find 3 dimensionless groups.
The dimensions of each term are

 L2   L  M   FT 
2
 M   FT 
q  H   L P   L g   2  3 4   
 LT   L 
2
T  T  L   L 

 Eliminating [M], one gets

 L2   L  T 
q  H   L P   L g   2 
T  T    L2 

 Eliminating [T], one gets

q  g  1 
  L3 2  H   L P   L   32
g  L 

 Eliminating [L], one gets

q H  gH3 2
        
gH3 2 P 

 Hence

q  H  gH3 2   H q  H 
 f  ,   f  ,   f  ,R e 
gH 32
P   P   P 

169
Examples

Example 9-809 Period of a Water Wave Origin: Quiz 803

Use dimensional analysis to derive an expression between the period of water waves T (time
between the arrival of wave crests), wavelength L (distance between wave crests), depth d,
and gravity g.

Solution

 The period of water waves in terms of the physical variables is

T  f  L, d, g 

 There are 4 variables and 2 dimensions. Hence, one can find 2 dimensionless groups.
The dimensions of each term are

 L
T  T  L   L d   L g   2
T 

 Eliminating [T], one gets

T g   L1 2  L   L d   L

 Eliminating [L], one gets

g L
T      
d d

 Hence

g  L
T  f 
d d

170
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Example 9-810 Wave Height in the Sea Origin: Quiz 1003

The wave height H in the sea is assumed to be function of the wind speed V, the water
density , the air density a, the acceleration of gravity g, the water depth d, and the distance
over which the wind blows commonly known as the fetch length F. Using dimensional
analysis, derive the relevant dimensionless -groups.

Solution

 The variables that influence the wave height H are the wind speed V, the water density ,
the air density a, the acceleration of gravity g, the water depth d, and the fetch F

H  f  V , F , d, g, , a 

 There are 7 variables and 3 dimensions. Hence, one can find 4 dimensionless groups.
The dimensions of each term are

 M   FT 
2
 L L
H   L F   L d   L V   g   2    3    4   a
T  T  L   L 

 Eliminating [M], one gets

 L L 
H   L F   L d   L V   g   2   
T  T  a

 Eliminating [T], one gets

V 
H   L F   L d   L   L1 2    
g a

 Eliminating [L], one gets

H F V 
           
d d gd a

 Hence

H F V  
 f , , 
d  gd a 
d

171
Examples

Example 9-811 Ripples Origin: Quiz 1700

The velocity V of small waves (ripples) on water is function of the wavelength L, density 
and surface tension . Derive an expression for V.

Solution

Type: Dimensional Analysis

Method | Equation: Elimination Method | V  f  L, ,  
Unknown: 1 Dimensionless Group
Derivation:
 There are 4 variables and 3 dimensions. Hence, one can find 1 dimensionless group.
 The dimensions of each term are

 L M M
V   L   L  3   2
T  L  T 

 Eliminating [M], one gets

 T 2   L
  V   L   L
  L3  T 

 Eliminating [T], one gets

V 2  1 
  L   L
  L

 Eliminating [L], one gets

V 2 L
  


 This dimensionless group is known as the Weber number

Answer:
 The expression for V is


V
L

172
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Example 9-812 Washing Machine Origin: Exam 1403

Use dimensional analysis to determine an expression for the amount of time t that clothes
must stay in a washing machine as a function of the height of the agitator h , the frequency
of oscillation  , the mass of water in the tank m , the mass of soap used ms , and the tank
volume V .

Solution

 The variables that affect the amount of time are

t  f  h, , m, ms , V 

 There are 6 variables and 3 dimensions. Hence, one can find 3 dimensionless groups.
 The dimensions of each term are

1
t  [T ] h   L   V   L3  m  M ms   M 
T 

 Eliminating [M], one gets

1 m
t  [T ] h   L   V   L3    
T  ms

 Eliminating [T], one gets

m
t  [] h   L V   L3    
ms

 Eliminating [L], one gets

h3 m
t  [  ]      
V ms

 Hence

 h3 m 
t  f  , 
 V ms 

173
Examples

9.8.2 Similitude Theory

Example 9-813 Dam Spillway Origin: Quiz 903

A model of a proposed dam spillway was constructed to a scale of 1:25. Determine the
discharge that should be provided in the model if the design flood discharge over the spillway
is 1000 m3/s. Calculate the velocity in the prototype corresponding to a velocity of 1.5 m/s in
the model at the corresponding point. Compute also the prototype force corresponding to the
total force of 50 N on the model.

Solution

 Dynamic similitude is obtained by equating the model and prototype Froude number, i.e.

 V   V 
    
 gL  m  gL  p

 Hence

Vm Lm

Vp Lp

 The discharge ratio is

Qm A V L2 Lm
 m m  m2  L5r 2
Qp ApVp Lp Lp

 The discharge in the model is

52
 1  8
Qm  Qp L5r 2  1000     0.32 m3/s
 25  25

 The velocity in the prototype is

Vm
Vp   1.5 25  7.5 m/s
Lr

 Dynamic similarity implies that the ratio of forces is equal

 FD   FD 
   
 FI  m  FI  p

 That is

 pVp2 L2p L3p

 FD  p   FD m   FD  m  50  25  781250 N
3

mV L 2
m
2
m L3
m

174
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Example 9-814 The Blimp Origin: Textbook

The drag characteristics of a blimp 5 m in diameter and 60 m long is to be studied in a wind

tunnel. Determine the airspeed required in the wind tunnel for a 1/10 scale model if the
speed of the blimp in still air is 10 m/s. Calculate the pressure difference in the prototype if
the corresponding pressure difference in the model is 17.8 kPa. Compute also the prototype
force corresponding to the drag force of 1530 N on the model.

Solution

 Dynamic similarity implies that the ratio of forces is the same. For a submerged body, the
dominant force is the drag force. Hence, the Reynolds number criterion must be satisfied

DV DV

 m  p

 The model velocity is

Dp  m
Vm  Vp  10 1 10  100 m/s
Dm  p

 The ratio of pressure forces to inertial reaction is given by the pressure coefficient known
also as the Euler number

p
Cp 
V 2 2

 Dynamic similarity implies that the Euler number in the prototype and model must be the
same. That is

p p

V 2 m
V 2 p

 Substituting the values

 p Vp2 102
pp  pm  17800  178 Pa
m Vm2 1002

 Dynamic similarity implies that the ratio of forces is equal. Matching the force
coefficients, one obtains

Fp  pVp2 L2p

Fm  mVm2 L2m

 Using the result Vp Vm  Dm Dp  Lm Lp , the drag force on the prototype is

L2m L2p
 FD  p   FD m  1530 N
L2p L2m

 For Reynold’s number similitude, the force on the model and prototype are equal when
the same fluid is used.

175
Examples

Example 9-815 Power of the Blimp Origin: Exam 1204

A blimp is to move at a velocity of 6 m/s in air. Compute the power that will be required to
propel it in mid-air given that a drag force of 2500 N is measured on a 1:13 scale model in
water.

Solution

 Since the dominant force is the drag force, the Reynolds number criterion must be
satisfied

DV DV

 m  p

 The velocity ratio is therefore

Vm D  
Vr   p m  r
Vp Dm  p Dr

 Dynamic similitude implies that the ratio of forces is the same. The drag force on the
prototype is obtained from the ratio of forces

Fp  pVp2 L2p

Fm  mVm2 L2m

 Hence

Fm F F 
Fp   m2  m 2 r
r Vr Lr r  r
2 2
r

 The power of the blimp is

FmVp
P  FpVp 
r  2r

 Substituting the values for air and water, one gets

 m w 1000 m 1x 106
r    r  
p a 1.2  p 15.1x 106

 Hence Fp  675 N and P  4050 W

176
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Example 9-816 A Boat Model Origin: Textbook

A 1:50 model of a boat has a wave resistance of 0.02 N when operating in water at 1 m/s.
Determine the corresponding prototype wave resistance and the horsepower requirement.

Solution

 Surface wave problems invoke the satisfaction of the Froude number criterion, i.e.

 V   V 
    
 gL  m  gL  p

 Hence

Vp Lp
  Lr  50  7.07
Vm Lm

 Dynamic similarity implies that the ratio of forces is equal. Matching the force
coefficients, one obtains

Fp  pVp2 L2p L3p

   503
Fm mVm2 L2m L3m

 Hence

 FD  p  0.02  50   2500 N
3

 The horsepower required is

FV 2500 7.07  1
P   23.6 HP
748 748

177
Examples

Example 9-817 Ship Model Origin: Exam 1504

A ship 150 m long is designed to cruise at 33.3 km/hr. A 3 m model is to be tested in a tow
tank. Determine the appropriate tow velocity in m/s given that the fluid properties are the
same.

Solution

 Surface wave problems invoke the satisfaction of the Froude number criterion, i.e.

 V   V 
    
 gL  m  gL  p

 That is

Vp Lp
  50
Vm Lm

 Hence

33.3
Vm   4.7 km/hr.
50

 The tow velocity is 1.31 m/s

Example 9-818 A Yacht Origin: Exam 1604

A 35-cm long model of a 7-m long yacht is built. The yacht can travel at 5 m/s in water.
Compute the required velocity of the model if glycerin is used (S 1.263,  1.1 x 10-3 m2/s).

Solution

 Surface wave problems invoke the satisfaction of the Froude number criterion, i.e.

 V   V 
    
 gL  m  gL  p

 That is

Vp Lp
  20
Vm Lm

 Hence

Vp 5
Vm    1.12 m/s
20 4.47

178
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Example 9-819 The Submarine Origin: Exam 1104S

A 1/15 scale model of a submarine is to be tested in pure water (1x10-6 m2/s). The
measured drag on the model is 1 N. Compute the drag on the submarine prototype in sea
water (1015 kg/m3, 1.4x10-6 m2/s) moving at a speed of 2 m/s.

Solution

 Since the dominant force is the drag force, the Reynolds number criterion must be
satisfied

DV DV

 m  p

 Substituting the value of the viscosities, one can solve for the velocity in the model

Dp  m  1 
Vm  Vp  15   2  21.43 m/s
Dm  p  1.4 

 Dynamic similitude implies that the ratio of forces is the same

Fp  pVp2 L2p

Fm  mVm2 L2m

 Hence

 pVp2 L2p 1015  2 

2

Fp  Fm 1   15  1.99 N
2

mVm2 L2m 1000  21.43 

Alternate versions

 For 1/10 scale and Fm  2 N, V  14.29 m/s and F  3.98 N.

 For 1/15 scale and Fm  2 N, V  21.43 m/s and F  3.98 N.
 For 1/20 scale and Fm  2 N, V  28.57 m/s and F  3.98 N.
 For 1/25 scale and Fm  2 N, V  35.72 m/s and F  3.98 N.

179
Examples

Example 9-820 A Submerged Body in Oil Origin: Textbook

A submerged body in oil is to move horizontally through oil (52 lb/ft3, 0.0006
lb.sec/ft2) at a velocity of 45 ft/s. Determine the required velocity of the model in water to
achieve dynamic similarity if the model ratio is Lr  Lm Lp  8 . Predict the drag force on the
prototype if the drag force on the model is 0.8 lb. The kinematic viscosity of water is 1.22 x
10-5 ft2/s.

Solution

 Dynamic similarity implies that the ratio of forces is the same. For a submerged body, the
dominant force is the drag force. Hence, the Reynolds number criterion must be satisfied

DV DV

 m  p

 That is

DV DV

 m
 p

 Substituting the values of the oil and water density and viscosity, one obtains

62.4  8  V 52 1 45

23.6 x 106 m
0.0006 p

 Hence Vm  0.1844 ft/s


 Dynamic similarity implies that the ratio of forces is equal

 FD   FD 
   
 FI  m  FI  p

 The drag force on the prototype is therefore

52  45 12
2
 pVp2 L2p
 FD  p   FD m  0.8  0.8 777   620 lb
 mVm2 L2m 62.4  0.1844  82
2

180
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Example 9-821 Venturi Meter Origin: Quiz 803

A Venturi meter is used to measure gasoline (S.G.  0.68) at a flow rate of 9 m3/min. A
geometrically similar model tested in water shows a 5 kPa drop when the pipe velocity is 4
m/s. Use similitude theory to determine the upstream diameter in the prototype if the
prototype pressure gage is most accurate at 15 kPa.

Solution

 The ratio of pressure forces to inertial reaction is given by the pressure coefficient known
also as the Euler number

p
Cp 
V 2 2

 Dynamic similarity implies that the Euler number in the prototype and model must be the
same. That is

p p

V 2 m
V 2 p

 Substituting the values

5000 15000

1000  4 
2
680V 2 p
m

 Hence Vp  8.4 m/s.

 Using continuity equation Q  AV and the given flow rate of 9/60 m3/s, the required
diameter is nearly 15 cm.

181
Examples

Example 9-822 Drag on a Building Origin: Exam 1304

Compute the drag on a building in a 40 m/s wind given that the drag on a 1/20 scale model is
200 N for a wind speed of 20 m/s in the wind tunnel.

Solution

 Dynamic similitude implies that the ratio of forces is the same

Fp  pVp2 L2p

Fm  mVm2 L2m

 Hence

 pVp2 L2p 1.2  40 

2

Fp  Fm  200   20  320 kN
2

mVm2 L2m 1.2  20 

Alternate versions

 For V  50 m/s and 1/25 scale, F  781 kN.

 For V  60 m/s and 1/30 scale, F  1620 kN.

Example 9-823 Force on a Seawall Origin: Quiz 1003

The maximum wave force on a 1/36 model seawall in freshwater was found to be 80 N.
Determine the corresponding force on the full-scale seawall. The density of seawater is 1025
kg/m3, the kinematic viscosity is 1.4 x 10-6 m2/s, and the temperature is 10oC.

Solution

 Surface wave problems invoke the satisfaction of the Froude number criterion, i.e.

 V   V 
    
 gL  m  gL  p

 Hence

Vp Lp
 6
Vm Lm

 Dynamic similarity implies that the ratio of forces is equal

Fp  pVp2 L2p

Fm  mVm2 L2m

 Hence

 p L3p
 FD  p   FD m  1.025  36   FD  m  47822  80   3.83 MN
3

m L3m

182
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Example 9-824 Breakwater Origin: Exam 1403

A laboratory model test is to be made of a coastal breakwater. The wave period (between the
arrival of wave crests) in the sea is about 10 s. Determine the model scale given that the
laboratory wave generator can only make waves with 1 s period.

Solution

 Surface wave problems invoke the satisfaction of the Froude number criterion, i.e.

 V   V 
    
 gL  m  gL  p

 Hence

Vp Lp

Vm Lm

 Expressing the velocity as V  L T , one obtains

LpTm Lp

LmTp Lm

 Hence

Lp Tp
  10
Lm Tm

 The model scale is therefore Lr  Lm Lp  1 100 .

183
Examples

Example 9-825 Sports Car Origin: Exam 1104

A one-fifth scale model of a new sports car is tested in a wind tunnel at a temperature of 5oC.
The average aerodynamic drag force measured on the model is 94.3 N. Estimate the drag
force on the prototype at a speed of 80 km/h and 25oC. The density and kinematic viscosity
of air is  1.184 kg/m3 and  1.56 x 10-5 m2/s at 25oC, and  1.269 kg/m3 and  1.38 x
10-5 m2/s at 5oC.

Solution

 Dynamic similitude implies that the ratio of forces is the same. Since the dominant force
is the drag force, the Reynolds number criterion must be satisfied

DV DV

 m  p

 Substituting the values of air at different temperature, one can solve for the velocity of air
in the wind tunnel

Dp  m  1.38 
Vm  Vp  5   80  353.85 km/hr
Dm  p  1.56 

 The drag force on the prototype is obtained from the ratio of forces

Fp  pVp2 L2p

Fm  mVm2 L2m

 Hence

 pVp2 L2p 2
1.184  80  2
Fp  Fm  94.3   5  112 N
 mVm2 L2m 1.269  354 

184
 Homework Problems – aka The Corona Competition

9.9 Homework Problems – aka The Corona Competition

Problem 9-901

Determine the flow discharge Q and the velocity V in the 1 m wide channel.

Problem 9-902

Water flows steadily into a closed tank through a 10-cm pipe 1 and discharges through a 20-
cm pipe 2. The velocity profiles in both pipes is given by V  Vc 1  r 2 R 2  , where Vc is the
maximum centerline velocity and R is the radius of the pipe. Compute the flow discharges
and the maximum velocity in pipe 2 if the maximum velocity in pipe 1 is 2 m/s.

Problem 9-903

The circular jet of water from a faucet is observed to taper from a diameter of 20 mm to 10
mm in a distance of 50 cm. Determine the flowrate.

Problem 9-904

A 10 cm jet issues from a tank with a 1 m diameter. Compute the time it takes for the water
surface to drop from 2 m to 0.5 m.

Problem 9-905

Compute the time required to empty a pressurized tank filled to a depth of water of 2.2 m
above the orifice. The cross-sectional area of the tank is 1.2 m2, the orifice area is 10 cm2,
and the pressure in the tank is maintained at 1.4 atm.

Problem 9-906

A liquid (S  1.4) is being pumped from point A at elevation 8 m, where the pipe diameter is
50 cm and the pressure is 300 kPa, to point B at elevation 7 m, where the pipe diameter is
30 cm and the pressure is 330 kPa. Determine the flow rate Q if 20 kW is delivered to the
pump that has an efficiency of 85%.

Problem 9-907

Water is pumped from the reservoir at the ground floor to a tank on the roof at a rate of 250
l/min in a 30 cm pipe where the head loss is 1.5 V 2 2 g . Compute the pump supply power if
the pump efficiency is 70% and the roof is 11 m above the ground.

185
Examples

Problem 9-908

A discharge of 2.8 m3/s flows through a hydraulic turbine. On the 1 m inlet pipe at elevation
43.5 m, a pressure gage reads 345 kPa. On the 1.5 m discharge pipe at elevation 39, a
vacuum gage reads 150 mm of mercury. If the total head lost through pipes and turbines is 9
m, what power may be expected from the machine?

Problem 9-909

A 30-cm diameter pipe that carries water at a rate of 0.5 m3/s under a pressure of 200 kPa
contracts to a 20-cm diameter pipe section. Compute the resultant axial force on the
horizontal pipe contraction.

Problem 9-910

An 8-cm horizontal pipe is connected to a diverging nozzle that discharges a 12-cm diameter
jet into the air. Find the magnitude and direction of the force the water exerts on the nozzle
given that the velocity in the pipe is 4 m/s.

Problem 9-911

A jet of 4 cm diameter and a velocity of 8 m/s is deflected by a blade. Compute the tension
in the cable restraining the frictionless cart.

Problem 9-912

Determine the force on a 10 m wide spillway structure where the upstream depth of water is
4 m and the downstream depth of water is 1 m.

Problem 9-913

Estimate the terminal velocity of a 5 mm plastic sphere in oil. The oil has a specific gravity of
0.95 and a kinematic viscosity of 10-4 m2/s. The plastic has a specific gravity of 1.2.

Problem 9-914

A 38.1 mm diameter, 2.5 g table tennis ball is released from the bottom of a swimming pool.
Compute the velocity as it reaches the water surface.

186
 Homework Problems – aka The Corona Competition

Problem 9-915

The mass of an automobile is 1500 Kg and its frontal area is 126.5 cm x 160 cm. The drag
coefficient is 0.4 and the coefficient of rolling friction is 0.1. Determine the percentage
savings in gas mileage from driving at 100 km/hr instead of 120 km/hr.

Problem 9-916

A convertible sports car has a mass of 800 Kg, a frontal area of 2 m2, and a coefficient of
rolling friction of 0.1. The drag coefficient with the roof closed is 0.3 and it increases to 0.42
when the roof is open. Compute the maximum possible speed in km/hr with the roof closed
and with it open if the maximum power delivered to the wheels is 80 kW.

Problem 9-917

Compute the takeoff speed of a Jumbo jet at Mexico City airport (El. 2250 m) if its takeoff
speed is 190 km/h at Beirut Airport (El. 25 m). Assume  1.0 kg/m3 in Mexico City.

Problem 9-918

A Boeing 747 airplane has a mass of 285 tons when fully loaded with 400 passengers, and
takes off at a speed of 225 km/h. Determine the take-off speed when the airplane is half-
empty. Assume a mass of 90 kg for each passenger with luggage, standard atmospheric
pressure conditions, and a temperature of 40oC at the airport.

Problem 9-919

Determine the length of an airplane wing with an aspect ratio of 5 to lift 800 kg when it flies
at a speed of 220 km/h with an angle of attack of 4o. Assume  0.9 kg/m3.

Problem 9-920

The Cessna executive jet has a mass of 7 tons and a wing area of 30 m2. Compute the power
required to maintain a level flight as it cruises at 8 km standard altitude with a lift coefficient
of 0.21 and a drag coefficient of 0.015. Assume  0.4 kg/m3.

Problem 9-921

The flowrate Q of a gas from the smokestack is a function of the density of the ambient air
a , the density of the gas  g , the acceleration of gravity g, the height of the stack h, and the
diameter of the stack d. Derive the dimensionless groups.

Problem 9-922

The velocity V of small waves (ripples) on water is function of the wavelength L, density 
and surface tension . Derive an expression for V.

187
Examples

Problem 9-923

A drying tower at an industrial site is 10 m in diameter. The air inside the tower enters at 10
m/s. A 1/8 scale model of this tower is fabricated to operate with water. Determine the
entry velocity of the water.

Problem 9-924

The moment acting on a submarine rudder is studied by a 1/60 scale model. The moment
measured on the model in a water tunnel is 3 m.N when the fresh-water speed in the tunnel
is 10 m/s. Determine the corresponding moment and speed for the prototype given that it
operates in sea water (S  1.025).

188
10 Experiments
 Experiment #1: Orifices

Experiment #1: Orifices

The purpose of this experiment consists of determining the discharge, velocity & contraction
coefficients of orifices as a function of the Reynolds number.

Experimental Procedure

Mount the 3mm circular sharp-edged orifice on the side of the tank. Turn on the pump and
allow the establishment of a steady flow. Measure the discharge and record the head on the
orifice. Repeat the above for four head readings. The head can be obtained by adjusting the
overflow pipe. For the highest head, plot the jet trajectory by marking the top of the needles
on a sheet of paper. Finally, raise the overflow pipe to obtain the maximum head. Shut the
supply valve and measure the fall of the water level over time, say every 20 sec. Repeat the
falling head experiment for the 6mm circular orifice. The inside diameter of the supply head
tank is 13.7cm.

Analysis and Discussion

 Derive the orifice discharge formula from the energy equation and determine the
discharge coefficient.
 Derive the path trajectory equation x 2 h  4C v2 y using Newton's law and determine the
coefficient of velocity and the coefficient of contraction.
 Using the continuity equation, derive the equation for the falling head experiment and use
it to determine another estimate for the discharge coefficient

Cd a 2g
h  ho    t  to 
2A

where A= cross-sectional area of the tank, a= cross-sectional area of the orifice, ho head
on orifice at t  0 , and h head on orifice at time t .

 Plot your results as a function of the Reynolds number.

 Compare your values with the ones in the textbook & justify the sources of errors. Deduct
a meaningful conclusion.

References

Roberson, J. A., and C. T. Crowe, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 5th ed., p. 609-613, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1995.
Daugherty, R. L., J. B. Franzini, and E. J. Finnemore, Fluid Mechanics with Engineering
Applications, 8th ed., sect. 4.17 & pp. 410-417, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1989.

10-1
Experiment #1: Orifices

Laboratory Data Sheet

Constant Head

Diameter:

Reading Head Volume Time Flow

(h) (V) (t) (Q)
1

Falling Head

Initial head:

Reading Time Diff. Head Head

(t) (h) (h)
1

10

11

12

Remarks:

Group No: ____________________

Data Keeper: ____________________

Date: ____________________

10-2
 Experiment #2: Venturi Meter

Experiment #2: Venturi Meter

The purpose of this experiment consists of determining the discharge and flow coefficient of
the Venturi meter as a function of the Reynolds number.

Experimental Procedure

Turn on the pump and allow water to flow freely. Close the exit valve and slowly open the
spindle on the manometer top to push the air out of the tubes. When water flows out of the
spindle opening, close the spindle, shut the supply valve and open the exit valve. Open the
spindle again to get the readings down to a convenient level, say around 160mm. Open the
supply valve slowly and measure the discharge. Record the manometer readings for tap 1
through tap 6, and record all tap diameters and the lengths between the taps. Repeat the
experiment for five different flow rates, turning the supply valve a 1/8 of a turn for each
discharge. Note that the manometer readings are very sensitive to a small change in the flow
rate.

Analysis and Discussion

 Derive the Venturi discharge formula from the energy equation and determine the
discharge coefficient and the flow coefficient. Use the pressure readings of taps 1 and 6,
taps 2 and 6, and taps 4 and 6. Show all your results in a tabular form.
 Plot the flow coefficient as a function of a suitable Reynolds number.
 Compare your values with the ones in the textbook & justify the sources of errors. Deduct
a meaningful conclusion.

References

Roberson, J. A., and C. T. Crowe, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 5th ed., p. 616, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1995.

10-3
Experiment #2: Venturi Meter

Laboratory Data Sheet

Reading Volume Time Flow

V t Q
1

Reading Tap 1 Tap 2 Tap 3 Tap 4 Tap 5 Tap 6

Distance to
Tap
Diameter at
Tap

Remarks:

Group No: ____________________

Data Keeper: ____________________

Date: ____________________

10-4
 Experiment #3: Forces on Plates

Experiment #3: Forces on Plates

The purpose of this experiment consists of evaluating the forces exerted by moving fluids on
plates and thereby checking the validity of the momentum theory in determining these forces.

Experimental Procedure

Mount the flat plate on the jet impact apparatus. Level the apparatus with the aid of spirit
level by adjusting the legs. Turn on the pump and open the supply valve to two different
flows where one of the flows should be the maximum flow reached. Measure the weight
needed to bring back the level to its original position. Measure the discharge. Repeat the
experiment for the 120º and 180º plates. The diameter of the jet nozzle is 7 mm.

Analysis and Discussion

 Apply the momentum equation to determine the forces exerted on the plates: flat, 120º,
and 180º.
 Compare the force exerted on the plates as determined from the momentum equation with
the weights recorded.
 Justify the differences obtained by analyzing the sources of errors and deduct a
meaningful conclusion.

References

Roberson, J. A., and C. T. Crowe, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 5th ed., p. 217-221, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1995.
Daugherty, R. L., J. B. Franzini, and E. J. Finnemore, Fluid Mechanics with Engineering
Applications, 8th ed., pp. 147-155, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1989.

10-5
Experiment #3: Forces on Plates

Laboratory Data Sheet

Volume Time Flow Mass Weight

Flat Plate
(V) (t) (Q) (m) (W)
1

Volume Time Flow Mass Weight

120o Plate
(V) (t) (Q) (m) (W)
1

Volume Time Flow Mass Weight

180o Plate
(V) (t) (Q) (m) (W)
1

Remarks:

Group No: ____________________

Data Keeper: ____________________

Date: ____________________

10-6
 Experiment #4: Forces on Gates

Experiment #4: Forces on Gates

The purpose of this experiment consists of evaluating the forces exerted by moving fluids on
a sluice gate and thereby checking the validity of the momentum equation in determining
these forces.

Experimental Procedure

Adjust the channel in a horizontal position and place the sluice gate few centimeters above
the bottom. Turn on the pump and open the supply valve until a suitable depth is obtained
upstream. Measure the depths upstream and downstream of the gate, the width, the flow
rate, and the piezometric heads on the gate. Repeat the experiment for another gate opening.

Analysis and Discussion

 Derive the momentum equation and determine the forces exerted on the sluice gate.
 Plot the pressure load diagram and measure its area to determine the actual force exerted
on the gate.
 Compare the experimental graphical value of the force on the gate with the theoretical
value obtained from the momentum equation.
 Justify the differences obtained by analyzing the sources of errors and deduct a
meaningful conclusion.

References

Roberson, J. A., and C. T. Crowe, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 5th ed., p. 236, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1995.
Daugherty, R. L., J. B. Franzini, and E. J. Finnemore, Fluid Mechanics with Engineering
Applications, 8th ed., pp. 147-155, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1989.

10-7
Experiment #4: Forces on Gates

Laboratory Data Sheet

Width of Flow:

Run Gate Depth Depth Flow

Opening Upstream Downstream
1

Piezometric Tube Run 1 Pressure Run 2 Pressure

Tube Height Level Head 1 Level Head 2
1

10

11

12

Remarks:

Group No: ____________________

Data Keeper: ____________________

Date: ____________________

10-8
A. Appendix

CIVE 340 Groups ............................................................................................................ A-1

CIVE 340 Lab Schedule ................................................................................................... A-2
Technical Reports Guidelines .......................................................................................... A-3
Grading Guidelines – Laboratory Reports ......................................................................... A-4
Exam Rules .................................................................................................................... A-5
Online Exam Rules ......................................................................................................... A-6
Exam Grading................................................................................................................. A-7
The Horror Show* .......................................................................................................... A-8
Typical Exam Problems ................................................................................................... A-9
Previous Exams .............................................................................................................. A-9
Exam 801 ..................................................................................................................... A-10
Exam 802 ..................................................................................................................... A-12
Exam 901 ..................................................................................................................... A-13
Exam 902 ..................................................................................................................... A-15
Exam 903 ..................................................................................................................... A-17
Exam 1001 ................................................................................................................... A-18
Exam 1002 ................................................................................................................... A-20
Formulae Sheet............................................................................................................. A-21
Properties of Areas ....................................................................................................... A-22
Drag & Lift Coefficients ................................................................................................. A-23
Schedule of Lectures ..................................................................................................... A-27
Private Notes ................................................................................................................ A-28
CIVE 340 Groups

Group Names Group Names

1 Baalbaki, Dana
Dakhlallah, Zahra
El Jurdi, Bahaaeddine
Mahmoud, Karim
2 Awar, Lamice
Babikian, Arpy
Baydoun, Jana
Ramadan, Lynn
3 Bassil, Dimitri
Dagher, Imad
Jabbour, Milad
Mchayleh, Lara
4 El Achi, Wafi
Farra, Nawal
Mahdi, Taha
Saade, Mohamad Omar
5 Charara, Joudy
Daher, Mohamad
Dali Balta, Haya
Driss, Ali
6 Chebly, Lucas
Debs, Sari
Kanaan, Marc

10

A-1
Appendix

CIVE 340 Lab Schedule

Names Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

08:00

09:00 12 32 52

10:00 13 33 53

11:00 14 34 54

12:00 15 35 55

G5 G1

13:00

14:00 17 37

G3

15:00 18 28 38 48

G6 G2 G4

16:00

Instructions

 Select three 1-hr slots and label them according to your preference: 1, 2, and 3
 Slots are assigned on a first-come first-serve basis.
 The available slots are numbered in blue.

 Send the selected slot numbers by email with a cc to all team members or print the form
and submit it in person in the presence of the whole group.

 NB: Any modification to the above schedule should be pre-approved by the course
instructor. Failure to do so will result in a grade penalty.

 LAB Venue: IOEC Room 210A

A-2
 Appendix

Technical Reports Guidelines

Students are expected to present their laboratory reports in a professional manner with
correct spelling, grammar, and syntax. This is not to impose unnecessary work on the
student but rather to become accustomed to the requirements of the professional world.

The report should be typed using a word processor and printed on A4 paper with at least 2.5
cm margin at the top, bottom, and sides. The text must be in 11 or 12-point type and the
headings in 14-point type with 1.5 line spacing. The font should be Times New Roman,
Arial or similar. The headings are numbered according to the decimal system. Each main
heading is a whole number, and the sub-heading is numbered as a decimal of that. The use
of the MS equation editor is encouraged. Add one extra line space above and below all
displayed equations. All graphs should be produced using graphics software. The figures
must have a caption and axis labels and they must fit the size of half a page. Each table must
have a title, and all columns must have headings. All figures and tables must be cited in the
text. The reference list should be explicit with the author’s name, title, publisher, and date.
References should be correctly cited in the text by giving the authors’ name and date of
publication [e.g. Roberson & Crowe, 1995]. Each page of the report should be numbered in
the top or bottom right-hand corner. The title page must include the title of the report, the
authors’ name, group number, date and place. Acknowledgments should be duly conferred
and copied material should be duly credited.

The objective of the experiment should be clearly stated, and the methodology properly
explained. The results should be logically analyzed and adequately discussed. The
computations should be done in orderly steps with all assumptions clearly stated and their
source given. All calculations should be reproducible. Use of computer programs such as
EXCEL or MATLAB is encouraged. When an experiment consists of several parts, the results
of each part should be given on a separate page. The data sheet should be submitted with
the report.

The lab report structure should include:

 Title page
 Table of Contents
 List of Figures
 List of Tables
 Abstract (1–2 ¶)
 Introduction (1–2 ¶)
 Theory & Assumptions: Underlying principle, governing equations & assumptions (2–3 ¶)
 Experimental Procedure: Stepwise method explaining what you did and why you did it.
 Data & Measurements: Tabular form
 Calculations & Results: 1 sample calculation. Show all results in tabular & graphical form.
 Analysis and Discussion: Comments on the results. (2–4 ¶)
 Conclusions. (1–2 ¶)
 Acknowledgments.
 References: Books, lecture notes, etc.
 Appendix: Any relevant material but of secondary importance.

The report is graded as follows:

 Structure & Format: esp. Cover Page, Figure Captions, Table Titles, References 4
 Background Material: Introduction and Theory 4
 Numerical Results: Accuracy and Completeness 4
 Analysis, Discussion, and Conclusion 4
 Presentation & Aesthetic: Figures, Tables and Overall Appearance 4
 Originality of Style ±2

A-3
Appendix

Grading Guidelines – Laboratory Reports

1. Structure & Format of the Report (-0.5 for each item missing)
a. Title page includes title of report, name of author, group number, date, and place
b. A proper Table of Content, Table of Figures, and List of Tables are included
c. Headings, table titles, figure captions, and axis labels are appropriate
d. Each table and figure are cited in the text
e. The font and style of the report is uniform throughout
f. The page layout is consistent throughout the report
g. The reference list is explicit with the author’s name, title, publisher, and date
2. Background Material (-0.5 for each faulty item; -1 for each conceptual mistake)
a. All equations are necessary and relevant
b. All derivations are present, and all terms are defined
c. All assumptions are stated and valid
d. The student uses his own words to describe the experimental procedure
3. Data & Calculations (-0.5 for each calculation error; -1 for each conceptual mistake)
a. The values provided in the report match the raw data sheet values
b. All geometrical dimensions and flow conditions are stated
c. All calculations are correct
d. Sample calculations are clear and match the final answers
4. Analysis & Discussion (-0.5 for each faulty item; -1 for each conceptual mistake)
a. The analysis is complete as specified in the lab handout
b. The displayed graphical results match the values discussed in the text
c. All experimental results are compared to their theoretical values
d. The theoretical values are obtained from referenced sources
e. The student tries to explain the error based on his knowledge of the course material
f. The student makes an effort in exploring the outside literature
5. Aesthetics (-0.5 for each flawed item)
a. All figures have good resolution
b. Graphs are created with the correct choice of chart type
c. All equations are typed using MS Equation
d. No more than 3 significant figures are used in tables and calculations
e. The overall appearance of the report is professional
6. Originality of Style (±2)
a. Shamelessly copied (-2)
b. Copied with finesse (-1)
c. Neutral (0)
d. Nice (1)
e. Outstanding (2)

A-4
 Appendix

Exam Rules

 Seating will be assigned and posted 20 minutes before the exam.

 You must show up with only a pen or a pencil.
 Any excess baggage is subject to the penalties shown below.

 The duration of the exam is 60 or 75 minutes.
 At the end of the exam, students must leave the exam paper on the desk and exit swiftly.
 Any delay in leaving the desk area would be subject to a penalty of 1 point per minute.

 No questions allowed. Permission to ask a question costs half a point.
 A question to a proctor costs 1 point.
 An answer by the GA proctor costs 2 points to the examinee and the GA.

 Whispers are subject to immediate expulsion from the exam room.
 Students who resist expulsion would be subject to the full university disciplinary action.

 All problems are of equal weight with 10 points each.
 Answers should be systematic and clear. No partial credit for scrap writing.
 There is a penalty for conflicting answers or irrelevant write-up.
 There is an extra 10% correction fee for a problem solved in a different unit system.

 Make all necessary assumptions when needed.
 Use at least 4 significant digits in your calculations.
 Show all calculations. No credits for absent intermediate calculations.

 Write your answers on the question sheet.
 You can use both sides of the page. Use the back of the formulae sheet as scrap paper.
 A list of necessary and unnecessary formulae is also provided (see sample exam).
 Do not tear apart the exam sheets.

 Write your name and sign the pledge of honor (see sample exam).
 A missing name results in a penalty of 2 points.
 The grade of a paper with a missing signature will not be released.

 Do not hurry, panic, or fret. Just do better than your neighbor.
 Good luck!

Excess Exam Baggage – Penalty List

Item Status Penalty Status Penalty Special Offer

Cellular On 10 points Off 5 points Dean’s Warning
Programmable Calculator On 8 points Off 4 points
Books or Notes Open 10 points Closed 5 points
Handbags Open 4 points Closed 2 points
Pencil Cases Open 2 points Closed 1 point
Jackets or Wallets On 0 points Off 2 points
Drinks Pure 0 points Colored 2 points
Cigarettes/Chocolates International 2 points Local 1 point
Unidentified Object Flying 4 points Non-Flying 2 points

Nota Bene:
 The above penalties apply to all areas surrounding the student, i.e. beneath the seat, side
table, table behind, and the airspace above.
 Penalties are additive: an open handbag with a cellular on and a closed book is 19 points
 The maximum deduction is 100% (30 or 40 points).
 Service and handling charges are included.

A-5
Appendix

Updated Exam Rules

 Your exam paper should include your pledge of honor and your signature. The pledge
can be any statement in your own style that states in no ambiguous terms that you have
not asked for or given any help.
 The solution procedure should be detailed and presented in a rational fashion.
 All calculation details should be present and exposed in a logical order.
 Show all equations in numerical form with all the input values.
 There should be an authentic derivation, authentic errors, and an authentic solution.
 The exam will be disqualified for any partial derivation with a correct answer.

Online Exam Submission Rules

 The upload filename should be your 9-digit ID number only (no alphabets).
 The submission file should be pdf (not zip or jpg).
 The file size should be less than 2 MB.
 One file per exam (not two scans).
 One page per problem (not two or more pages).
 A white background scan (not colored or gray).

Be aware that some of the above restrictions are implemented on Moodle (no. uploaded file
1, filetype pdf, file size <2 MB).

A-6
 Appendix

Exam Grading

General Grading Criteria

 0 Blank Page
 1 for an abstract motif (e.g. a line)
 2 for a water motif (e.g. a fish or a boat)
 3 for a pair of water motifs (e.g. two fish in love)
 4 for any equation (engineering or otherwise) or a set of Greek symbols
 5 for any relevant equation
 6 for the relevant equations and correct input data
 7 for any partially correct development
 8 for correct development with calculation errors
 9 for correct answer with wrong units
 10 for correct answer

Normal Grading Rules

 -20% for a conceptual error or first mistake

 -10% for each calculation mistake or subsequent error
 -10% for a multiple-choice answer or conflicting derivation
 -10% for wrong units in final answer

Special Grading Rules

-30% for a conceptual mistake in a problem with a two-step solution (20% for the conceptual
error + 10% for wrong answer)

Course Grade

The total sum of all exam and report grades is converted to a letter grade as per the following
scheme especially designed for this course:

Total sum above 40 60 63 67 70 73 77 80 83 87 90 93

Letter Grade F D D C C C B B B A A A

In the current flexible system of assessment with 6 short exams, the maximum letter grade
that a student can get is an A (or lower depending on the lab report grade). For an A, the
student must sit for a 1-hr comprehensive exam. The exam is open only to A students and it
would consist of 4 problems that cover the whole course.

All grades are relative to a class average, and the class average in this course is C.

Warning

The fee for any email inquiry during the 10-days blackout period that starts on the last exam
date at sunset is 1 SIS point per line of email as displayed on my tiniest smart device. Thank
you for not disturbing.

A-7
Appendix

The Horror Show*

(This is the message that was sent to the class on 12 February 2019 on the eve of Exam I)

Warning: The below message might cause meaningless distress to some readers. Please read
with caution or in the presence of an adult. In case of undue stress, free therapy sessions are
available today between 2 pm and 3 pm.

Dear CIVE 340 Students,

The CIVE 340 Horror Show is scheduled to start tomorrow Wednesday at 5:00 pm in Room
224A-C. Seating will be assigned and posted at the entrance.

For those few students with a time conflict or special educational need, an early preview is
available at 4 pm. Please pass by my office (Rm 518) at 3:50 pm to collect your early preview
tickets.

Latecomers are allowed entry at 5:10 pm. No time extension is possible for any further late
arrivals since the show must end by 6:30 pm.

Entrance doors will open 5 minutes before the show starts. Please enter the room in silence
as prayers will be in session.

The show consists of 5 questions (1 easy, 3 intermediate, 1 hard) of 10 points each covering
all topics of Chapters 1 and 2.

There is no Formulae Sheet. You should know all 19 equations of Chapters 1 and 2 of the
Class Notes.

There is no Properties of Areas Sheet. You should know the centroid location and the
moment of inertia of a rectangle, triangle, and a semi-circle.

There is no Table of Constants. You should know in SI units the density of water and air, the
kinematic viscosity of water, the specific gas constant of air, and the surface tension of the
water-air interface.

There is no Table of Conversions. You should know the gravitational constant g and the
specific weight of water in Imperial units.

There is no extra sheet. Use the back page of any problem for additional writing space.

For those who plan to miss the show with a valid medical excuse from AUBMC, the moment
of inertia of elliptic paraboloids and hyperbolic paraboloids should also be memorized.

For those who plan to miss the show without a valid medical excuse from AUBMC, the
moment of inertia of perfectly round zero is sufficient.

Please study well the Exam Rules on page A-6 in the Class Notes. You might have to sit for
an Exam Entrance Exam (EEE). A previous exam is attached for practice.

A penalty will be applied for a missing name or signature. Additional penalty will be incurred
for not acting like a lady or a gentleman when under pressure.

Please come light and behave gracefully.

Enjoy the show,

CIVE 340 Emcee

A-8
 Appendix

Typical Exam Problems

 Problem 01: Viscosity

 Problem 02: Surface Tension or Ideal Gas Law
 Problem 03: Hydrostatic Pressure, e.g. Manometer, Atmosphere, Fluids
 Problem 04: Force on a Planar Surface
 Problem 05: Force on a Curved Surface
 Problem 06: Fluid Kinematics, e.g. Flow Rate, Mean Velocity, Acceleration
 Problem 07: Continuity Equation
 Problem 08: Euler Equation
 Problem 09: Bernoulli Equation
 Problem 10: Energy Equation
 Problem 11: Momentum Equation
 Problem 12: Momentum Equation
 Problem 13: Drag
 Problem 14: Lift
 Problem 15: Dimensional Analysis
 Problem 16: Similitude Theory
 Problem 17: Lab Questions
 Problem 18: Lab Questions

Previous Exams

A copy of previous exams is shown on the following pages. The solution of some of the
exam problems can be found in Chapter 9: Examples.

A-9
American University of Beirut
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

CIVE 340 Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory Fall 2015

Basha & Malaeb
90-min Exam 09-Oct-15
Exam 801
I pledge my honor that I will not give or receive any assistance on this exam.

NAME: Signature:

1. Shear Force

Compute the force required to drag the plate at a velocity v of 1.2 m/s if the thickness t of
the separating oil is 0.6 mm. The plate size is 200 mm x 750 mm and the dynamic
viscosity of oil is 0.85 N.s/m2.

2. Mean Velocity and Flow Rate

Calculate the mean velocity and the discharge in the canal given that the rectangular
channel is 1.5 m wide.

3. Manometer X

Estimate the specific gravity of fluid X. The specific gravity of SAE 30 oil is S  0.9.

A-10
CIVE 340 Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory Fall 2015

4. Manometer U

Compute the height h given that H  30 cm and L  25 cm. The specific gravity of SAE 30
oil is S  0.9.

5. Forces on a Square Gate

Determine the value of h above which the square gate opens automatically. Set l  1 m.

6. Forces on a Hemisphere

Calculate the horizontal and vertical hydrostatic force components needed to hold the
hemispherical dome in place given that y1  1 m and y2  2 m. Determine also the line of
action of the horizontal and vertical force components.

A-11
American University of Beirut
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

CIVE 340 - Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory Fall 2015

Basha & Malaeb
75-min Exam 13-Nov-15
Exam 802
I pledge my honor that I will not give or receive any assistance on this exam.

NAME: Signature:

1. The Penthouse

In order to supply water to the penthouse in a building, a pump draws water through a
20-cm suction pipe from an open tank in the basement. The water is discharged through
a 15-cm pipe in which the velocity is 4-m/s. What is the maximum elevation h to which
the pumped water can reach if 35 kW is delivered to the pump? The pump operates at
70% efficiency and the total head loss in the pipe system is 2V2/2g.

2. The Bend

Water enters a horizontal reducing 90o bend from the west with a velocity of 3 m/s and a
pressure of 30 kPa, and leaves toward the north. The diameter of the pressurized pipe is
500 mm at the entrance and 400 mm at the exit. Determine the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force on the bend.

3. The Cartop Carrier

Estimate the extra power needed to drive the car at 100 km/hr in a 25 km/hr head wind
when the cartop carrier is mounted.

A-12
American University of Beirut
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

CIVE 340 - Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory Spring 2016

Basha & Malaeb
90-min Exam 03-Mar-16
Exam 901
I pledge my honor that I will not give or receive any assistance on this exam.

NAME: Signature:

1. Plate in Oil

Calculate the force required to drag a very thin plate of 4 ft2 area through the SAE 30
Western lubricating oil at a velocity of 20 ft/min if the plate in 0.4 inches away from the
top plate. The gap width is 1 inches and the viscosity of oil is 0.009 lb.s/ft2.

2. Differential Manometer

Compute the pressure at A if the pressure at B is 210 kPa. The specific gravity s of liquid
A, B, and Hg are 0.85, 1.26, and 13.56, respectively.

3. Tidal Gate

Gate AB is 5 ft wide and opens to let fresh water out when the ocean tide is falling. The
hinge at A is 2 ft above the freshwater level. Find h at which the gate first opens.

A-13
CIVE 340 - Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory Spring 2016

4. Tunnel under Water

A semicircular 40-ft-diameter tunnel is to be built under a 150-ft-deep, 800-ft-long Lake.

Determine the magnitude and line of action of the hydrostatic force acting on the tunnel.

5. Streams to Pipe

Two streams discharge into a pipe. The flow rate of stream A and B are QA  0.01t m3/s
and QB  0.005t 2 m3/s, where t is in seconds. Compute the velocity and acceleration of
the flow at the exit at t  2 s.

6. Milk Tanker

Milk with a density of 1020 kg/m3 is transported on a level road in a 7-m-long, 3-m-
diameter cylindrical tanker. The tanker is completely filled with milk, and it accelerates at
2.5 m/s2. If the minimum pressure in the tanker is 100 kPa, determine the maximum
pressure and its location.

A-14
American University of Beirut
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

CIVE 340 - Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory Spring 2016

Basha & Malaeb
90-min Exam 14-Apr-16
Exam 902
I pledge my honor that I will not give or receive any assistance on this exam.

NAME: Signature:

1. Power Generation

In a hydroelectric power plant, 100 m3/s of water flows from an elevation of 120 m to a
turbine. Compute the electric power output from the generator given that its overall
efficiency is 80% and the total head loss in the pipe system is 35 m.

2. Jet Ski

The thrust developed to propel the Jet Ski is a result of water pumped through the vehicle
and exiting as a high-speed water jet. Compute the flowrate needed to produce a 1300 N
thrust for the conditions shown below. Take the exiting water jet to be horizontal and
assume the inlet and outlet jets of water are free jets.

3. Tipping the Truck

Compute the wind velocity that will tip the truck on its side given that the mass of the
truck is 5 tons. The drag coefficient for a body of rectangular cross-section is 2.2 and the
air density is 1.1 kg/m3. Assume the weight of the truck to be uniformly distributed.

A-15
CIVE 340 - Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory Spring 2016

4. Flying the Airplane

An airplane has a mass of 50 tons, a wing area of 300 m2, a maximum lift coefficient of
3.2, and a cruising drag coefficient of 0.03 at an altitude of 12 km. Determine the safe
takeoff speed assuming it is 20% over the stall speed. The air density at sea level is 1.225
kg/m3.

5. Therapy (Bonus 1 point)

Draw a tunnel in four colors.

A-16
American University of Beirut
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

CIVE 340 - Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory Spring 2016

Basha & Malaeb
60-min Exam 26-Apr-16
Exam 903
I pledge my honor that I will not give or receive any assistance on this exam.

NAME: Signature:

1. Orifice

Calculate the time that it will take for a 15-cm circular tank to empty by half given that
the initial height of water above the 3-mm diameter orifice is 30 cm. Assume ideal
conditions. Would the actual time to empty be shorter or longer?

2. Venturi Meter

Derive the discharge equation for the Venturi meter and discuss how the actual and ideal
flow rates were determined.

3. Rectangular Weir – Preview of Hydraulics

A weir is a structure for determining the flow rate in a channel by measuring the height of
water H relative to the weir crest. Derive an expression for the discharge per unit crest
length of a rectangular weir of height P over which water of density  and dynamic
viscosity  is flowing with a head H.

4. Dam Spillway

A model of a proposed dam spillway was constructed to a scale of 1:25. Determine the
discharge that should be provided in the model if the design flood discharge over the
spillway is 1000 m3/s. Calculate the velocity in the prototype corresponding to a velocity
of 1.5 m/s in the model at the corresponding point. Compute also the prototype force
corresponding to the total force of 50 N on the model.

A-17
American University of Beirut
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

CIVE 340 - Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory Fall 2016

Habib Basha
90-min Exam 06-Oct-16
Exam 1001
I pledge my honor that I will not give or receive any assistance on this exam.

NAME: Signature:

1. The Shaft & The Bearing

Compute the force P to pull the 25 mm diameter shaft through the cylindrical bearing at a
velocity of 3 m/s. The lubricant that fills the 0.3 mm gap is oil with a kinematic viscosity
of 8 x 10-4 m2/s and a specific gravity of 0.91.

2. Inclined Manometer

Compute the difference in pressure between points A and B. The elevations z A and zB
are 10 m and 11 m, respectively. The manometer deflection is l2  50 cm and l1  1 m.

A-18
CIVE 340 - Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory Fall 2016

3. Force P

Compute the minimum force P required to open the 2 m-wide gate.

4. Circular Gate

A 4-m-long quarter-circular gate of radius 3 m is hinged at A and controls the flow of

water over the ledge at B. Compute the minimum force at B to keep the gate closed when
the water level rises to A. Neglect the weight of the gate.

5. Garden Hose

A nozzle is attached to a garden hose that is used to fill a 40-liters bucket in 50 s. The
diameter of the hose is 2 cm and the diameter of the nozzle exit is 8 mm. Compute the
flow rate and the average velocity in the hose and in the nozzle.

6. Fish Tank

A 60-cm-high fish tank is moved in the cabin of an elevator. Compute the pressure at the
bottom of the tank when the elevator is (a) moving up with an upward acceleration of 3
m/s2 and (b) moving down with a downward acceleration of 3 m/s2. When is the fish
under more stress? (i.e. while going up or while going down).

A-19
American University of Beirut
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

CIVE 340 - Fluid Mechanics & Laboratory Fall 2016

Habib Basha
90-min Exam 17-Nov-16
Exam 1002
I pledge my honor that I will not give or receive any assistance on this exam.

NAME: Signature:

1. Hydraulic Dredge

Estimate the thrust needed from the boat propeller to hold the boat stationary while
dredging sand from a river bottom. The specific gravity of the sand-water mixture is 1.4.

2. Tension in Ropes

Determine the tension in rope A and B. Assume the cart’s wheels to be frictionless.

3. Cruising Car

Compute the maximum velocity of a cruising car in km/h when it is rolling down a very
long hill. The mass of the car is 900 kg, the frontal area is 1.67 m2, and the drag
coefficient is 0.29. The slope of the hill is 6% and the rolling friction coefficient is 0.01.
The air density is 1.03 kg/m3.

4. Landing & Stalling Speeds

Compute the landing speed and stalling speed of an airplane given that the landing speed
is 8 m/s faster than its stalling speed. The lift coefficient at landing speed is 1.2 and the
maximum lift coefficient is 1.4.

A-20
 Appendix

Formulae Sheet

 d( mV ) dV
E  mc 2
 F  dt Qin  Qout 
dt
   
 V  V V V ax
al  ac  u v w tan  
t x y z g

4 d Q
dt cv
h dV   V  dA  0 V 
d cs
A

f r 4 dp
s Ic  Ev  
w 8 dV V

Ic
p  hc F  hc A y p  yc 
yc A

   p V2 Qhp
 F  Q V2  V1   H 
 2g
z P

 Qht

4r 1 g R
yc  v p  p0 1    z  z0  T0 
3 

C D A0 2 gh C D A2 2 gh
Q Q Q  C D A 2 gh
1   C c2 A02 A12  1   A22 A12 

p1 V12 p V2 F du
  z1  hm  2  2  z2  hl   g  
 2g  2g A dy
 
 d( mV )out d( mV )in
F x  2Q2V2 x  1Q1V1 x F  F F F
x
2
y
2
z
2
 F  dt  dt

1V1 A1  2V2 A2 F   pdA Q   udA

A

F 
P X p F   x p dF   x p pdA 
A 

p V2 dp
F x   Vx V  A 
 2g
 z  Cte
dz
 

y   Ai yi A i FD  C D Ap  V 2 2 FL  C L Ap  V 2 2

   FGp FPp FVp FI p p

v V u    Cp 
FGm FPm FVm FIm V 2 2

A-21
Appendix

Properties of Areas

A-22
 Appendix

Drag & Lift Coefficients

A-23
Appendix

Drag Coefficient for 2D Bodies

A-24
 Appendix

Drag Coefficient for 3D Axisymmetric Bodies

A-25
Appendix

Drag and Lift Coefficient for Airplane Wings with Different Aspect Ratios

A-26
 Appendix

Schedule of Lectures

Week Lect. Chapter Topics Modules Exams

1 Introduction Syllabus & Logistics Prologue

Density; compressibility
1 2 Fluid Properties Module 01
specific weight & gravity;
Viscosity; surface tension;
3 Fluid Properties Module 01
vapor pressure;
2 4 Fluid Statics Pressure; Manometers Module 02 Exam I

5 Fluid Statics Force on planar surfaces Module 03

3 6 Fluid Statics Force on curved surfaces Module 04 Exam II

7 Fluid Kinematics Flow; Velocity; Acceleration Module 05

4 8 Continuity Equation Module 06

9 Euler’s Equation Module 07

5 10 Bernoulli’s Equation Orifice & Venturi meter Module 08 Exam III

11 Review I

6 12 Exams

13 Energy Equation Module 09

7 14 Energy Equation Module 10

15 Momentum Equation Module 11

8 16 Momentum Equation Module 12 Exam IV

17 Review II

9 18 Exams

19 Drag Forces Module 13

10 20 Lift Forces Module 14 Exam V

21 Dimensional Analysis Module 15

11 22 Similitude Theory Module 16 Exam VI

23 Review III

12 24 Exams

25 Lab Session 1 & 2

13 26 Lab Session 3 & 4

27 Lab Report Writing Epilogue

14 28

A-27
Appendix

Private Notes

A-28