1.

(i) INERTIA AND ITS CLASSIFICATION:

Newton's first law of motion is also cited as the law of inertia.

This law states that a body continues to be in the state of rest or uniform motion
along a straight line unless it is acted upon by an external force to change its
state.
In our daily life, we find that a ball rolling on the ground stops after some time.
This is because the frictional force of the ground is acting upon the ball to make
changes in its state of motion.
The inertia of a body is measured by the mass of the body.
Heavier is the mass, greater is the force required hence, greater is its inertia and
vice-versa.
Hence, Newton’s first law defines inertia, and it is justly called the law of inertia.

What is Inertia?
The inherent attribute of all the bodies, by virtue of which they oppose the
change in the state of rest or of uniform motion along the straight line on their
own, is called inertia.
Some real-life applications to describe the inertia are as follows:
 Tables and chairs are kept inside the classroom and remain in a state of
rest until someone moves them.

The reverse can also be true.

 Suppose I am driving a car at a high speed. Suddenly, I encountered a big
rock. I need to apply force to stop the car to bring it to a state of rest.

Inertia Examples
A few examples to describe the law of inertia in our everyday life are as follows:
 When a bus starts suddenly, we fall backward. This is because our lower
part of the body starts moving with the bus while the upper part tries to
remain at rest.
 Athletes run a certain distance before taking a long jump.
 When a horse at full gallop stops suddenly, a man falls forward.
 On shaking the mango tree, mango falls off the tree.
 When a car rounds a curve suddenly, a driver is thrown outside.

Types of Inertia
Inertia is the resistance of a body to any change in its velocity.
It is of three types:
1. The inertia of rest: Tendency of a body to remain in the state of rest.
2. The inertia of direction: Tendency of a body to remain in a particular
direction.
3. The inertia of motion: Tendency of a body to remain in a state of uniform
motion.
Inertia of Rest
A body tends to remain at rest until an external force is applied to make it move.
Therefore, the inertia of rest is an inability of a body to move and remain in the
state of rest.

Example of Inertia of Rest

When we beat the carpet, it comes in motion, and dust particles are in a state of
rest. This is because the dust particles tend to remain at rest, and hence get
separated.

Inertia of Direction
The body tends to remain in the same direction until an external force acts upon
it to make a change in its direction of motion.

The Inertia of Direction Examples

A few Real-life Examples are discussed below:
 A bike tends to move in a straight line unless we turn the handle on the
bike.
 You use umbrellas to prevent yourself from getting wet. The direction of
the raindrops is vertically downwards.
 They cannot change their direction to make you wet.
 When you spin the one end of a string tied to the stone. Suddenly the
string breaks and stoneflies off along the tangent to the circle. This is
because the pull in the string was forcing the stone to make a circular
motion.
As soon as the string breaks, the pull vanishes, and the stoneflies off
tangentially.

Inertia of Motion
The body continues to move in a uniform motion and the property under which
it opposes the change in its present state is called the inertia of motion.

Examples of Inertia of Motion

Few real-life examples to describe inertia of motion are as follows:
 When a train stops suddenly, we fall forward. By inertia of motion, the
upper part of the body is in contact with the seat and starts moving with
the train, while the lower part tries to remain at rest.
 A person jumps out from a train and falls forward. This is because his feet
are in contact with the ground and remain at rest while the remaining body
continues to move because of inertia of motion.

(ii) LINEAR MOMENTUM:

Linear momentum is the product of a system’s mass and its velocity. In

equation form, linear momentum p is
 p=mv.�=��.

You can see from the equation that momentum is directly proportional to the
object’s mass (m) and velocity (v). Therefore, the greater an object’s mass or
the greater its velocity, the greater its momentum. A large, fast-moving object
has greater momentum than a smaller, slower object.

Momentum is a vector and has the same direction as velocity v. Since mass is
a scalar, when velocity is in a negative direction (i.e., opposite the direction of
motion), the momentum will also be in a negative direction; and when velocity
is in a positive direction, momentum will likewise be in a positive direction.
The SI unit for momentum is kg m/s.

Momentum is so important for understanding motion that it was called

the quantity of motion by physicists such as Newton. Force influences
momentum, and we can rearrange Newton’s second law of motion to show the
relationship between force and momentum.

Recall our study of Newton’s second law of motion (F net = ma). Newton actually
stated his second law of motion in terms of momentum: The net external force
equals the change in momentum of a system divided by the time over which it
changes. The change in momentum is the difference between the final and
initial values of momentum.

In equation form, this law is

Fnet=ΔpΔt,�net=Δ�Δ�,

where Fnet is the net external force, ΔpΔ� is the change in momentum,
and ΔtΔ� is the change in time.

We can solve for ΔpΔ� by rearranging the equation

Fnet=ΔpΔt�net=Δ�Δ�

to be

Δp=FnetΔt.Δp=FnetΔ�.

FnetΔtFnetΔ� is known as impulse and this equation is known as

the impulse-momentum theorem. From the equation, we see that the impulse
equals the average net external force multiplied by the time this force acts. It is
equal to the change in momentum. The effect of a force on an object depends
on how long it acts, as well as the strength of the force. Impulse is a useful
concept because it quantifies the effect of a force. A very large force acting for
a short time can have a great effect on the momentum of an object, such as
the force of a racket hitting a tennis ball. A small force could cause the same
change in momentum, but it would have to act for a much longer
2. DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUIT:

Domestic Electric Circuits

Basically, electric circuit connections are of two types:

 Series circuit
 Parallel circuit
In the series circuit electrons flow in a single direction. Series circuits can be
either opened or closed at a single time. When the circuit breaks, no current
flows in the circuit.
In the parallel circuit, electrons flow in several directions. Different parts of the
circuit are connected in different branches. If a circuit breaks in a single
direction, electric current flows in another direction.
The power supplied to homes through distribution lines are received at the
mains. Electricity is supplied through two types of cables; Over head cables or
underground cables.

Over Head Cables and Underground Cables

The overhead cables are usually mounted with support made of RCC, wood,
steel and even reinforced plastics. The underground cables are laid by digging
trenches. The cables used for the transmission and distribution of the power
are known as power cables.
Assembly of one or more individually insulated electrical conductors are held
together with an overall sheath. These power cables are laid inside the
building as permanent wiring, buried in the ground and run overhead or
exposed to the atmosphere. The design and manufacturing of power cables is
as per the rated current, voltage, maximum operating temperature and usage.
Parts of power cable are:
• Conductor
• Insulation
• Beading
• Armoring (optional)
• Outer sheath
Conductors are usually made of copper or aluminum material and are the
power carrying part of the cable.
Insulating materials incorporated in the manufacturing of cable are chosen
based on the operating temperature as well as the voltage and current rating
of the cable. The process by which a cable is provided with more mechanical
strength is known as beading. Armoring is a process by which the earthing
shield to the current carrying conductors is provided. The outermost cover of
the cable that protects against electrical mishaps, weather, and chemicals.
Outer sheath is made of PVC or rubber.
Domestic Electric Circuits are as shown in the figure below.

3 types of wires are involved in the domestic electric circuits, they are:

 Earth wire
 Live wire
 Neutral wire
Earth wire is green in colour. Earth wire is connected to metal plates placed in
the earth near the house for safety purposes. It provides safety for all the
appliances and devices connected at home which have a metallic body. This is
done to prevent shock when leakage of charges happens in the metallic body.
Live wire is red in colour. It is a positive conductor that helps to break the
circuit when excess current flows through the circuit.
Neutral wire is black in colour. It is a negative conductor.
Note: The potential difference between live and neutral wire is 220 volts.

3.FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF GASES:

1. Boyle’s Law (Pressure-Volume Relationship)

Based on his experiments, Robert Boyle states that at a
constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of gas varies
inversely with its volume. This is known as Boyle’s law. Mathematically, we
can write this as:
p∝1V(atconstantTandn)�∝1�(atconstant�and�)
p=k11V……(1)�=�11�……(1)
Where k1�1 is the constant of proportionality and again on rearranging
equation (1), we obtain: pV=k1��=�1 It means that at a constant
temperature, the product of pressure and volume of a fixed amount of gas
is constant. Then we can write this as:
p1V1=p2V2=constant�1�1=�2�2=constant
⇒p1p2=V1V2⇒�1�2=�1�2

We can graphically represent Boyle’s law as in the figure shown above is

the graph of equation (pV=k1)(��=�1)at different temperatures. The value
of k1�1 for each curve is different because, for a given mass of gas, it
varies only with temperature. Corresponding to a different constant
temperature, each curve is known as an isotherm. Higher curves
correspond to a higher temperature.

2. Charles’s Law (Temperature – Volume Relationship)

According to Charles’s law, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature at the constant pressure. Hence,
according to Charles’ law, we can write that :
V∝T�∝�
⇒VT=Constant=k2⇒��=Constant=�2
Thus,
⇒V=k2T⇒�=�2�
Charles found that for all gases, at any given pressure, the graph of
volume vs temperature (in celsius), as shown in the above figure, is a
straight line, and when it extends to zero volume, then each line intercepts
the temperature axis at –273.15∘C.–273.15∘C. Each line of the volume vs
temperature graph is called isobar. We can see that the volume of the gas
at –273.15∘C–273.15∘C will be zero, that gas will not exist. Absolute zero is
the lowest imaginary temperature at which gases are supposed to occupy
zero volume.
Learn About Charle’s Law

3. Gay Lussac’s Law (Pressure-Temperature Relationship)

The mathematical relationship between pressure and temperature was
given by Joseph Gay Lussac’s that is known as Gay Lussac’s law. It states
that at constant volume, the pressure of a fixed amount of a gas varies
directly with the temperature. Now, according to this statement, we can
write this as:
p∝T�∝�
⇒pT=Constant=k3⇒��=Constant=�3
The pressure vs temperature (Kelvin) graph at constant molar volume is
shown in the above figure. Each line of this graph is called isochore.

4. Avogadro Law (Volume – Number of Moles Relationship)

Avogadro law states that equal volumes of all gases under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure contain an equal number of
molecules. This means that as long as the temperature and pressure
remain constant, the volume depends upon the number of molecules of the
gas or in other words amount of the gas. Hence,
V∝n�∝�
⇒V=k4n⇒�=�4�
Where n� is the number of moles of gas. The number of molecules in one
mole of a gas has been determined to be 6.022×1023,6.022×1023, this is
known as the Avogadro number and is denoted by (NA).(��). The graph of
volume vs the amount of substance is shown in the figure below:
4. SOLAR SYSTEM

solar system, assemblage consisting of the Sun—an average star in the Milky
Way Galaxy—and those bodies orbiting around it: 8 (formerly 9) planets with
more than 210 known planetary satellites (moons); many asteroids, some with
their own satellites; comets and other icy bodies; and vast reaches of
highly tenuous gas and dust known as the interplanetary medium.

The Sun, Moon, and brightest planets were visible to the naked eyes of ancient
astronomers, and their observations and calculations of the movements of
these bodies gave rise to the science of astronomy. Today the amount of
information on the motions, properties, and compositions of the planets and
smaller bodies has grown to immense proportions, and the range of
observational instruments has extended far beyond the solar system to
other galaxies and the edge of the known universe. Yet the solar system and
its immediate outer boundary still represent the limit of our physical reach,
and they remain the core of our theoretical understanding of the cosmos as
well. Earth-launched space probes and landers have gathered data on planets,
moons, asteroids, and other bodies, and this data has been added to the
measurements collected with telescopes and other instruments from below
and above Earth’s atmosphere and to the information extracted from
meteorites and from Moon rocks returned by astronauts. All this information is
scrutinized in attempts to understand in detail the origin and evolution of the
solar system—a goal toward which astronomers continue to make great
strides.
Composition of the solar system
Located at the centre of the solar system and influencing the motion of all the
other bodies through its gravitational force is the Sun, which in itself contains
more than 99 percent of the mass of the system. The planets, in order of their
distance outward from the Sun,
are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Four
planets—Jupiter through Neptune—have ring systems, and all but Mercury
and Venus have one or more moons. Pluto had been officially listed among the
planets since it was discovered in 1930 orbiting beyond Neptune, but in 1992
an icy object was discovered still farther from the Sun than Pluto. Many other
such discoveries followed, including an object named Eris that appears to be
at least as large as Pluto. It became apparent that Pluto was simply one of the
larger members of this new group of objects, collectively known as the Kuiper
belt. Accordingly, in August 2006 the International Astronomical Union (IAU),
the organization charged by the scientific community with classifying
astronomical objects, voted to revoke Pluto’s planetary status and place it
under a new classification called dwarf planet. For a discussion of that action
and of the definition of planet approved by the IAU, see planet.

Any natural solar system object other than the Sun, a planet, a dwarf planet, or
a moon is called a small body; these include asteroids, meteoroids,
and comets. Most of the more than one million asteroids, or minor planets,
orbit between Mars and Jupiter in a nearly flat ring called the asteroid belt.
The myriad fragments of asteroids and other small pieces of solid matter
(smaller than a few tens of metres across) that populate interplanetary space
are often termed meteoroids to distinguish them from the larger asteroidal
bodies.

5. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL:

Physical properties of metals include:

 Corrosion resistance
 Density
 Melting point
 Thermal properties
 Heat capacity
 Thermal conductivity
 Thermal expansion
 Electrical conductivity
 Magnetic properties
What Is an Alloy?
The word alloy appears throughout the Eagle Group Blog, especially here in
this series. An alloy is a uniform mixture made from a combination of
individual elements, when at least one of the elements is a metal. Common
alloys include bronze, which is a mixture of copper (Cu) and tin (Se). Steel is a
mixture of iron (Fe) and carbon (C), and stainless steel includes other alloying
agents like chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and manganese (Mn).
Corrosion Resistance
Many types of corrosion can occur. Corrosion is a process in which a material
is reduced to a more stable state via chemical reaction, often related to the
atmosphere or service conditions. Rust, a common sight on unprotected
products made of ferrous metals, is one of the most common forms of
corrosion.
Corrosion resistance, on the other hand, is the material's ability to resist the
reaction to move toward a more stable state in its environment.
Raw aluminum, silicon, titanium and their alloys are naturally corrosion
resistant due to an unreactive layer that quickly forms on their surfaces. A
common alloy for many applications requiring corrosion resistance is
stainless steel. Unlike carbon steel, stainless steel alloys are able to resist
surface corrosion when exposed to environments that would normally cause
corrosion, including wet, acidic or high heat.
Density
The density of an object is determined by a simple formula: the object’s mass
(M) divided by its volume (V). At first, the practical application of density was
to determine the authenticity of gold, as in the story of the golden crown. Gold
is an excellent candidate for testing density, because it is a much denser
material than other metals, with an average density of 1,206 lbs. per cubic foot.
Alloys more commonly used in manufacturing have lower densities. Steel
averages around 494 lbs./ cubic foot, while stainless steel is a bit less.
Titanium is about half the density of steel, and aluminum is about one-third.
Practically speaking, this means that a part made of steel will weigh
approximately three times more than the exact same part made of aluminum.
However, steel has other advantages like hardness and strength, and so lower
volumes or thicknesses of material can provide the same or better
performance, comparatively.
Eagle Alloy and Eagle Precision often produce complex, thin-walled castings
from different carbon and stainless steel alloys. The alloy affects the design,
production process and finishing techniques used to manufacture each cast
part.
Melting Point
The melting point of a material is defined as the temperature at which it
changes from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. Melting point can be a
major factor in deciding if an alloy will be possible to use for a particular
product. Different alloys have different melting point ranges, as determined by
the elements of their chemical makeup. For example, an alloy with a high
percentage of tin or aluminum will melt at a much lower temperature than an
alloy made of mostly iron and nickel.
Melting point is an important consideration for metal manufacturers. Many
casting facilities utilize sand casting methods like airset or shell mold
casting because the non-metal molds can withstand higher temperatures
required to melt steel. Aluminum, on the other hand, can be cast using
reusable steel molds, since it has a much lower melting point than steel.
Thermal Properties
Thermal properties include heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and thermal
expansion. In manufacturing, all three properties are important factors in
choosing the right alloy.
 Heat capacity, also known as specific heat, is the amount of energy
needed to change the temperature of a material, and is a key
component of predicting casting solidification.
 Thermal conductivity is defined as the rate at which heat can be
transported through a material, and one thing metals have in common
is high thermal conductivity. Electrical conductivity is a different
property, but proportionally correlates to thermal conductivity. Metals
like copper and gold, which are known as good electrical conductors,
are also good thermal conductors.
 Thermal expansion relates to the way metals expand upon heating and
contract upon cooling. This property is especially important when
designing tooling for metalcasting. Patterns and molds must be larger
than the final part in order to account for shrinkage during cooling.
Magnetic Properties

Magnetic properties refer to the way in

which the material responds to an applied external magnetic field. This
magnetic response can be classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic,
ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, or ferrimagnetic.
 Diamagnetic - repelled by magnetic fields
 Paramagnetic - shows no magnetic order
 Ferromagnetic - strongest type of magnetism
 Antiferromagnetic - may exist at sufficiently low temperatures, but
vanishes at/above Néel temperature
 Ferrimagnetic - weak form of ferromagnetism
Iron is one of the most magnetic metals, and so ferrous metals (metals
containing iron) like steel also exhibit degrees of magnetism--
specifically ferromagnetism.

Chemical Properties of Metals Let us look at some chemical properties of

metals as well.

Reaction Of Metal With Oxygen

Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides. Metals donate electrons to
oxygen for the formation of metal oxides. For example,
4K + O2 → 2 K2O
Metal oxides are generally basic in nature but it can also be amphoteric in
nature. Amphoteric oxides mean that they are acidic as well as basic in nature.
Some metals like sodium and potassium react vigorously with oxygen.
Whenever sodium or potassium is exposed to air it catches fire. Hence, they
are kept in kerosene.

Reaction Of Metal With Water

Some metals react with water to form metal hydroxide whereas some of them
do not react. Reactivity with water differs from metal to metal.
Metals like sodium and potassium are highly reactive. They react with water to
form alkalis such as sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
Calcium also reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide and hydrogen.
Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2
Whereas, magnesium and zinc do not react with cold water. They form their
respective oxides when reacted with hot water.
Mg + H2O → MgO + H2
Iron is less reactive than sodium, potassium, calcium, zinc and magnesium. It
does not react with cold and hot water, but it reacts with steam to form
magnetic oxides.
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2

Reaction With Dilute Acids

Metals like sodium, potassium, lithium and calcium react vigorously with dilute
HCl and H2SO4 to form their metal salt and hydrogen.
While magnesium, zinc, iron, tin and lead do not react vigorously with acids.
Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Fe + H2SO4 → FeSO4 + H2
Metals which fall below hydrogen in the reactivity series do not react with
dilute acids. They cannot displace hydrogen to form a bond with a non-metal
anion.

Reaction of Metal With Other Metal Salts

Metals that are more reactive will readily with less reactive metals. More
reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its oxides, chlorides or
sulphides.
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
Metals are arranged according to the electrode potential of metals. The
electrochemical series is shown below.

6. NANOCHEMISTRY AND ITS DRAWBACK:

Nanochemistry
We know that the size and shape of materials influence their characteristics.
Scientists found that materials having size about 1/1,000,000,000 metre show
special characteristics. Then they started producing such kind of materials and
studied the effect of size on properties. Thus a new branch of chemistry called
'Nanochemistry' was developed.

Nanochemistry is a branch of nanoscience, that deals with the chemical

applications of nanomaterials in nanotechnology. It involves synthesis and
manipulation of materials at atomic and molecular level and the study of their
physical and chemical properties.

Nanotechnology is the application of science to manipulate matter to atomic or

molecular scale and making use of them to develop specialized materials and
devices for use in our day to day life. It deals with the materials which are
smaller than 100 nanometres and hence it is so called.
1. Size of Nanoparticles

The word, Nano has been derived from the Greek word 'Nanos' which is
designated to represent billionth fraction of a unit. For instance, 1 Nanometre =
1/ 1,000,000,000 metre. Can you imagine how small is a nanoparticle?

The following examples may help to illustrate how small the nanoscale is.

· One nanometre (nm) is 10−9 or 0.000,000,001 metre.

· A nanometre and a metre can be understood as the same size-difference

as between golf ball and the Earth.

· Our nails grow 1 nm each second.

· The virus most usually responsible for the common cold has a diameter
of 30 nm.

· One nanometre is about one twenty-five-thousandth the diameter of a

human hair.

· A cell membrane is around 9 nm across.

· The DNA double helix is 2 nm across.

· The diameter of one hydrogen atom is around 0.2 nm.

The method you have just used is called a Serial dilution. You can notice that in
each tube, the food colouring is ten times more diluted than the previous tube.
By the time they reach tube 9, the original food colouring would have been
diluted to the level of one part of food colouring to a billion parts of water. At
this stage, the intensity of colour and smell would be extremely low.

In such a way, when materials are broken down to nanoscale, they show some
special surface properties which make them to be used for special kinds of
applications. This type of manipulation of materials is done by nanotechnology.

How small is a nanoparticle? Visit the following link: https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=38Vi8Dm0kdY
2. Properties of nanomaterials

Nanomaterials have the structural features in between those of atoms and the
bulk materials. The properties of materials with nanometre dimensions are
significantly different from those of atoms and bulk materials. This is mainly
because the nanometre size of the materials render them, larger surface area,
high surface energy, spatial confinement and reduced imperfections, which do
not exist in the corresponding bulk materials. Due to their small dimensions,
nanomaterials have extremely large surface area to volume ratio, resulting in
more 'surface dependent' material properties. As the surface characteristics of
nanoparticles are the main criteria to be considered for applications, highly
sophisticated instruments like Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Tunneling
Electron Microscope (TEM) and Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) are used to
analyse the surface properties of a nanoparticle with high resolution.

3. Applications of Nanochemistry

The range of commercial products available today is very broad, including stain-
resistant and wrinkle-free textiles, cosmetics, sunscreens, electronics, paints
and varnishes. Nanochemistry is applied in all these substance. Some of them
are given below.

· The metallic nanoparticles can be used as very active catalysts.

· Chemical sensors from nanoparticles and nanowires enhance the

sensitivity and sensor selectivity.
· Nano coatings and nanocomposites are found useful in making variety
of products such as sports equipment, bicycles and automobiles etc.

· These are used as novel UV-blocking coatings on glass bottles which

protect beverages from being damaged by sunlight.

· Nanotechnology is being applied in the production of synthetic skin and

implant surgery.

Disadvantages of Nanotechnology
When tackling the advantages and disadvantages of nanotechnology, you will
also need to point out what can be seen as the negative side of this
technology:
 Included in the list of disadvantages of this science and its
development is the possible loss of jobs in the traditional farming
and manufacturing industry.
 You will also find that the development of nanotechnology can also
bring about the crash of certain markets due to the lowering of the
value of oil and diamonds due to the possibility of developing
alternative sources of energy that are more efficient and won’t
require the use of fossil fuels. This can also mean that since people
can now develop products at the molecular level, diamonds will also
lose its value since it can now be mass produced.
 Atomic weapons can now be more accessible and made to be more
powerful and more destructive. These can also become more
accessible with nanotechnology.
 Since these particles are very small, problems can actually arise
from the inhalation of these minute particles, much like the
problems a person gets from inhaling minute asbestos particles.
 Presently, nanotechnology is very expensive and developing it can
cost you a lot of money. It is also pretty difficult to manufacture,
which is probably why products made with nanotechnology are
more expensive.

7. TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND THERMAL AND ELECTROLYTIC

DECOMPOSITION REACTION:

What is a Chemical Reaction?

A chemical reaction is in which the bonds are broken within reactant
molecules, and new bonds are formed within product molecules in order to
form a new substance.
Chemical reactions are all around us, from the metabolism of food in our body
to how the light we get from the sun is the result of chemical reactions. Before
beginning with chemical reactions, it is important to know about physical and
chemical changes.
A burning candle is the best example of physical and chemical change. Take a
candle and light it. As time passes, we can observe that the candle changes to
wax. If you cover the candle with a jar, it will extinguish.
In the demonstration, burning of the candle is a chemical change while
conversion of the candle to wax is a physical change. In a physical change,
there is basically a change of state of the substance but in the case of a
chemical change mostly a new substance is formed in which either energy is
given off or absorbed. Thus, we can conclude that chemical changes are
accompanied by certain physical changes.

Types of Chemical Reactions

The basis for different types of reactions is the product formed, the changes
that occur, the reactants involved and so on. Different types of reactions are

 Combustion reaction
 Decomposition reaction
 Neutralization reaction
 Redox Reaction
 Precipitation or Double-Displacement Reaction
 Synthesis reaction
1. Combustion Reaction
A combustion reaction is a reaction with a combustible material with an
oxidizer to give an oxidized product. An oxidizer is a chemical a fuel requires
to burn, generally oxygen. Consider the example of combustion of magnesium
metal.
2��+�2→2���+����
Here, 2 magnesium atoms react with a molecule of oxygen producing 2
molecules of the compound magnesium oxide releasing some heat in the
process.
2. Decomposition Reaction
A Decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a single component breaks
down into multiple products. Certain changes in energy in the environment
have to be made like heat, light or electricity breaking bonds of the
compound. Consider the example of the decomposition of calcium carbonate
giving out CaO (Quick Lime) which is a major component of cement.
����3(�)→�������(�)+��2(�)
Here, the compound Calcium carbonate when heated breaks down into
Calcium Oxide and Carbon Dioxide.
3. Neutralization Reaction
A Neutralization reaction is basically the reaction between an acid and a base
giving salt and water as the products. The water molecule formed is by the
combination of OH– ions and H+ ions. The overall pH of the products when a
strong acid and a strong base undergo a neutralization reaction will be 7.
Consider the example of the neutralization reaction between Hydrochloric acid
and Sodium Hydroxide giving out sodium chloride(Common Salt) and water.
���+����→����+�2�
Here, an acid and a base, Hydrochloric acid and Sodium Hydroxide react in a
neutralization reaction to produce Sodium Chloride(Common Salt) and water
as the products.
4. Redox Reaction
A REDuction-OXidation reaction is a reaction in which there is a transfer of
electrons between chemical species. Let us consider the example of an
electrochemical cell-like redox reaction between Zinc and Hydrogen.
��+2�+→��2++�2
Here, A Zinc atom reacts with 2 ions of positively charged hydrogen to which
electrons get transferred from the zinc atom and hydrogen becomes a stable
molecule and Zinc ion is the product.
5. Precipitation or Double-Displacement Reaction
It is a type of displacement reaction in which two compounds react and
consequently, their anions and cations switch places forming two new
products. Consider the example of the reaction between silver nitrate and
sodium chloride. The products will be silver chloride and sodium nitrate after
the double-displacement reaction.
����3+����→����+����3
Here, Silver Nitrate and Sodium Chloride undergo a double displacement
reaction. Wherein Silver replaces Sodium in Sodium Chloride and Sodium
joins with Nitrate becoming Sodium Nitrate along with the Silver Chloride as
the product.
6. Synthesis Reaction
A Synthesis reaction is one of the most basic types of reaction wherein
multiple simple compounds combine under certain physical conditions giving
out a complex product. The product will always be a compound. Let us
consider the Synthesis reaction of sodium chloride with reactants solid
sodium and chloride gas.
THERMAL DECOMPOSITION

Thermal means heat. Decomposing is the process of breaking down. Thermal

decomposition is a chemical reaction that happens when a compound breaks
down when heated.

Thermal decomposition reactions happen at high temperatures. The reactants

absorb lots of energy before breaking down into the products.

The starting compound is the reactant. It breaks down to simpler substances,

which could be elements or they could be compounds.

Thermal decomposition are examples of endothermic reactions, and are useful

when cooking and baking cakes.

ELECTROLYTIC DECOMPOSITION
When electricity is passed through a molten compound which is ionic nature, then
the ions of the compound separate into components decomposing the compound.

It is used separating hydrogen and oxygen gas from water. It is also used to
separate gases or metals (elements) from the compound.