Module 3: Fundamentals of Flow

Prof Manisha Bhendale

What is Flow?
Flow is defined as fluid (liquids or/and gases) in motion.
Factors Affecting Flow Rates in pipes :
The major factors affecting the flow of fluids through pipes are:
● the velocity of the fluid.
● the friction of the fluid in contact with the pipe.
● the viscosity of the fluid.
● the density of the fluid.
● Fluid velocity
● Fluid velocity depends on the head pressure which is forcing the fluid through the pipe. The
greater the head pressure, the faster the fluid flow rate
Density:Density (ρ) of a fluid affects flow rates in that a more dense fluid requires more head
pressure to maintain a desired flow rate.

Pipe friction:Pipe friction reduces the flow rate of fluids through pipes and is, therefore,
considered a negative factor.

Viscosity:Viscosity (η), or the molecular friction within a fluid, negatively affects the flow rate
of fluids. Viscosity and pipe friction decrease the flow rate of a fluid near the walls of a pipe.

The Flow Law:

If liquid flow through a pipe of varying diameters, at any particular time the same volume flows at
all points. This means, the velocity of liquid must increase at a narrow point (see figure below).
Properties of fluid:
● Density–Density of a fluid is the mass of the fluid per unit volume.
Mathematically it is the ratio of the mass to the volume of the fluids.
● Specific weight-It is the weight of fluids per unit volume.
Mathematically, it is the ratio of the weight to the volume of the fluids.
● Specific gravity– Specific gravity is the ratio of specific weight or
mass density of fluids to the specific weight or mass density of the
standard fluids. In the case of liquid standard, fluids are water
whereas in the case of gases standard fluids are air.
● Specific volume-Specific volume of fluid is the volume of fluid per unit
weight. It is the reciprocal of weight density. it’s SI unit is cubic metre
per Newton
● Viscosity-It is the resistance offered to a layer of fluids when it moves
over another layer of fluids.
● Vapour Pressure-vapour pressure, pressure exerted by a vapour when
the vapour is in equilibrium with the liquid or solid form, or both, of the
same substance.
Ideal Fluid: The fluid, which is incompressible and has no viscosity or no friction, is
known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid.
Real Fluid: A fluid, which possesses viscosity or friction, is known as real fluid.
Newtonian Fluid :A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the
rate of the shear strain, is known as a Newtonian fluid. Fluids obeying Newton’s law
where the value of viscosity (μ) is constant are known as Newtonian fluids

Non-newtonian Fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not proportional to
the rate of the shear strain, is known as a Non-newtonian fluid. Fluids in which the value
of viscosity (μ) is not constant are known as non-newtonian fluids.

Ideal Plastic Fluid:A fluid, in which the shear stress is more than the yield value and
shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain, is known as ideal plastic fluid.

Incompressible Fluid:A fluid, in which the density of the fluid does not change which
changes to an external force or pressure, is known as an incompressible fluid.

Compressible Fluid: A fluid, in which the density of fluid changes while the change in external
pressure or force, is known as compressible fluid.
1. Steady and Unsteady Flow:A flow is defined steady when its fluid
characteristics like velocity, density, and pressure at a point do not change with time.
2.Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow:A non-uniform flow is a type of fluid flow in which
the velocity of the flow at any given time changes with respect to space.
3. Laminar and Turbulent Flow: Laminar flow is defined as a type of flow in which
the fluid particles move along a well-defined streamline or paths, such that all the
streamlines are straight and parallel to each other.
Turbulent flow is a type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a zigzag manner.
4.Compressible and Incompressible Flows:A compressible flow is that type of
flow in which the density of the fluid changes from one point to another point.
Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid is constant
from one point to another.

5. Rotational and Irrotational Flows:A type of flow in which the fluid particles
rotate about their own axis while flowing along the streamlines is called a rotational
flow. If the fluid particles while flowing along the streamline do not rotate about their
own axis, then the flow is called irrotational flow.
6. One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows:One dimensional fluid flow is a
fluid flow in which, the flow parameter such as velocity is expressed as a function of
time and one space coordinates.
Two-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time
and two rectangular space coordinates
Fluid flow is three-dimensional in nature. This means that the flow parameters like
velocity, pressure and so on vary in all the three coordinate directions.
Bernoulli's Theorem: States that in a pipe which carries liquid flow,the sum of kinetic
energy,pressure energy & potential energy is equal to some constant if it is measured between any
two points of that pipe.
Bernoulli's Equation:Bernoulli's equation (or principle) is actually a set of variations
on an equation that express the relationship between static pressure, dynamic
pressure, and manometric pressure.
The most general form of the Bernoulli equation is
P+(½)ρv٨2+ρgh=constant
➢ where P is static pressure, ρ is fluid density, v is fluid speed, h is height above
some datum, and g is the acceleration of gravity. Given its status as a
fundamental relationship in fluid mechanics, Bernoulli's equation has some
surprisingly restrictive assumptions like no viscosity, steady flow (i.e., no
changes with time), and measured along a streamline.
➢ The terms in Bernoulli's equation represent energy per unit volume (which has
dimensions of pressure) and so the equation can represent a statement of
conservation of energy.
The static pressure, P, is due to molecular motion and thus represents
thermal energy, the dynamic pressure, ½ρv2, represents kinetic energy,
and the manometric pressure, ρgh, represents gravitational potential
energy.

Bernoulli's equation only applies to an incompressible fluid with no

viscosity, in other words an “ideal fluid,” and then only along
streamlines.
❖ Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy.
❖ Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid's
potential energy.
❖ This states that, in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid is the
same at all points that are free of viscous forces.
❖ The simple form of Bernoulli's equation is valid for incompressible flows (e.g.
most liquid flows and gases moving at low Mach number).
❖ Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight
❖ If a fluid is flowing horizontally and along a section of a streamline, where the
speed increases it can only be because the fluid on that section has moved from a
region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure; and if its speed
decreases, it can only be because it has moved from a region of lower pressure to
a region of higher pressure.
Pascal's principle is defined as:

➢ A change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest is

transmitted undiminished to all points in the fluid.
➢ Pressure exerted on a fluid in an enclosed container is transmitted
equally and undiminished to all parts of the container and acts at right
angle to the enclosing walls.
➢ Alternate definition: The pressure applied to any part of the enclosed
liquid will be transmitted equally in all directions through the liquid.
➢ Hydrostatic Law: The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by
the Hydrostatic Law which states that the rate of increase of pressure
in a vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight
of the fluid at that point i.e. height of column of the liquid.
➢ The hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at
equilibrium at any point of time due to force of gravity.
➢ Fluid pressure can be caused by gravity, acceleration or forces when in a
closed container.
➢ If we consider the layer/ column of water on the top of a bottle, the
pressure exerted by the layer/ column of water acts on the container at
the sides, the surface of air on top and the layer of water at the bottom.
➢ As we move down from the top of the bottle to the bottom, the pressure
exerted by the top layer/ column on the bottom adds up.
➢ Due to this phenomenon, the fluid at the bottom of the container
experiences more pressure that the fluid which is above it.
Flow through pipes and losses:Major Losses & Minor losses
➢ A fluid is conveyed through close passage when it is required to maintain a certain
pressure with respect to atmospheric pressure.
➢ The flow in the pipe is termed as pipe flow when the fluid completely fills the cross
section of the pipe and there is no free surface of the fluid.
➢ Since the fluid in a pipe is in motion, it has to overcome the frictional resistance
between the adjacent fluid layers and that between the fluid layer and pipe walls.
➢ As fluid flows from one point to another, there is a loss of head due to friction.
➢ There are certain laws of fluid friction for each type of flow & accordingly the
losses are calculated for it.

Major Losses: The major losses of energy are due to friction Which are considerable
hence it is called as major losses.
Darcy- Weisbach formula: Head loss due to friction is denoted by hf .
where, hf – loss of head due to friction in meter of fluid
f - Coefficient of friction
L- Length of pipe in m.
V- Velocity of flow in m/s., d- Diameter of pipe in m.
Minor losses: The losses due to disturbances in flow pattern or due to change in velocity are
called as minor losses.
➢ These losses may occur due to sudden change in the area of flow and the direction of
flow.
➢ These losses are less as compare to major losses.
➢ The minor loss of the head (energy) includes the following case;
1.Loss of head due to sudden enlargement of a pipe
2.Loss of head due to sudden contraction
3. Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe
4. Loss of head at the exit
. 5.Loss of head due to bends
6. Loss of head in various pipe fittings
7. Loss of head due to obstruction
Reynolds number: The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces
within a fluid which is subjected to relative internal movement due to different fluid
velocities. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number.
What is an open channel flow?
➢ The open channel flow is the flow of the liquid on a free surface, some of the open
channel flows are dams and irrigation channels.
➢ The surface pressure will be equal to the atmospheric pressure in an open channel.
➢ There is some human-made open-channel flow and they are drainage ditches,
sewers, and freshwater aqueducts.
➢ An open channel flow would have free airspace above, so by this, we can say that an
open channel could be a visible channel or it could be a closed pipe that doesn’t have
a full flow.
What are the different types of open channel flow and how gravity would affect the flow?
➢ The depth of the flow would vary according to the obstruction, there are two types of
open channel flow and they are rapidly varied flow and gradually varied flow.
➢ The rapidly varied flow would take place over a short distance near the obstacle, while
the gradually varied flow would occur over a long distance.
➢ The gravity is the major part of an open channel flow, the driving force for the flow is
due to the gravity and thus the flow would take place in a good manner.
How does an open channel flow meter work?

➢ The water level is measured in an open channel by creating a hydraulic

structure such as a weir or flume.
➢ The water depth will be converted to flow rate and this flow rate can be
calculated over time and thus volumetric flow rate can be determined.
➢ The open channel flow meter has two components and they are the primary
hydraulic control element and the measuring device.

Types of open channel flow measurement:

Weirs: The operation of this type of flow is based on the principle that if there
is an obstruction in the water channel then it would make the water back up.
So because of this, there will be a high level behind the barrier. The high level is
due to the flow velocity and thus we could determine the flow rate through the
device
The weirs are divided according to their shape there are three major types of
weirs such as V-notch, rectangular, and trapezoidal.
● The rectangular weir can be used to measure
higher flows, these weirs are mostly used in
water supplies, wastewater, and sewage
systems.
● This type of meter would have a sharp-edged
plate.
● A rectangular weir has sharp edges and
because of this the water would flow freely
and thus accurate measurements can be done.
● In a rectangular weir, the measuring point is
not at the weir crust.
● The disadvantage of the rectangular
sharp-crested weir is that since some of them
don’t have end contractions and the channel
walls affect the flow over the weir, thus the
wall condition could affect the flow.
 ● The V-notch weir has a V-shaped
V notch weir:
opening and this type of weir is used
to measure low flows within a narrow
operating range.
● This type of weir would accurately
measure low discharges. In this weir,
as shown in the image there will be a
ninety-degree opening and its sides
will be inclined forty-five degrees
with vertical.
● This type of weir has no crest length
and due to this, it is used for very
smaller flow measurements.
● This type of weir has no crest length
and due to this, it is used for very
smaller flow measurements.
What are the major applications of notch and weirs?

● It can regulate the flow in channels

● It could act as an emergency spillway in order to regulate the high

flows

● It would control the flow through an unsubmerged culvert that

operates under the inlet control

● Irrigation water measurement

● Industrial process discharge

● It can control the pond overflow

● Wastewater treatment plant discharge

Flumes: ● This type is used when the head needs to be
minimum or in case if there is a presence of
suspended solids in the flowing liquid.
● The major types of flumes are Parshall and
palmer bowlus designs.
● A flume is a type of flow channel which
could be either on or above the ground so
that the water can be transferred to the
desired place.
● The flume is designed in a way that would
restrict the channel area and it would also
change the channel slope.
● Thus the liquid velocity would increase and
also the level of the liquid would change too.
Flow sensors,Material used and performance:

What is a Flow Sensor?

A flow sensor is a component that measures the flow of a fluid such as a gas or liquid.
➢ Flow sensors utilize both mechanical and electrical subsystems to measure changes
in the fluid's physical attributes and calculate its flow.
➢ A flow meter (or flow sensor) is an instrument used to measure linear, nonlinear,
mass or volumetric flow rate of a liquid or a gas.
Types of Flow Sensors:
● Positive displacement flow sensors
● Mass flow sensors
● Velocity flow sensors

Positive displacement flow sensors: They perform a direct measurement of

the volume of fluid passing through the device.
Mass flow sensors: Mass flow sensors, sometimes called mass air flow
sensors, are commonly found in automotive applications where they are
used to measure the mass of air entering the air intake system of an
internal combustion engine.
Velocity flow sensors : Velocity flow sensors are ones in which the sensor
derives the flow rate by performing a measurement of the fluid’s velocity
through the sensor.
Selection Considerations for flow sensors:
● The type of media being monitored (e.g. liquid, gas, air, slurry, etc.)
● The flow measurement needed (volumetric, mass, or velocity)
● The media operating conditions (pressure, temperature, external vibration levels, and
other conditions)
● The properties of the media (acidity, corrosiveness, Reynold’s number, viscosity,
electrical conductivity, magnetic properties, etc.)
● The amount of pressure loss that is tolerable
● The flow rate range (the minimum and maximum values over which a measurement is
needed)
● The measurement accuracy needed
● The physical characteristics of the pipe or conduit (e.g. pipe diameter, material)
● The power source availability
● The type of display needed
● The output signal requirements and any need for remote monitoring
Corrosion and erosion effects in flow measurement :

➢ Erosion-corrosion of steels is a complex issue which affects various

industrial sectors such as the ship hull, impeller, and propeller, water
injection system, oil and gas exploitation pipelines, slurry
transportation, nuclear power industry, and hydro turbines.
➢ It is a complicated phenomenon that involves simultaneous occurrence
of corrosion of a metal surface due to electrochemical reactions and
erosion of the surface due to mechanical action such as impingement,
abrasion, and cavitation. …
➢ These effects always compose very high maintenance cost on the
users.
➢ Erosion-corrosion is a generic name for the degradation phenomenon
that occurs in chemical plants, in which metallic materials are exposed
to various flowing liquids. For example, erosion-corrosion occurs within
heat-transfer pipes made of copper-based alloys that are used in
seawater heat exchangers.
Thank you………
https://youtu.be/a5YsNtFItFQ?si=hYddtIECJ9Ig_vRN-for JEE students
https://youtu.be/YkR79oDAgOg?si=EfjHGDNe4vumvoGJ