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Construction of a 27W Mini Instant Power Supply

Technical Report · May 2014

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.1139.2326

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 CONSTRUCTION OF A 27W MINI
INSTANT POWER SUPPLY

Submitted By
Mridul Kanti Mondal
ID: ECE090100118

Supervised by
Ashraful Arefin
Sr. Lecturer
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh

May 2014
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

NORTHERN UNIVERSITY BANGLADESH

 DECLARATION

We, hereby, declare that the entire project work, presented in this report is the outcome of
investigation, study and presentation performance performed by us under the supervision of
Ashraful Arefin, Sr. Lecturer, Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Northern
University Bangladesh. We also announce that no part of this report has been or is submitted
elsewhere for the award of any degree or diploma.

Signature

___________________

Mridul Kanti Mondal

ID: ECE090100118

Countersigned

___________________________________________

Ashraful Arefin

Sr. Lecturer (Supervisor)

Department of Electrical & Electronic & Engineering

Northern University Bangladesh

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 APPROVALS
The project report titled, “Construction of a 27W Mini Instant Power Supply”, submitted
by Mridul Kanti Mondal (ID: ECE090100118) to the Department of Electronics &
Communication Engineering, Northern University Bangladesh, has been accepted as
satisfactory in partial fulfillment for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Electronics &
Communication Engineering.

_________________________________________
Ashraful Arefin (Supervisor)

Sr. Lecturer, Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

Northern University Bangladesh

_________________________________________
Lecturer

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

Northern University Bangladesh

_________________________________________
Lecturer

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

Northern University Bangladesh

_________________________________________
Prof. Dr. M. Shah Alam

Head, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Northern University Bangladesh

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No
Approvals……………………………………………………………………………….. i
Declaration……………………………………………………………………………… ii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………. iii
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………… iv
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………. v
List of Figure……………………………………………………………………………. vi

Chapter 1

Introduction……………………………………………………………….. 1
1.1 General………………………………………………………………………………... 1
1.2 Importance of Electrical Energy………………………………………………………. 1
1.3 Source of Energy…………………………………………………………………….. 3
1.4 Efficiency…………………………………………………………………………….. 4

Chapter 2
Power supply………………………………………………………………. 5
2.1 Definition…………………………………………………………………………….. 5
2.2 Types of power supply………………………………………………………………. 5
2.3 DC power supply…………………………………………………………………….. 6
2.4 AC power supplies…………………………………………………………………… 6
2.5 AC/DC supply……………………………………………………………………….. 6
2.6 Voltage Multipliers…………………………………………………………………... 7
2.7 Overload protection………………………………………………………………….. 7
2.8 Power Factor…………………………………………………………………………. 8
2.9 Current limiting……………………………………………………………………… 8
2.10 Power conversion…………………………………………………………………... 8
2.11 Power distribution systems…………………………………………………………. 9

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Chapter 3

Equipments………………………………………………………………… 10
3.1 List of Component…………………………………………………………………… 10
3.2 Transformer………………………………………………………………………….. 10
3.2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………… 10
3.2.2 Definition ………………………………………………………………………….. 11
3.2.3 Types of Transformer……………………………………………………………… 11
3.2.3.1 Step up transformer……………………………………………………………… 13
3.2.3.2 Step down transformer…………………………………………………………… 13
3.2.3.3 Isolation transformer……………………………………………………………... 14
3.2.4 Basic Operation of a Transformer…………………………………………………. 15
3.2.5 The components of a Transformer…………………………………………………. 16
3.2.6 Transformer Taps………………………………………………………………….. 17
3.2.7 Transformer Voltage and Current…………………………………………………. 17
3.2.8 Applications………………………………………………………………………... 18
3.3 Resistor………………………………………………………………………………. 19
3.3.2 Definition…………………………………………………………………………... 19
3.3.3 Resistor types………………………………………………………………………. 20
3.3.3.1 The carbon composition resistor…………………………………………………. 21
3.3.3.2 The wire wound resistor…………………………………………………………. 21
3.3.3.3 Carbon film resistors…………………………………………………………….. 21
3.3.3.4 The variable resistor……………………………………………………………... 21
3.3.3.5 Metal oxide resistors……………………………………………………………... 22
3.3.3.6 Metal film resistors………………………………………………………………. 22
3.3.4 Resistor construction………………………………………………………………. 22
3.3.5 5W 3.9 Ohm Resistors……………………………………………………………... 23
3.3.6 Different Types of Resistor symbols………………………………………………. 24
3.3.7 Resistor color code………………………………………………………………… 25
3.4 Capacitor………………………………………………………………... 26
3.4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………... 26
3.4.2 Definition………………………………………………………………………….. 26

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3.4.3 Capacitor Symbol………………………………………………………………….. 27
3.4.4 How Capacitors Work……………………………………………………………... 27
3.4.5 Capacitor Properties……………………………………………………………….. 27
3.4.6 The capacitor used in the designed circuit…………………………………………. 28
3.4.7 Applications………………………………………………………………………... 28
3.5 Diode………………………………………………………………………………… 29
3.5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………... 29
3.5.2 Definition…………………………………………………………………………... 29
3.5.3 Variety of diodes…………………………………………………………………... 30
3.5.4 Diode Characteristics………………………………………………………………. 31
3.5.5 Ideal Diodes………………………………………………………………………... 31
3.5.6 Practical Diodes……………………………………………………………………. 31
3.5.7 Practical Diode Forward Bias and Reverse Bias…………………………………... 32
3.5.8 Half-wave Rectifier………………………………………………………………... 32
3.5.9 Full-wave Rectifier………………………………………………………………… 32
3.5.10 Bridge Rectifier…………………………………………………………………... 33
3.5.11 Power Supply Applications………………………………………………………. 33
3.6 Relay…………………………………………………………………………………. 33
3.6.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………... 33
3.6.2 Definition…………………………………………………………………………... 34
3.6.3 Relay Selection…………………………………………………………………….. 35
3.6.4 Electro Magnetic Relay Operation………………………………………………… 36
3.6.5 Basic design and operation………………………………………………………… 37
3.6.6 History……………………………………………………………………………... 37
3.6.7 Applications……………………………………………………………………….. 37
3.7 Switch and LED……………………………………………………………………… 38
3.7.2 SWITCH…………………………………………………………………………… 38
3.7.3 LED………………………………………………………………………………... 39
3.7.3.1 Basic definition…………………………………………………………………... 39
3.7.3.2 History…………………………………………………………………………… 39
3.7.3.3 System Components……………………………………………………………... 39
3.7.3.4 Application efficiency…………………………………………………………… 39
3.7.3.5 Advantages of LED……………………………………………………………… 40

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3.8 DC Motor…………………………………………………………………………….. 41
3.8.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………... 41
3.8.2 Definition…………………………………………………………………………... 42
3.8.3 Construction………………………………………………………………………... 42
3.8.3.1 Stator……………………………………………………………………………... 43
3.8.3.2 Rotor……………………………………………………………………………... 43
3.8.3.3 Winding………………………………………………………………………….. 43
3.8.4 Principle……………………………………………………………………………. 43
3.8.5 Energy Conversion ………………………………………………………………... 44
3.8.6 DC Motor Operation……………………………………………………………….. 44
3.8.7 Left hand rule………………………………………………………………………. 45
3.9 Battery……………………………………………………………………………….. 46
3.9.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………... 46
3.9.2 Definition…………………………………………………………………………... 46
3.9.3 Primary Battery…………………………………………………………………….. 47
3.9.4 Rechargeable Batteries…………………………………………………………….. 47
3.9.5 Discharge…………………………………………………………………………... 48
3.9.6 Charge……………………………………………………………………………… 48
3.9.7 Rechargeable Batteries (6V4.5 Ah)………………………………………………... 49
3.9.8 Specifications………………………………………………………………………. 49
3.10 Brad board and wire………………………………………………………………... 50
3.10.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………. 50
3.10.2 What is breadboard……………………………………………………………….. 50
3.10.3 Bread boarding tips……………………………………………………………….. 52
3.11 Wire………………………………………………………………………………… 52

Chapter 4
Operation and discussion…………………………………………………. 54
4.1 Principle of Operation……………………………………………………………….. 54
4.2 Input Operation………………………………………………………………………. 54
4.3 Design and Circuit Description……………………………………………………… 55
4.3.1 Design……………………………………………………………………………… 55

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4.3.2 Circuit Description………………………………………………………………… 56
4.4 Power Supply Circuits……………………………………………………………….. 57
4.5 Hardware Implementation…………………………………………………………… 58
4.6 Result………………………………………………………………………………… 58
4.7 The specification of the designed IPS……………………………………………….. 59
4.8 Limitation & Solution………………………………………………………………... 59

Chapter 5
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………... 60

References…………………………………………………………………... 61

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 LIST OF FIGURES
1. Figure: 2.1- Basic Circuit diagram of AC-to-DC Power Supply……………………... 6
2. Figure: 2.2- Transformers raise/lower voltages in electrical energy distribution……... 9
3. Figure: 3.1-Transformer figure………………………………………………………... 12
4. Figure: 3.2-Step up transformer……………………………………………………….. 13
5. Figure: 3.3-Step down transformer……………………………………………………. 13
6. Figure: 3.4-Isolation transformer……………………………………………………… 14
7. Figure: 3.5 -Basic transformer action…………………………………………………. 15
8. Figure: 3.6- Block diagram of transformer application……………………………….. 18
9. Figure: 3.7-Used in the designed circuit, is resistor symbol………………………….. 23
10. Figure: 3.8-Basic configuration of a capacitor………………………………………. 26
11. Figure: 3.9 Capacitor Symbol……………………………………………………....... 27
12. Figure: 3.10 -35V 1000uF Capacitor………………………………………………… 28
13. Figure: 3.11-Diode symbol…………………………………………………………... 29
14. Figure: 3.12-Forward Bias and Reverse Bias………………………………………... 32
15. Figure: 3.13- Bridge rectifiers……………………………………………………….. 33
16. Figure: 3.14-Most common relay……………………………………………………. 35
17. Figure: 3.15 Electro Magnetic Relay Operation…………………………………….. 36
18. Figure: 3.16- Push button switch…………………………………………………….. 38
19. Figure: 3.17-LED Light……………………………………………………………… 41
20. Figure: 3.18 -DC Motor……………………………………………………………… 42
21. Figure: 3.19-Left hand rule…………………………………………………………... 45
22. Figure: 3.20-Discharge and charge processes in a basic cell………………………... 48
23. Figure: 3.21-Rechargeable Batteries………………………………………………… 49
24. Figure: 3.22-A typical breadboard…………………………………………………… 51
25. Figure: 3.23-Metal strips…………………………………………………………….. 51
26. Figure: 3.24-Typical wire…………………………………………………………..... 53
27. Figure: 4.1-Simplified block diagram of designed IPS……………………………… 54
28. Fig.4.2- Complete circuit diagram of design IPS……………………………………. 55
29. Figure: 4.3-Integral part of a power supplies………………………………………... 57
30. Figure: 4.4-Hardware Implementation………………………………………………. 58

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 ABSTRACT

Instant Power Supply unit (IPS) is an electrical device that provides power when the main

supply fails to operate. In the present circuit active and passive devices, such as diodes,

transformer, resistor, capacitor, relay, switch, led, dc motor, battery, brad board, etc have been

used. One step down transformer is also been used in this work. The battery will be charged

properly and will not be over charged. As a result the battery will get long life. Also the

output of the device will be automatically stable. A relay circuit has been incorporated so that

when the main supply is present the battery will automatically be charged and not provide

any output. The main supply would come to the output of the IPS through the relay circuit.

The designed circuit is operated successfully and the results obtained are satisfactory.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First start with great thank to almighty, we take this opportunity to express our profound

gratitude and deep regards to our guide Ashraful Arefin for his exemplary guidance,

monitoring and constant encouragement throughout the course of this project. I can't say

thank you enough for his tremendous support and help. I feel motivated and encouraged

every time we attend his meeting. Without his encouragement and guidance this project

would not have materialized.

We sincerely thank the respected teachers and the faculty members of Northern University

Bangladesh as they have tremendous contribution behind our progress.

Last but not least we wish to avail ourselves of this opportunity, express a sense of gratitude

and love to our friends and our beloved parents for their manual support, strength, and help

and for everything.

Author

May 2014

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

IPS stands for “Instant Power Supply”. It is an electrical device that can provide electricity
when the main supply is not available. IPS is the ideal solution for continuous power supply
facilities during mains failure. A general IPS consists of a charger circuit, a battery, an
oscillator circuit and an output circuit. The charger circuit charges the battery properly by
using the main supply when it is ON. When the main supply is not available then the battery
supplies the power.

The system has many distinct features over the conventional generators. It is fully automatic.
It does not require any fuel as like a generator needs. It also does not produce any sound
pollution like a generator does.

1.1 General

Energy is the basic necessity for the economic development of a country. Many functions
necessary to present-day living grind to halt when the supply of energy stops. It is practically
impossible to estimate the actual magnitude of the part that energy has played in the
building up of present-day civilization.

The availability of huge amount of energy in the modern times has resulted in a shorter
working day, higher agricultural and industrial production, a healthier and more balanced diet
and better transportation facilities. As a matter of fact, there is a close relationship between
the energy used per person and his standard of living.

Energy exists in different forms in nature but the most important form is the electrical energy.
The modern society is so much dependent upon the use of electrical energy that it has become
a part and parcel of our life.

1.2 Importance of Electrical Energy

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Energy may be needed as heat, as light, as motive power etc. The present-day advancement in
science and technology has made it possible to convert electrical energy into any desired
form. This has given electrical energy a place of pride in the modern world. The survival of
industrial undertakings and our social structures depends primarily upon low cost and
uninterrupted supply of electrical energy. In fact, the advancement of a country is measured
in terms of per capita consumption of electrical energy.

Electrical energy is superior to all other forms of energy due to the following reasons

(i) Convenient form: Electrical energy is a very convenient form of energy. It can be easily
converted into other forms of energy. For example, if we want to convert electrical energy
into heat, the only thing to be done is to pass electrical current through a wire of high
resistance e.g., a heater Similarly, electrical energy can be converted into light (e.g. electric
bulb), mechanical energy (e.g. electric motors) etc.

(ii) Easy control: The electrically operated machines have simple and convenient starting,
control and operation. For instance, an electric motor can be started or stopped by turning on
or off a switch similarly, with simple arrangements, the speed of electric motors can be easily
varied over the desired range.

(iii) Greater flexibility: One important reason for preferring electrical energy is the flexibility
that it offers. It can be easily transported from one place to another with the help of
conductors.

(iv) Cheapness: Electrical energy is much cheaper than other forms of energy. Thus it is
overall economical to use this form of energy for domestic, commercial and industrial
purposes.

(v) Cleanliness: Electrical energy is not associated with smoke, fumes or poisonous gases.
Therefore, its use ensures cleanliness and healthy conditions.

(vi) High transmission efficiency: The consumers of electrical energy are generally situated
quite away from the centre of its production. The electrical energy can be transmitted
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conveniently and efficiently from the centre of generation to the consumers with the help of
overhead conductors known as transmission lines.

1.3 Source of Energy

Since electrical energy is produced from energy available in various forms in nature, it is
desirable to look into the various sources of energy. These sources of energy are-
(i) The Sun (ii) The Wind (iii) Water (iv) Fuels (v) Nuclear energy.

Out of these sources, the energy due to Sun and wind has not been utilized on large scale due
to a number of limitations. At present, the other three sources viz., water, fuels and nuclear
energy are primarily used for the generation of electrical energy.

(i) The Sun: The Sun is the primary source of energy. The heat energy radiated by the Sun
can be focused over a small area by means of reflectors. This heat can be used to raise steam
and electrical energy can be produced with the help of turbine-alternator combination.
However, this method has limited application because:

(a) It requires a large area for the generation of even a small amount of electric power
(b) It cannot be used in cloudy days or at night
(c) It is an uneconomical method.

(ii) The Wind: This method can be used where wind flows for a considerable length of time
the wind energy is used to run the wind mill which drives a small generator. In order to
obtain the electrical energy from a wind mill continuously, the generator is arranged to
charge the batteries. These batteries supply the energy when the wind stops. This method has
the advantages that maintenance and generation costs are negligible. However, the
drawbacks of this method are-
(a) Variable output, (b) Unreliable because of uncertainty about wind pressure and (c) Power
generated is quite small.

(iii) Water: When water is stored at a suitable place, it possesses potential energy because of

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the head created. This water energy can be converted into mechanical energy with the help of
water turbines. The water turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy. This method of generation of electrical energy has become very
popular because it has low production and maintenance costs.

(iv) Fuels: The main sources of energy are fuels viz., solid fuel as coal, liquid fuel as oil
and gas fuel as natural gas. The heat energy of these fuels is converted into mechanical
energy by suitable prime movers such as steam engines, steam turbines, internal combustion
engines etc. The prime mover drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Although fuels continue to enjoy the place of chief source for the
generation of electrical energy, yet their reserves are diminishing day by day. Therefore, the
present trend is to harness water power which is more or less a permanent source of power.

(v) Nuclear energy: Towards the end of Second World War, it was discovered that large
amount of heat energy is liberated by the fission of uranium and other fissionable materials.
It is estimated that heat produced by 1 kg of nuclear fuel is equal to that produced by 4500
tons of coal. The heat produced due to nuclear fission can be utilized to raise steam with
suitable arrangements. The steam can run the steam turbine which in turn can drive the
alternator to produce electrical energy.

1.4 Efficiency
Energy is available in various forms from different natural sources such as pressure head of
water, chemical energy of fuels, nuclear energy of radioactive substances etc. All these
forms of energy can be converted into electrical energy by the use of suitable
arrangement. In this process of conversion, some energy is lost in the sense that it is
converted to a form different from electrical energy. Therefore, the output energy is less than
the input energy. The output energy divided by the input energy is called energy efficiency
or simply efficiency of the system.

OutputEner gy
Efficiency,  =
InputEnerg y

As power is the rate of energy flow, therefore, efficiency may be expressed equally well as
output power divided by input power i.e.
OutputPowe r
Efficiency,  =
InputPower

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 CHAPTER 2

POWER SUPPLY
2.1 Definition

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term is
most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical
energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy
(mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy.

A power supply is also known as a power brick or power adapter.

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load. A power supply may obtain
energy from:

 Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include power

supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage.
 Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.
 Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.
 Solar power.

2.2 Types of power supply

Power supplies for electronic devices can be broadly divided into line-frequency (or
"conventional") and switching power supplies. The line-frequency supply is usually a
relatively simple design. Conventional line-frequency power supplies are sometimes called
"linear", but that is a misnomer because the conversion from AC voltage to DC is inherently
non-linear when the rectifiers feed into capacitive reservoirs. Such as power supply:

 DC power supply
 AC power supplies
 Linear regulated power supply
 AC/DC supply
 Switched-mode power supply
 Programmable power supply
 Uninterruptible power supply
 High-voltage power supply

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Here we discuss DC and AC power supply.

2.3 DC power supply

An AC powered unregulated power supply usually uses a transformer to convert the voltage
from the wall outlet (mains) to a different voltage.

If it is used to produce DC, a rectifier is used to convert alternating voltage to a pulsating

direct voltage, followed by a filter, comprising one or more capacitors, resistors, and
sometimes inductors, to filter out (smooth) most of the pulsation.

The simplest unregulated mains-powered DC power supply circuit consists of a transformer

driving a single diode in series with a resistor.

2.4 AC power supplies

An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply) and lowers
it to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well.

2.5 AC/DC supply

In the past, mains electricity was supplied as DC in some regions, AC in others. Transformers
cannot be used for DC, but a simple, cheap unregulated power supply could run directly from
either AC or DC mains without using a transformer. The power supply consisted of a rectifier
and a filter capacitor. When operating from DC, the rectifier was essentially a conductor,
having no effect; it was included to allow operation from AC or DC without modification.

Schematic a Basic Circuit diagram of AC-to-DC Power Supply below-

Figure: 2.1- Basic Circuit diagram of AC-to-DC Power Supply

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2.6 Voltage Multipliers
A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts AC electrical power from a lower
voltage to a higher DC voltage, typically by means of a network of capacitors and diodes.

 The input voltage may be doubled (voltage doublers), tripled (voltage Tripler),
quadrupled (voltage quadruple), and so on.
 These circuits allow high voltages to be obtained using a much lower voltage AC
source.
 Typically, voltage multipliers are composed of half-wave rectifiers, capacitors, and
diodes.
 Full-wave rectifiers may be used in a different configuration to achieve even higher
voltages.
 For parallel multipliers, a higher voltage rating is required at each consecutive
multiplication stage, but less capacitance is required.
 The voltage rating of the capacitors determines the maximum output voltage.

Voltage multipliers have many applications. For example, voltage multipliers can be found in
everyday items like televisions and photocopiers. Other applications can be found in the
laboratory, such as cathode ray tubes, oscilloscopes, and photomultiplier tubes.

2.7 Overload protection

Power supplies often have protection from short circuit or overload that could damage the
supply or cause a fire. Fuses and circuit breakers are two commonly used mechanisms for
overload protection.

A fuse contains a short piece of wire which melts if too much current flows. This effectively
disconnects the power supply from its load, and the equipment stops working until the
problem that caused the overload is identified and the fuse is replaced. Some power supplies
use a very thin wire link soldered in place as a fuse. Fuses in power supply units may be
replaceable by the end user, but fuses in consumer equipment may require tools to access and
change.

A circuit breaker contains an element that heats, bends and triggers a spring which shuts the
circuit down. Some PSUs use a thermal cutout buried in the transformer rather than a fuse.

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The advantage is it allows greater current to be drawn for limited time than the unit can
supply continuously. Some such cutouts are self resetting, some are single use only

2.8 Power Factor

The cosine of angle between voltage and current in an a.c circuit is known as power factor. In
an a.c. circuit, there is generally a phase difference between voltage and current. The term cos
 is called the power factor of the circuit.

We know that, P= VI Cos 

Where,
P = Power, V = Voltage, I = Current,  = Power Factor

2.9 Current limiting

Some supplies use current limiting instead of cutting off power if overloaded. The two types
of current limiting used are electronic limiting and impedance limiting. The former is
common on lab bench PSUs, the latter is common on supplies of less than 3 watts output.

 A fold back current limiter reduces the output current to much less than the maximum
non-fault current.

2.10 Power conversion

The term "power supply" is sometimes restricted to those devices that convert some other
form of energy into electricity (such as solar power and fuel cells and generators). A more
accurate term for devices that convert one form of electric power into another form (such as
transformers and linear regulators) is power converter.

 The most common conversion is from AC to DC.

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2.11 Power distribution systems

AC electricity is generated in power stations at medium voltage levels (i.e., something like
11kV), and is consumed by the domestic user at an RMS voltage of 220V (in Singapore).

The electricity generated at the power station is fed into a step-up transformer which boosts
its peak voltage from a few kilo volts to many tens of kilovolts.

The output from the step-up transformer is fed into a high tension transmission line, which
typically transports the electricity over many tens of kilometers, and, once the electricity has
reached its point of consumption, it is fed through a series of step-down transformers until, by
the time it emerges from a domestic plug, its RMS voltage is only 220V.

The process can be shown using a simple block diagram as follows:

Figure: 2.2- Transformers raise/lower voltages in electrical energy distribution

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 CHAPTER 3
EQUIPMENTS
3.1 List of Component

All Components list is given below-

 Transformer

 Resistor

 Capacitor

 Diode

 Relay

 Switch

 LED

 DC Motor

 Battery

 Wire

 Brad Board

3.2 Transformer

3.2.1 Introduction

Transformers are commonly used in applications which require the conversion of AC voltage
from one voltage level to another. There are two broad categories of transformers: electronic
transformers, which operate at very low power levels, and power transformers, which process
thousands of watts of power. Electronic transformers are used in consumer electronic
equipment like television sets, VCRs, CD players, personal computers, and many other
devices, to reduce the level of voltage from 220V (available from the AC mains) to the
desired level at which the device operates. Power transformers are used in power generation,
transmission and distribution systems to raise or lower the level of voltage to the desired
levels. The basic principle of operation of both types of transformers is the same.

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3.2.2 Definition

A transformer is an electronic device that converted alternating current from one voltage to
another voltage by electromagnetic induction (transformer action).

The electrical energy is always transferred without a change in frequency, but may involve
changes in magnitudes of voltage and current. Because a transformer works on the principle
of electromagnetic induction, it must be used with an input source voltage that varies in
amplitude.

 A transformer has a primary coil and a secondary coil.

 It works to Magnetic induction rule.

3.2.3 Types of Transformer

A transformer is two types.

a) Step up transformer
b) Step down transformer

The transformer used in the designed circuit is a step down transformer. It input is 220V but
the output is 6V. Here used 9V, 600mA Transformer. The transformer used in the designed
circuit, is a step down transformer. It input is 220V but the output is 6V. A transformer has a
primary coil and a secondary coil. Input primary coil has two wires and secondary output coil
has three wires. Here assume that the secondary coil two wires will positive and one is
neutral. 6V AC from input transformer is then enters into the rectifier bridge, which converts
this AC into DC.

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The transformer shown in this figure-

Figure 3.1-Transformer figure

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3.2.3.1 Step up transformer

The output voltage is greater than the input voltage and the transformer is called a step-up
transformer.

Figure: 3.2-Step up transformer

3.2.3.2 Step down transformer

The output voltage is smaller than the input voltage and the transformer is called a step-down
transformer.

Figure: 3.3-Step down transformer

~ 13 ~
3.2.3.3 Isolation transformer

The output voltage is the same as the input voltage and the transformer is called an isolation
transformer.

Figure: 3.4-Isolation transformer

Generator step-up (GSU) transformers represent the second largest capital investment in
Reclamation power production—second only to generators. Reclamation has hundreds,
perhaps thousands, of transformers, in addition to hundreds of large GSU transformers.
Reclamation has transformers as small as a camera battery charger, about one-half the size of
a coffee cup, to huge generator step-up transformers near the size of a small house. The total
investment in transformers may well exceed generator investment. Transformers are
extremely important to Reclamation, and it is necessary to understand their basic functions. A
transformer has no internal moving parts, and it transfers energy from one circuit to another
by electromagnetic induction. External cooling may include heat exchangers, radiators, fans,
and oil pumps. Power transformers are defined as transformers rated 500 kVA and larger.
Larger transformers are oil-filled for insulation and cooling; a typical GSU transformer may
contain several thousand gallons of oil. One must always be aware of the possibility of spills,
leaks, fires, and environmental risks this oil poses. Transformers smaller than 500 kVA are
generally called distribution transformers. Pole-top and small, pad-mounted transformers that
serve residences and small businesses are typically distribution transformers. Generator step-
up transformers, used in Reclamation power plants, receive electrical energy at generator
voltage and increase it to a higher voltage for transmission lines. Conversely, a step-down
transformer receives energy at a higher voltage and delivers it at a lower voltage for
distribution to various loads. All electrical devices using coils (in this case, transformers) are
constant wattage devices. This means voltage multiplied by current must remain constant.

~ 14 ~
As you know, the amount of power used by the load of an electrical circuit is equal to the
current in the load times the voltage across the load, or P = EI. If, for example, the load in an
electrical circuit requires an input of 2 amperes at 10 volts (20 watts) and the source is
capable of delivering only 1 ampere at 20 volts, the circuit could not normally be used with
this particular source.

3.2.4 Basic Operation of a Transformer

In its most basic form a transformer consists of this type of operation.

• A primary coil or winding.

• A secondary coil or winding.

• A core that supports the coils or windings.

The primary winding is connected to a 50 hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux)
builds up (expands) and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and
contracting magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and
induces an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating current to
flow through the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design of
the primary and secondary winding

Figure: 3.5 -Basic transformer action.

~ 15 ~
Transformer function is based on the principle that electrical energy is transferred efficiently
by magnetic induction from one circuit to another. When one winding of a transformer is
energized from an alternating current (AC) source, an alternating magnetic field is
established in the transformer core. Alternating magnetic lines of force, called ―flux,‖
circulate through the core. With a second winding around the same core, a voltage is induced
by the alternating flux lines. A circuit, connected to the terminals of the second winding,
results in current flow. Each phase of a transformer is composed of two separate coil
windings wound on a common core. The low-voltage winding is placed nearest the core; the
high-voltage winding is then placed around both the low-voltage winding and core. The core
is typically made from very thin steel laminations, each coated with insulation. By insulating
between individual laminations, losses are reduced. The steel core provides a low resistance
path for magnetic flux. Both high- and low-voltage windings are insulated from the core and
from each other, and leads are brought out through insulating bushings. A three-phase
transformer typically has a core with three legs and has both high-voltage and low-voltage
windings around each leg. Special paper and wood are used for insulation and internal
structural support.

3.2.5 The components of a Transformer

Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In some cases
the coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core
material is air and the transformer is called an AIR-CORE TRANSFORMER. Transformers
used at low frequencies, such as 60 hertz and 400 hertz, require a core of low-reluctance
magnetic material, usually iron. This type of transformer is called an IRON-CORE
TRANSFORMER. Most power transformers are of the iron-core type.

The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:

• The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.

• The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.

• The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and
delivers it to the load.

• The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture, and
mechanical damage.

~ 16 ~
3.2.6 Transformer Taps

Most power transformers have taps on either primary or secondary windings to vary the
number of turns and, thus, the output voltage. The percentage of voltage change, above or
below normal, between different tap positions varies in different transformers. In oil-cooled
transformers, tap leads are brought to a tap changer, located beneath the oil inside the tank, or
brought to an oil-filled tap changer, externally located. Taps on dry-type transformers are
brought to insulated terminal boards located inside the metal housing, accessible by removing
a panel. Some transformers taps can be changed under load, while other transformers must be
de-energized. When it is necessary to change taps frequently to meet changing conditions,
taps that can be changed under load are used. This is accomplished by means of a motor that
may be controlled either manually or automatically. Automatic operation is achieved by
changing taps to maintain constant voltage as system conditions change. A common range of
adjustment is plus or minus 10%. At Reclamation power plants, de-energized tap changers
(DETC) are used and can only be changed with the transformer off-line. A very few load tap
changers (LTC) are used at Grand Coulee between the 500-kilovolt (kV) (volts x 1,000) and
220-kV switchyards. A bypass device is sometimes used across tap changers to ensure power
flow in case of contact failure. This prevents failure of the transformer in case excessive
voltage appears across faulty contacts.

3.2.7 Transformer Voltage and Current

If the small amount of transformer loss is ignored, the back-voltage (back EMF) of the
primary must equal the applied voltage. The magnetic field, which induces the back-voltage
in the primary, also cuts the secondary coil. If the secondary coil has the same number of
turns as the primary, the voltage induced in the secondary will equal the back-voltage
induced in the primary (or the applied voltage). If the secondary coil has twice as many turns
as the primary, it will be cut twice as many times by the flux, and twice the applied primary
voltage will be induced in the secondary. The total induced voltage in each winding is
proportional to the number of turns in that winding.

If E1is the primary voltage and I1the primary current, E2the secondary voltage and I2the
secondary current, N1the primary turns and N2the secondary turns, then:

E1 N1 I1
 
E2 N 2 I 2

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Note that the current is inversely proportional to both voltage and number of turns. This
means (as discussed earlier) that if voltage is stepped up, the current must be stepped down
and vice versa. The number of turns remains constant unless there is a tap changer (discussed
later). The power output or input of a transformer equals volts time amperes (E x I). If the
small amount of transformer loss is disregarded, input equals output or:

E1 x I1 = E2 x I2

3.2.8 Applications

Transformers perform voltage conversion, isolation protection, and impedance matching. In

terms of voltage conversion, transformers can step up voltage and step down current from
generators to high voltage transmission lines, and step down voltage/step up current to local
distribution circuits or industrial customers. The step-up transformer is used to increase the
secondary voltage relative to the primary voltage. The step-down transformer is used to
decrease the secondary voltage relative to the primary voltage. Transformers range in size
from thumbnail-sized units used in microphones to those weighing hundreds of tons
interconnecting the power grid. A broad range of transformer designs are used in electronic
and electric power applications, including miniature, audio, isolation, high-frequency, power
conversion, etc.

Transformers are an integral part of all power supplies. A typical application example of AC-
DC power supply is shown below, where transformer is used for lowering the voltage to a
level more suitable for consumption. This voltage is then rectified and filtered to obtain a DC
voltage. Aside from the ability to easily convert between different levels of voltage and
current in AC and DC circuits, transformers also provide an extremely useful feature called
isolation, which is the ability to couple one circuit to another without the use of direct wire
connections.

Figure: 3.6- Block diagram of transformer application

~ 18 ~
3.3 Resistor

3.3.1 Introduction

A circuit is always made up of some wire, so there will be some resistance there. The
electronic component known as the resistor is best described as electrical friction. Pretend,
for a moment, that electricity travels through hollow pipes like water. Assume two pipes are
filled with water and one pipe has very rough walls. It would be easy to say that it is more
difficult to push the water through the rough-walled pipe than through a pipe with smooth
walls. The pipe with rough walls could be described as having more resistance to movement
than the smooth one.

3.3.2 Definition

Resistor is an electrical component that reduces the electric current. The resistor's ability to
reduce the current is called resistance and is measured in units of ohms (symbol-Ω).

Resistors can also be used to provide a specific voltage for an active device such as a
transistor. Power resistors (≥1W) are used extensively in power electronic circuits, either as a
pure dissipative element, or to provide a current limiting path for charging/discharging
currents. These energy transfer paths may be either inductive or non-inductive. The resistive
element specification can be more than just fulfilling resistance and power dissipation
requirements.

All other factors being equal, in a direct-current (DC) circuit, the current through a resistor is
inversely proportional to its resistance and directly proportional to the voltage across it. This
is the well-known Ohm's Law. In alternating-current (AC) circuits, this rule also applies as
long as the resistor does not contain inductance or capacitance

Resistors can be fabricated in a variety of ways. The most common type in electronic devices
and systems is the carbon-composition resistor. Fine granulated carbon (graphite) is mixed
with clay and hardened. The resistance depends on the proportion of carbon to clay; the
higher this ratio, the lower the resistance.

Another type of resistor is made from winding Nichrome or similar wire on an insulating
form. This component, called a wire wound resistor, is able to handle higher currents than a
carbon-composition resistor of the same physical size. However, because the wire is wound

~ 19 ~
into a coil, the component acts as an inductors as well as exhibiting resistance. This does not
affect performance in DC circuits, but can have an adverse effect in AC circuits because
inductance renders the device sensitive to changes in frequency.

3.3.3 Resistor types

The tree below illustrates the main types of resistors used in electrical power applications.
The three main resistor types are carbon film, metal film and wire wound.

Typical values for power resistors are shown, which may vary significantly with physical size
and resistance value.

Carbon ceramic composition

Carbon

Carbon deposited film

Metal thin film

Glazed thick film

Resistor Metal Metal oxide film

Temperature sense

Fuse

Power

Temperature sense

Fuse

Wire wound Power

Circuit breaker

Current sense

~ 20 ~
3.3.3.1 The carbon composition resistor

By grinding carbon into a fine powder and mixing it with resin, a material can be made with
different resistive values. Conductive leads are placed on each end of a cylinder of this
material and the unit is then heated or cured in an oven. The body of the resistor is then
painted with an insulating paint to prevent it from shorting if touched by another component.
If these resistors are overloaded by a circuit, their resistance will permanently decrease. It is
important that the power rating of the carbon composition resistor is not exceeded.

3.3.3.2 The wire wound resistor

The first commercial resistors made were formed by wrapping a resistive wire around a non-
conducting rod (see Figure). The rod was usually made of some form of ceramic that had the
desired heat properties since the wires could become quite hot during use. End caps with
leads attached were then placed over the ends of the rod making contact to the resistive wire,
usually a nickel chromium alloy.

3.3.3.3 Carbon film resistors

Carbon film resistors are made by depositing a very thin layer of carbon on a ceramic rod.
The resistor is then protected by a flameproof jacket since this type of resistor will burn if
overloaded sufficiently. Carbon film resistors produce less electrical noise than carbon
composition and their values are constant at high frequencies. You can substitute a carbon
film resistor for most carbon composition resistors if the power ratings are carefully
observed. The construction of carbon film resistors requires temperatures in excess of 1,000 0
C.

3.3.3.4 The variable resistor

When a resistor is constructed so its value can be adjusted, it is called a variable resistor.
Figure shows the basic elements present in all variable resistors. First a resistive material is
deposited on a non-conducting base. Next, stationary contacts are connected to each end of
the resistive material. Finally, a moving contact or wiper is constructed to move along the
resistive material and tap off the desired resistance. There are many methods for constructing
variable resistors, but they all contain these three basic principles.

~ 21 ~
3.3.3.5 Metal oxide resistors

Metal oxide resistors are also constructed in a similar manner as the carbon film resistor with
the exception that the film is made of tin chloride at temperatures as high as 5,000 0C. Metal
oxide resistors are covered with epoxy or some similar plastic coating. These resistors are
more costly than other types and therefore are only used when circuit constraints make them
necessary.

3.3.3.6 Metal film resistors

Metal film resistors are also made by depositing a film of metal (usually nickel alloy) onto a
ceramic rod. These resistors are very stable with temperature and frequency, but cost more
than the carbon film or carbon composition types. In some instances, these resistors are cased
in a ceramic tube instead of the usual plastic or epoxy coating.

3.3.4 Resistor construction

Almost all types of power resistors (≥1W) have a cylindrical high purity ceramic core, either
rod or tube. The core has a high thermal conductivity, is impervious to moisture penetration,
is chemically inert, and is capable of withstanding thermal shock. The resistive element is a
carbon film, a homogeneous metal-based film or a wound wire element around the ceramic
body. For high accuracy and reliability, a computer-controlled helical groove is cut into the
film types in order to trim the required ohm resistance.

The terminations are usually nickel-plated steel, or occasionally brass, force fitted to each end
of the cylindrical former in order to provide excellent electrical contact between the resistive
layer and the end-cap. Tinned connecting wires of electrolytic copper or copper-clad iron are
welded to the end-caps, thereby completing the terminations.

All fixed resistance resistor bodies are coated with protective moisture-resistant, high
dielectric field strength, and sometimes conformal coating, such that the wire terminations
remain clear and clean. The resistors are either color coded by color bands or provided with
identification stamp of alphanumeric data.

~ 22 ~
3.3.5 5W 3.9 Ohm Resistors

Features
• High Quality 5Watt Wire wound Resistors
• Excellent Temperature Ratings
• 5% Tolerance

Product Information

 RESISTOR, WIREWOUND, 3.9 OHM, 5W, 5%

 Product Range: VISHAY - AC Series
 Resistance: 3.9ohm
 Power Rating: 5W
 Resistance Tolerance: ± 5%
 Resistor Case Style: Axial Leaded
 Resistor Element Type: Wire wound
 Voltage Rating: 4V
 Series: AC

The resistor used in the designed circuit, is resistor symbol is-

1k ohm 3.9 k ohm 5watt

Figure: 3.7-Used in the designed circuit, is resistor symbol

~ 23 ~
3.3.6 Different Types of Resistor symbols

Resistor (IEEE)

Resistor reduces the current flow.

Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer (IEEE)

Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.

Potentiometer (IEC)

Variable Resistor / Rheostat (IEEE)

Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals.

Variable Resistor / Rheostat (IEC)

Trimmer Resistor Presest resistor

Thermal resistor - change resistance when

Thermistor
temperature changes

Photoresistor / Light dependent

Changes resistance according to light
resistor (LDR)

~ 24 ~
3.3.7 Resistor color code

3.3.8 Summary

The resistor is an electronic component that has electrical friction. This friction opposes the
flow of electrons and thus reduces the voltage (pressure) placed on other electronic
components by restricting the amount of current that can pass through it.

~ 25 ~
3.4 Capacitor

3.4.1 Introduction

A capacitor is a device which stores electric charge. Capacitors vary in shape and size, but the
basic configuration is two conductors carrying equal but opposite charges (Figure 6.1).
Capacitors have many important applications in electronics. Some examples include storing
electric potential energy, delaying voltage changes when coupled with resistors, filtering out
unwanted frequency signals, forming resonant circuits and making frequency-dependent and
independent voltage dividers when combined with resistors.

Figure: 3.8-Basic configuration of a capacitor.

The charge on either one of the conductors in the capacitor is zero. During the charging
process, a charge Q is moved from one conductor to the other one, giving one conductor a
charge Q + and the other one a charge. A potential difference V is created, with the
positively charged conductor at a higher potential than the negatively charged conductor.
Note that whether charged or uncharged, the net charge on the capacitor as a whole is zero.

3.4.2 Definition

Capacitors are electronic component that store, filter and regulate electrical energy and
current flow. It can’t produce new electrons, it only stores them.

 Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals.

 In a simple form it is made of two conductive plates (Electrodes) and an insulating

media (Dielectrics) which separate the electrodes. Capacitors and batteries both store
electrical energy.

~ 26 ~
3.4.3 Capacitor Symbol

Figure: 3.9-Capacitor Symbol

3.4.4 How Capacitors Work

A capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely different ways,
capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy. A battery has two terminals. Inside the
battery, chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons at the
other terminal.

A capacitor is a much simpler device, and it cannot produce new electrons. It only stores
them.

3.4.5 Capacitor Properties

An ideal capacitor has exactly the desired capacitance value and it is a perfect insulator.

 The capacitor can store electric energy.

 The capacitor can separate different DC Voltage levels from each other but also
conducts AC current.

 In general, the higher the frequency of AC voltage, the better the capacitor conduct
the AC current.

~ 27 ~
3.4.6 The capacitor used in the designed circuit

The capacitor used in the designed circuit, is 35V 1000uF Capacitor.

Figure: 3.10-35V 1000uF Capacitor

3.4.7 Applications

The difference between a capacitor and a battery is that a capacitor can dump its entire charge
in a tiny fraction of a second, where a battery would take minutes to completely discharge
itself. That's why the electronic flash on a camera uses a capacitor -- the battery charges up
the flash's capacitor over several seconds, and then the capacitor dumps the full charge into
the flash tube almost instantly. This can make a large, charged capacitor extremely dangerous
-- flash units and TV shave warnings about opening them up for this reason. They contain big
capacitors that can, potentially, kill you with the charge they contain.

Capacitors are used in several different ways in electronic circuits:

 Sometimes, capacitors are used to store charge for high-speed use. That's what a flash
does. Big lasers use this technique as well to get very bright, instantaneous flashes.
 Z Capacitors can also eliminate ripples. If a line carrying DC voltage has ripples or
spikes in it, a big capacitor can even out the voltage by absorbing the peaks and filling
in the valleys.
 A capacitor can block DC voltage.

~ 28 ~
3.5 DIODE

3.5.1 Introduction

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric conductance; it has

low (ideally zero) resistance to current in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the
other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semi conductor
material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two
electrodes, a plat (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor
electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German physicist
Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed
around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon,
but other semiconductors such as selenium or germanium are sometimes used.

3.5.2 Definition

A diode is a semiconductor device with two terminals, the anode and cathode. That conducts
electric current in only one direction.

 The ability of the diode to conduct current easily in one direction, but not in the
reverse direction.

 When the anode is more positive than the cathode, the diode conducts and acts as a
short circuit. When the cathode is more positive than the cathode, the diode does not
conduct and act as an open circuit.

 Diodes are widely used in power supplies and battery chargers to convert the mains
AC voltage to a DC level (rectifiers).

 There are a variety of

diodes.

Figure: 3.11-Diode symbol

~ 29 ~
3.5.3 Variety of diodes

There are a variety of diodes; A few important ones are described below.

Normal (p-n) diodes: The operation of these diodes is the subject of this document usually
made of doped silicon or, more rarely germanium. Before the development of modern silicon
power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used; its low efficiency gave it a
much higher forward voltage drop (typically 1.4–1.7 V per "cell," with multiple cells stacked
to increase the peak inverse voltage rating in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat
sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than a silicon diode of
the same current ratings would require. The vast majority of all diodes are the p-n diodes
found in CMOS integrated circuits, which include 2 diodes per pin and many other internal
diodes.

Switching diodes: Switching diodes, sometimes also called small signal diodes, are single
diodes in a discrete package. A switching diode provides essentially the same function as a
switch. Below the specified applied voltage it has high resistance similar to an open switch,
while above that voltage it suddenly changes to the low resistance of a closed switch.

Schottky diodes: Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact.
They have a lower forward voltage drop than a standard diode.

Varicap or varactor diodes: These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are
important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing
tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs
that took a long time to warm up and lock..

Zener diodes: Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener
breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision
voltage reference.

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs): In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor,

such as gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine
with the majority carrier on the other side. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-
frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs are monochromatic; white LEDs
are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different color.

~ 30 ~
Esaki or tunnel diodes: These have a region of operation showing negative resistance
caused by quantum tunneling, thus allowing amplification of signals and very simple bi-
stable circuits. These diodes are also the type most resistant to nuclear radiation.

Gunn diodes: These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as
GaAs or INP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance.

Peltier diodes: These are used as sensors and heat engines for thermoelectric cooling.

3.5.4 Diode Characteristics

A diode is simply a PN junction, but its applications are extensive in electronic circuits.

• Three important characteristics of a diode are:

– Forward voltage drop

• Forward Bias, about .7 volts

– Reverse voltage drop.

• Depletion layer widens, usually the applied voltage

– Reverse breakdown voltage.

• Reverse voltage drop that will force current flow and in most cases destroy the diode.

3.5.5 Ideal Diodes

In an ideal diode, current flows freely through the device when forward biased, having no
resistance.

• In an ideal diode, there would be no voltage drop across it when forward biased. All of the
source voltage would be dropped across circuit resistors.

• In an ideal diode, when reverse biased, it would have infinite resistance, causing zero
current flow.

3.5.6 Practical Diodes

A practical diode does offer some resistance to current flow when forward biased.

~ 31 ~
• Since there is some resistance, there will be some power dissipated when current flows
through a forward biased diode. Therefore, there is a practical limit to the amount of current a
diode can conduct without damage.

• A reverse biased diode has very high resistance.

• Excessive reverse bias can cause the diode to conduct

3.5.7 Practical Diode Forward Bias and Reverse Bias

Figure: 3.12-Forward Bias and Reverse Bias

3.5.8 Half-wave Rectifier

The term rectify is used to describe the conversion of ac into dc.

• In the circuit shown, only one-half of the input waveform is allowed to pass through to the
output.

•This is called half-wave rectification

3.5.9 Full-wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier applies both halves of an ac waveform to the output.

• The circuit shown is called a diphase half-wave rectifier and sometimes a center-tapped
rectifier circuit.

• Operation of a full-wave rectifier is demonstrated in the figure shown on the following

slide.
~ 32 ~
3.5.10 Bridge Rectifier

A bridge rectifier is more widely used than the center-tapped rectifier.

• Circuit operation is best understood by examining the current paths of the forward and
reverse biased diodes during each half-cycle of the input
waveform

3.5.11 Power Supply Applications

Nearly all computers have some sort of power supply.

• Power supply circuits must: Fig: 3.13- Bridge rectifiers

– Convert the ac line voltage into a dc voltage required by the circuit.

– Reduce the ac voltage to a lower value.

– Continuously adjust the dc output voltage to keep it constant under varying load conditions.

3.6 Relay

3.6.1 Introduction

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically

operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with
complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted

~ 33 ~
it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations.

3.6.2 Definition

A relay is an electrical switch that uses an electromagnet to move the switch from the off to
ON position instead of a person moving the switch.

 It takes a relatively small amount of power to turn on a relay but the relay can control
something that draws much more power.

 Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch, but other

operating principles are also used.

 It takes a relatively small amount of power to turn on a relay but the relay can control
something that draws much more power.

Example: A relay is used to control the air conditioner in your home. The AC unit probably
runs off of 220VAC at around 30A. That's 6600 Watts! The coil that controls the relay may
only need a few watts to pull the contacts together.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor
or other loads is called a contractor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving
parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated
operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical
circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are
performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays"

~ 34 ~
3.6.3 Relay Selection

Relays (and switches) come in different configurations. Here use 5 pin relay. Single pole
single throw (SPST) is the simplest with only two contacts. Single pole double throw (SPDT)
has three contacts. The contacts are usually labeled Common (COM), Normally Open (NO),
and Normally Closed (NC). The Normally Closed contact will be connected to the Common
contact when no power is applied to the coil. The Normally Open contact will be open (i.e.
not connected) when no power is applied to the coil. When the coil is energized the Common
is connected to the Normally Open contact and the Normally Closed contact is left floating.
The Double Pole versions are the same as the Single Pole version except there are two
switches that open and close together.

Figure: 3.14-Most common relay

Select a relay with contacts that can handle the voltage and current requirements of the load.
Keep in mind that some loads (such as motors) draw much more current when first turned on
than they do at steady state.

~ 35 ~
3.6.4 Electro Magnetic Relay Operation

Here showing the electromagnetic relay operation.

Figure: 3.15 Electro Magnetic Relay Operation.

~ 36 ~
3.6.5 Basic design and operation

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an
iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature,
and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged
to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in
place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic
circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and
the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their
function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This
ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit
track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

3.6.6 History
The American scientist Joseph Henry invented a relay in 1835 in order to improve his version
of the electrical telegraph, developed earlier in 1831.

3.6.7 Applications
Relays are used for –

Several designs of relays are in used today, 3-pin, 4-pin, 5-pin and 6-pin, single switch or
dual switches.

Amplifying a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a small operating power,
some special cases are:

 A telegraph relay, repeating a weak signal received at the end of a long wire.
 Controlling a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of
modems or audio amplifiers.
 Controlling a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid
of an automobile.
 Detecting and isolating faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and
closing circuit breakers (protection relays).
 Vehicle battery isolation. A 12v relay is often used to isolate any second battery in
cars, 4WDs, RVs and boats.
 Switching to a standby power supply.

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3.7 Switch and LED

3.7.1 Introduction

Switch is most common electronics component. It uses for break an electrical circuit,
interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. Another is LED (light-
emitting diode). An LED lamp is a light-emitting diode (LED) product that is assembled into
a lamp (or light bulb) for use in lighting fixtures. LED lamps have a lifespan and electrical
efficiency that is several times better than incandescent lamps, and significantly better than
most fluorescent lamps, with some chips able to emit more than 100 lumens per watt. The
LED lamp market is projected to grow more than 12-fold over the next decade, from $2
billion today to $25 billion in 2023, which is a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of
25%.

3.7.2 SWITCH

 A switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting

the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.
 The two switches we use in the program are "Push button switch" and "ON-OFF
switch". The two are shown below-

Figure: 3.16- Push button switch

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3.7.3 LED

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source that resembles a basic
PN-junction diode. LED dose not emit light in all directions.

3.7.3.1 Basic Definitions

LED stands for Light Emitting Diode. An LED is a semi-conducting device that produces
light when an electrical current flows through it. It is a light source, just like HID,
fluorescent, incandescent, etc.

3.7.3.2 History

LEDs were 1st developed in the 1960s but were only used in small, niche product
applications. They were very expensive to produce so they had few practical applications.
The first commercial LEDs were used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator
lamps for laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs,
radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches. Advancements in optics and semi-
conducting technology have propelled the LED light source into more mainstream lighting
applications.

3.7.3.3 System Components

The LED system consists of several components. Without each other, these components have
little commercial use. It’s their performance when used together that separates LEDs from
other technologies.

3.7.3.4 Application efficiency

Luminous efficacy is an important indicator of energy efficiency, but it doesn't tell the whole
story, particularly with regard to directional light sources like LEDs. Due to the directional
nature of their light emission, LEDs potentially have higher application efficiency or
delivered lumens compared to other light sources in certain lighting applications. Why is
that? Fluorescent and standard "bulb" shaped incandescent lamps emit light in all directions.
Much of the light produced by the lamp is lost within the fixture, reabsorbed by the lamp, or
escapes from the fixture in a direction that is not useful for the intended application. For

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many fixture types, including recessed down lights, troffers, and under-cabinet fixtures, it is
not uncommon for 40-50% of the total light output of the lamp(s) to be lost before it exits the
fixture. LEDs emit light in a specific direction, reducing the need for reflectors and diffusers
that can trap light, so well-designed fixtures can deliver light more efficiently to the intended
location.

LED chips need controlled direct current (DC) electrical power; an appropriate power supply
is needed. LEDs are adversely affected by high temperature, so LED lamps typically include
heat dissipation elements such as heat sinks and cooling fins.

3.7.3.5 Advantages of LED

 The LED light source produces more lumens/watt. This requires a lower wattage
lamp/fixture to produce the same light output, which results in lower energy
consumption.

 Typical LED lamps/fixtures are rated at 50,000 hours. This is 5.7 years if burned 24/7.
There is a greater chance of the technology going obsolete before the product needs to
be replaced. The term L70 is often used in the context of general lighting with LEDs.
Useful life for LEDs is defined as the point at which light output has declined to 70%
of the initial lumens (abbreviated as L70).

 No mercury is used to produce LEDs, which means no additional costs are associated
with disposal.
 LEDs are more ―directional‖ light sources pointing light where it is needed. There is
less light loss within the lamp source compared to an incandescent or fluorescent.
 The LED light source is not negatively affected by lower ambient temperatures like
traditional fluorescent systems. This allows them to be used in a wider variety of
areas.
 There is no warm up time needed. It achieves full color and 100% light instantly upon
powering the LED on.
 There is also no IR or UV emission, which makes the LED technology a very cool
running light source.

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 Figure: 3.17-LED Light

3.8 DC Motor

3.8.1 Introduction

Almost every mechanical movement that we see around us is accomplished by an electric

motor. Electric machines are a means of converting energy. Motors take electrical energy and
produce mechanical energy. Electric motors are used to power hundreds of devices we use in
everyday life. Motors come in various sizes. Huge motors that can take loads of 1000’s of
Horse power are typically used in the industry.

Electric motors are broadly classified into two different categories: DC (Direct Current) and
AC (Alternating Current). Within these categories are numerous types, each offering unique
abilities that suit them well for specific application, In most cases, regardless of type, electric
motors consist of a stator (stationary field) and a rotor (the rotating field or armature) and
operate through the interaction of magnetic flux and electric current to produce rotational
speed and torque. DC motors are distinguished by their ability to operate from direct current.

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3.8.2 Definition

A direct current (DC) motor is a fairly simple electric motor that uses electricity and a
magnetic field to produce torque, which causes it to turn. ―An electric motor is a machine
which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.”

At its most simple, it requires two magnets of opposite polarity and an electric coil, which
acts as an electromagnet. The repellent and attractive electromagnetic forces of the magnets
provide the torque that causes the motor to turn. Here use 6V DC Motor.

Figure: 3.18-DC Motor

3.8.3 Construction

DC motors are made up of several major components which include the following:

 Frame
 Shaft
 Bearings
 Main Field Windings (Stator)
 Armature (Rotor)
 Commutator
 Brush Assembly

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3.8.3.1 Stator

 The stator is the stationary outside part of a motor.

 The stator of a permanent magnet dc motor is composed of two or more permanent
magnet pole pieces.
 The magnetic field can alternatively be created by an electromagnet. In this case, a
DC coil (field winding) is wound around a magnetic material that forms part of the
stator.
3.8.3.2 Rotor

 The rotor is the inner part which rotates.

 The rotor is composed of windings (called armature windings) which are connected to
the external circuit through a mechanical commutator.
 Both stator and rotor are made of ferromagnetic materials. The two are separated by
air-gap.
3.8.3.3 Winding

A winding is made up of series or parallel connection of coils.

 Armature winding - The winding through which the voltage is applied or induced.
 Field winding - The winding through which a current is passed to produce flux (for
the electromagnet)
 Windings are usually made of copper.

3.8.4 Principle

It is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic

field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's Left-hand rule
and whose magnitude is given by

Force, F = B I l Newton

Where,

B = the magnetic field in Weber/m2.

I = the current in amperes and

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 l = the length of the coil in meter.

The force, current and the magnetic field are all in different directions. If an Electric current flows
through two copper wires that are between the poles of a magnet, an upward force will move one
wire up and a downward force will move the other wire down.

3.8.5 Energy Conversion

If electrical energy is supplied to a conductor lying perpendicular to a magnetic field, the

interaction of current flowing in the conductor and the magnetic field will produce
mechanical force (and therefore, mechanical energy).

3.8.6 DC Motor Operation

There are two electrical elements of a DC motor, the field windings and the armature. The
armature windings are made up of current carrying conductors that terminate at a
commutator. DC voltage is applied to the armature windings through carbon brushes which
ride on the commutator. In small DC motors permanent magnets can be used. For the stator
However in large motors used in industrial applications the stator is an electromagnet. When
voltage is applied to stator windings an electromagnet with north and south poles is
established. The resultant magnetic field is static (non-rotational).

The field of DC motors can be a permanent magnet, or electromagnets connected in series,

shunt, or compound.

When a current passes through a conductor, lines of magnetic force (flux) are generated
around the conductor. The direction of the flux is dependent on the direction of the current
flow.

Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often used in
traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams.

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3.8.7 Left hand rule

The direction of rotation of a this motor is given by Fleming’s left hand rule, which states that
if the index finger, middle finger and thumb of your left hand are extended mutually
perpendicular to each other and if the index finger represents the direction of magnetic field,
middle finger indicates the direction of electric current, then the thumb represents the
direction in which force is experienced by the shaft of the dc motor.

Figure: 3.19- Left hand rule

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3.9 Battery

3.9.1 Introduction

If you look at any battery, you'll notice that it has two terminals. One terminal is marked (+),
or positive, while the other is marked (-), or negative. In an AA, C or D cell (normal
flashlight batteries), the ends of the battery are the terminals. In a large car battery, there are
two heavy lead posts that act as the terminals.

The battery is an essential component of almost all aircraft electrical systems. Batteries are
used to start engines and auxiliary power units, to provide emergency backup power for
essential avionics equipment, to assure no-break power for navigation units and fly-by-wire
computers, and to provide ground power capability for maintenance and preflight checkouts.
Many of these functions are mission critical, so the performance and reliability of an aircraft
battery is of considerable importance. Other important requirements include environmental
ruggedness, a wide operating temperature range, and ease of maintenance, rapider charge
capability, and tolerance to abuse. Historically, only a few types of batteries have been found
to be suitable for aircraft applications.

3.9.2 Definition

A battery is a charge storage device that converts chemical energy into electric energy. This
is done by the transfer of electrons from one material to another through an electric circuit .It
has two terminals, One terminal is marked (+) or anode and other is marked (-) or cathode.

 Two common types of batteries, Primary and Rechargeable.

 During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the
negative material is reduced, consuming electrons.
 The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery
charger using AC mains electricity.
 Red terminal is positive and Black terminal is negative
 Fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour.
 Here used rechargeable 6V4.5Ah battery.

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3.9.3 Primary Battery

The term ―primary‖ was first used to describe this type based on the fact that the materials
inside the battery were the prime source of the electric power it delivered, while the
―secondary‖ (or rechargeable) batteries had to receive a charge before they could deliver any
power.

Primary batteries are capable of one-time use: Use it until its depleted and then dispose of it.
The most common primary batteries in the world today are alkaline D, C, AA, AAA and 9-
volt batteries. These batteries use zinc as the anode and manganese dioxide as the cathode
with Potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte the ―alkaline‖ part of the battery. Most of the
primary batteries are managed by CECOM use lithium as the anode and either sulfur dioxide
or manganese dioxide as the cathode.

3.9.4 Rechargeable Batteries

Rechargeable batteries are constructed in such a way as to allow for a restoration of the
original electrode materials by applying a voltage from an external source. The oldest
rechargeable battery still in use is the familiar lead-acid battery. These batteries use lead as
the anode, lead dioxide as the cathode, and sulfuric acid as the electrolyte. Both electrodes are
converted to lead sulfate in discharge; charging converts them back to their original materials.
This is a rare case of the electrolyte actually taking part in the discharge process. This is the
reason why it has been possible to determine the state of charge of a lead-acid battery by
checking the specific gravity of the electrolyte. Specific gravity is a measure of a liquid’s
density. Water is said to have a specific gravity of 1.0. If a liquid is more than water, its
specific gravity will be greater than one. If it’s less dense than water, the number will be less
than one. Lead-acid batteries have a specific gravity of 1.28 when fully charged and 1.12
when fully discharged.

The rechargeable batteries managed by CECOM come in three chemistries: nickel-cadmium,

nickel-metal hydride, and lithium ion. The nickel-cadmium batteries can have either vented
or sealed cells. The former type is used in aircraft; the latter type is used for communications-
electronics equipment.

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3.9.5 Discharge

The flow of electrons is from the anode to the cathode through an electric circuit. Ions form
on both electrodes and flow through the electrolyte to react with one another to form new
stable compounds. In most practical batteries, the discharge product is formed on the surface
of the cathode.

3.9.6 Charge

The flow of electrons is from the cathode to the anode induced by an external power source.
The discharge product separates out into ions that travel through the electrolyte. The original
electrode materials return to their starting points.

Figure: 3.20-Discharge and charge processes in a basic cell

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3.9.7 Rechargeable Batteries (6V4.5 Ah)

Figure: 3.21-Rechargeable Batteries

3.9.8 Specifications

6v4.5ah 20hr rechargeable battery

Electrical Specifications

Capacity 77°F (25°C) 20 hour rate (230mA) 4.5AH, 10 hour rate (420mA) 4.19AH,5 hour
rate (770mA) 3.83AH, 1 hour rate (2.66A) 2.66AH, Internal Resistance Fully Charged
battery 77°F(25°C) 25mΩ, Capacity Affected by Temperature (20 hour rate) 104°F(40°C)
102%, 77°F (25°C) 100%, 32°F (0°C) 85%, 5°F (-15°C) 65%, Self-Discharge 77°F(25°C)
Capacity after 3 month storage 92%, Capacity after 6 month storage 83%, Capacity after 12
month storage 65%, Charge Constant Voltage Cycle Use :7.25-7.45V (25°C) Standby Use :
6.8-6.9V (25°C), Initial current : 1.3A

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3.10 Brad board and wire

3.10.1 Introduction

Signal generators are electrical instruments that generate repeating electronic signals. These
signals are useful for testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic devices. When
engineers begin to design a circuit, they start by drawing a circuit diagram. A circuit diagram
is like an instruction manual or map for the circuit. Other people can read the circuit diagram
and build the exact same circuit and then Engineers use specific symbols.

For this reason a breadboard will be needed. A breadboard is a thin white board on which a
prototype circuit with numerous connections for circuit elements is constructed.

Many McDonnell & Miller products are used to switch electrical circuits, in response to
physical parameters such as level and flow. Understanding electrical wiring is necessary to
ensure proper installation and operation.

3.10.2 What is a breadboard?

A breadboard is used to build and test circuits quickly before finalizing any circuit design.
The breadboard has many holes into which circuit components like ICs and resistors can be
inserted. Breadboards come in a variety of sizes and shapes, but they all work the same way.
They all have two distinct areas, bus strips and terminal strips. The bus strips are on the top
and/or bottom of the breadboard; two bus strips are located across the top and two across the
bottom of the breadboard. These strips are used to supply power and ground to the entire
breadboard. The terminal strips make up the majority of the breadboard and are in the middle.
The circuit is built on the terminal strips of breadboard, which are aligned into columns and
rows with a split along the middle.

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A typical breadboard is shown below:

Figure: 3.22- A typical breadboard

The bread board has strips of metal which run underneath the board and connect the holes on
the top of the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below.

Figure: 3.23-Metal strips

Note that the top and bottom rows of holes are connected horizontally while the remaining
holes are connected vertically. To use the bread board, the legs of components are placed in
the holes. Each set of holes connected by a metal strip underneath forms a node. A node is a
point in a circuit where two components are connected. Connections between different
components are formed by putting their legs in a common node.

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3.10.3 Bread boarding tips

It is important to breadboard a circuit neatly and systematically, so that one can debug it and
get it running easily and quickly. It also helps when someone else needs to understand and
inspect the circuit. Here are some tips:

1. Always use the side-lines for power supply connections. Power the chips from the side-
lines and not directly from the power supply.

2. Use black wires for ground connections (0V), and red for other power connections.

3. Keep the jumper wires on the board flat, so that the board does not look cluttered.

4. Route jumper wires around the chips and not over the chips. This makes changing the
chips when needed easier.

5. You could trim the legs of components like resistors, transistors and LEDs, so that they fit
in snugly and do not get pulled out by accident.

3.11 Wire

A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of metal. Wires are used to bear
mechanical loads or electricity and telecommunications signals. Wire is commonly formed by
drawing the metal through a hole in a die or draw plate. Wire gauges come in various
standard sizes, as expressed in terms of a gauge number. The term wire is also used more
loosely to refer to a bundle of such strands, as in 'multi stranded wire', which is more
correctly termed a wire rope in mechanics, or a cable in electricity.

Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms. Although usually circular in cross-
section, wire can be made in square, hexagonal, flattened rectangular or other cross-sections,
either for decorative purposes, or for technical purposes such as high-efficiency voice coils in
loudspeakers. Edge-wound coil springs, such as the Slinky toy, are made of special flattened
wire.

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Electrical wire is the medium through which electricity is carried to and through each
individual home that uses electrical power. It is made of a metal that easily conducts
electricity, usually copper, in a plastic sheath called an insulator. There are various different
types of this wire, each suited to certain loads and conditions. Four main types are common in
residential application.

Figure: 3.24-Typical wire

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 CHAPTER 4

OPERATION AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Principle of Operation

The simplified block diagram of designed IPS (Instant Power Supply) is shown in this
Figure-2 below.

Input
Input 6V Ac
Transformer
220V AC
(Step Down)

Rectifier
Charger
6V Dc
Circuit
Circuit

Battery Output
6V Dc
6V Dc 6V Dc

DC Fan LED

Mobile Charger

Figure: 4.1-Simplified block diagram of designed IPS

4.2 Input Operation

The 220V AC supply is applied to the input (step down) transformer.6V AC from input
transformer is then enters into the rectifier bridge which converts this AC into DC. This DC
is used to charge a 6V DC battery through the charger circuit. Then 6V DC battery converts
chemical energy into electric energy and store the chare. Then battery supply voltage for the
usable electronics device. Then we get good output.

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4.3 Design and Circuit Description

The complete circuit diagram of the designed IPS is shown in Fig. 3.2 below.

Fig.4.2- Complete circuit diagram of design IPS

Note: Diode-D1, D2, D3-IN 4007.Transformer 6V600mA, Capacitor- C1-1000uF, 35 V.

LED Light. 6V Relay, Resistances 1k Ohm and 3.9 k Ohm, three switches and 6V4.5 Ah
battery.

4.3.1 Design

Here schematic IPS circuit diagram is drown by circuit maker software and finally finished
my work successfully.

Some technique for drawing a good circuit-

The general rule of drawing a good circuit is input structure is the left hand side and output
structure is the right hand side. Positive side is always up-per and negative side is always
down. If circuit is more than one combination circuit then circuit would be drawing in
different way. Give the each circuit component value and symbol properly because then we
understand that it is resistor or capacitor or relay. When a circuit is use IC then its pin number
must be denoted. If a circuit wire added another wire then obviously use dot symbol. Design

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circuit name obviously write the design paper. Build in circuit proto type because proto type
circuit is main circuit.

4.3.2 Circuit Description

Input voltage is 220V AC supply, which is applied to the input transformer. Here use one
transformer. The transformer used in the designed circuit, is a step down transformer. It input
is 220V but the output is 6V. A transformer has a primary coil and a secondary coil. Input
primary coil has two wires and secondary output coil has three wires. Here assume that the
secondary coil two wires will positive and one is neutral. 6V AC from input transformer is
then enters into the rectifier bridge, which converts this AC into DC. Here used three diode,
there will be D1, D2 and D3. A standard step-down trans-former provides 6V of AC, which
is rectified by diodes D1 and D2. Capacitor C1 provides ripple-free DC to charge the battery
and to the remaining circuit. When the mains power is on, diode D3 gets forward biased to
charge the battery. A diode is a semiconductor device with two terminals, the anode and
cathode. That conducts electric current in only one direction. Three diodes are positive
forward bias and one by one is series connection. Transformer secondary coil output neutral
wire is connected to the capacitor negative terminal with relay coil one terminal. Transformer
secondary coil output assumption positive wire is connected to the forward bias terminal
which is bridge rectifier circuit. It output terminal is connected to the relay coil another
terminal and battery positive terminal. Used in the designed circuit relay have five pins. Pin
number one is common (COM), pin number 2 is RL, pin number 3 is normally open (NO),
pin number 4 is normally connected (NC) and pin number 5 is RL. Normally Closed contact
will be connected to the Common contact when no power is applied to the coil. Normally
Open contact will be open (i.e. not connected) when no power is applied to the coil. When
batter is charging then led is generate a light signal that means supply power is on sate. Here
use a 6V 4.5 Ah battery. We know that two common types of batteries, primary and
rechargeable. The battery used in the designed circuit, is a rechargeable. It has two terminals,
One terminal is marked (+) or anode and other is marked (-) or cathode. During charging, the
positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative material is reduced,
consuming electrons. The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a
battery charger using AC mains electricity. When the mains power is on, diode D3 gets
forward biased to charge the battery. The charger circuit so that the battery will be charged
properly and will not be over charged. Fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. Here
also use a 1000uF capacitor, which is converted into pure DC by the filtering. We know that

~ 56 ~
capacitor is the electronic component that store, filter and regulate electrical energy and
current flow. It can’t produce new electrons, it only stores them. The total activities were
performed step by step. Then connect the three electronics component with a switch by the
resistor. Here use 1k Ohm two resistances and 3.9 k Ohm resistance. Some voltage is drop
here. Using 3.9 k Ohm resistance is protect the electronics device such as mobile. It protects
the unwanted voltage or signal. One DC motor, LED, Mobile Charger is also used here. After
making all the adjustments connect the circuit to the battery and transformer. The battery
used in the circuit is a 6V, 4.5Ah rechargeable battery.

4.4 Power Supply Circuits

Integral part of all power supplies is shown here.

Figure: 4.3-Integral part of a power supplies

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4.5 Hardware Implementation

Project hardware implementation is shown here in below-

Figure: 4.4- Hardware Implementation

4.6 Result

The designed IPS circuit worked properly. Detail result is as follows-

Input Transformer:

Primary Input: 220V, 50Hz.

Secondary Output: 6V, 50 Hz.

The Charger Circuit:

Input: 6V, 50 Hz.

Output: 6VDC. (Approximately)

The Battery:

Input: 6V DC.

Output: 6V DC.

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4.7 The specification of the designed IPS

Detail specification is below as follows

Features Specification
Main voltage 220 V, 50 Hz

Low voltage power supply 6v DC

Temperature range
00 C  300 C
Power 27 Watt

Back up time 2Hr (Battery dependent)

Use Fan, Led Light, Mobile Charger

4.8 Limitation & Solution

 Unstable or unregulated output voltage.

 Battery longevity is small.
 Comparatively low cost.

 Good design IPS that will give a stable output.

 Battery will serve for a long time compared to the conventional IPS.

This circuit is work in a systematic way. The total activities were performed step by step. At
first the whole system was outlined in a block diagram and then circuits of different sections
of the block were designed and tested. Finally all the circuits were arranged and connected
properly and then tested. Firstly, the charger circuit was designed. A 6V AC supply was
given to the circuit by a step down transformer and an output of approximately 6V DC. Then
a 6V DC battery was connected to the charge circuit.

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 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

This IPS is designed to meet power requirements of home furring load shedding. It can be
used to light diode for illuminate your room, to feel comfortable using small fan and to
charge mobile phone on emergency. Charging some feature it can be used for a vast area and
especially in rural area where load shading takes it acute form.

Here in my experiment or project I have try to solve this problem from my tiny platform.
Bread board and other device have been used as laboratory environment. So some omission
occurred which is unavoidable with this type of arrangement.

The elements and devices I have used are quit cheap .Poor people should be able to affords
this. If the mini IPS can be produced industrially the error will be removed and cost will be
minimized. That will be a giant step to remove suffering of the people of this load shedding
prone country.

It does if mini IPS can produce commercially the cost will be minimize and every people will
be able to consume its good result.

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 References
[1] http://www.powercombd.com/products/72-instant-power-supply-ips

[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer

[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_%28electricity%29

[4] http://www.toolingu.com/definition-460310-34129-power-circuit.html

[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_%28electricity%29

[6] Principles.of.Power.System.-.V.K.Mehta. &.Rohit.Mehta.WAZz

[7] Rezaul Karim Mazumder, ―Principles of Electronic Circuit‖ Banglabazar, Dhaka. P- 469

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