Structures 60 (2024) 105917

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Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/structures

Experimentally and numerically verified behaviour of splice joints under

multiple loading conditions and their capacity predictions using artificial
neural networks
Showkat Ahmad Kumar a, *, Javaid Ahmad Bhat a, Fayaz Ahmad Sofi a, Mohammad Adil Dar b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, Hazratbal 190006, India
b
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Splicing steel beams is a widely adopted practice, necessitated by span constraints that arise from challenges in
Splice joints transporting and handling longer beams, which may jeopardize the safety of the onsite workforce. The spliced
Steel beams joint must possess adequate strength and stiffness while effectively distributing the design loads without
Finite element simulation
compromising the structural stability of the system. In this paper, an experimental study was carried out on
Artificial neural network
Experimental investigation
various spliced joints, followed by finite element-based simulations on the validated girders. Extensive finite
Parametric study element analyses were conducted to investigate the influence of the width and thickness parameters of the splice
plates under both three-point and four-point loading. Under both these loading conditions, superior performance
was attained when a thicker flange splice and a thinner web splice were adopted. Strength improvements of 10%
and 4% were achieved when the width of the flange splice (WFS) was dropped from 140 mm to 50 mm while
maintaining a constant width of the web splice (WWS) at 270 mm, under three-point and four-point loading
conditions respectively. Capacity enhancements of 16% and 23% were noted when WWS was raised from 60 mm
to 270 mm while maintaining a constant WFS at 140 mm, under the above mentioned loading conditions,
respectively. Lastly, the feasibility of artificial neural networks (ANNs) to predict the ultimate capacity of the
splice joints was assessed, and it was verified that they could predict the ultimate load capacity with reasonable
accuracy. The predicted load capacity of the splice joint outside the training set revealed that an appropriately
trained and optimized ANN network could reliably estimate the strengths with a mean absolute error of less than
2%.

connections, although the serviceability limit states are ignored. How­

1. Introduction
Steel structures, being lightweight, having better earthquake resis­
tance, and having higher construction efficiency, are widely used in the
construction industry [1–6]. The steel members can be assembled by
using splice joints at specified places. Rolled beams or plate girders are
spliced mainly because of the following reasons: (a) the length needed
for a member may be larger than the normal length available, (b) to run
over the limitation of transporting and handling larger members, and (c)
the cross-section of the girder may vary depending on the design.
Depending on the above constraints, shop splices or field splices are
provided accordingly.
Eurocode [7] has classified steel connections into three categories
based on load-carrying capacity: rigid, semi-rigid, and flexible
ever, Goto and Miyashita [8] concluded that the connection to be clas­
sified as rigid should be based on load-carrying capacity.
Researchers have extensively studied the behavior of steel connec­
tions and splice joints using experimental and finite element (FE)
modeling. Some of the relevant studies are discussed in the following
section. Krishnamurthy [9] suggested a method to test I-beams having
end-plate splices. The two halves of the specimen were spliced, and the
beam was tested under a two-point loading mechanism until failure. In
another study, the static and dynamic behavior of splice joints was
studied by varying the splice position, connection type, and the number
of splices by Al-Janabi [10]. Nethercot [11] studied the influence of joint
stiffness on the behavior of steel frames. It was found that traditional
design methods can be used with current accurate techniques for the
design of specific components of the steel frame. Furthermore, it was

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: showkat_civilphd2019@nitsri.ac.in (S.A. Kumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2024.105917
Received 11 October 2023; Received in revised form 9 January 2024; Accepted 15 January 2024
Available online 23 January 2024
2352-0124/© 2024 Institution of Structural Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.A. Kumar et al.
Nomenclature
ANN artificial neural network
APDLANSYS parametric design language
BR Bayesian-regularization
b bias
bf width of the flange
E elastic modulus
Er reduced elastic modulus
f 1 (x) hyperbolic tangent sigmoid activation function
f 2 (x) linear activation function
FE finite element
FEA finite element analysis
Gd Girder depth
fu ultimate strength of the material
fy yield strength of the material
LM Levenberg-Marquardt
LVDT Linear Variable Differential Transformer
MPCs multi-point constraints
found that, in practicality, all the beam-column joints behave in a
semi-rigid manner. Liu and Chen [12] investigated the behavior of
connecting plates connected flexibly in steel frames. It was found that
connection flexibility is an important parameter influencing a steel
structure’s overall stability and ultimate load characteristics. Jones et al.
[13] investigated the steel columns with semi-rigid end restrains (which
simulate the general behavior of beam-to-column connections) using FE
analysis. It was found that the increase in connection stiffness is asso­
ciated with a decrease in column deflection and an increase in load
capacity, except in the case of stocky columns. In another study, The
response characteristics of shear connections were studied by Astaneh
[14] for the interaction of shear, moment, and rotation. It was concluded
that the simulation of shear connectors by traditional methods is
inappropriate.
In another study, Zygomalas and Baniotopoulos [15] concluded that
the splice location is a sensitive parameter and should be decided
carefully and it was found that the splice should not be placed where the
moment is 1/10 of the ultimate moment resistance of the beam.
Whereas, AASHTO [16] gives the following specification for the design
of web-flange girder splice: (a) the splice should be placed at or near the
point of contra-flexure considering dead load, (b) at least two rows of
bolts should be provided on both sides of the joint.
The use of present-day computational tools in commercial Finite-
element (FE) based software packages has led to the development of a
highly effective computational technique for solving diverse engineer­
ing problems including steel structures [17–20]. Many researchers have
used FE-modeling techniques to study the behavior of steel joints and
have proposed various modeling techniques to simulate the actual
behavior of splice joints. Davies et al. [17] studied the behavior of portal
frames by testing three full-scale models and developing a nonlinear
finite element model. It was observed that the lack of provisions for
shear and bearing stiffness influenced the overall performance of the
steel frame. In another study, Butterworth [19] developed a 3-D
nonlinear FE model based on five test results to understand the
behavior of the beam-to-column bolted joint. It was concluded that the
green book (the design guidelines for the moment resisting connections)
for design theory underestimates the bolt forces in the upper row while
as overestimates the same for the lower row. Ashkul [18] studied the
behavior of a single shear connection and developed a design model
using the FE modeling technique. It was concluded that plates that do
not satisfy ductility criteria create larger horizontal forces in the bolts,
which decreases the shear strength of the bolt, thus creating a moment
that must be included in the design.
2
Structures 60 (2024) 105917
MSE mean square error
m number of neurons per hidden layer
n network inputs
Pult.,ANN ANN-based ultimate load-carrying capacity
Pult.,FEM finite element-based ultimate load-carrying capacity
tf thickness of flange
TFS thickness of flange splice plate
tw thickness of the web
TWS thickness of the web splice plate
W weight
WFS width of flange splice
WWS width of web splice
W weight matrix
x network input vector
xi network inputs
y output parameters
ε strain in steel
εp ultimate strain
εy strain corresponding to yield stress in steel
The bolts have been modeled by many techniques to know their
exact mechanical response [21–24]. Kim et al. [22] studied the various
techniques for modeling bolts. Four models were studied: a solid bolt, a
coupled bolt, a spindle bolt, and no bolt. The solid 3-D model and no bolt
(surface-to-surface contact) were seen to simulate the experimental re­
sults accurately. While the coupled bolt model, which couples the degree
of freedom in the head and flange, was effective in computational time
and memory usage. Al-Fatlawi [23] studied the behavior of splice joints
using ANSYS. A beam-element was used to model the beam, while a
spring element was used to model the splice. It was found that beams
with friction-type connections are less stiff than bearing-type connec­
tions. The conclusion was logically incorrect as the friction-type con­
nections may impart additional stiffness.
FEA based parametric study is generally carried out to generate
design charts or design guidelines to avoid expensive and time-
consuming procedures for design purposes. However, modern machine
learning techniques, like artificial neural networks (ANNs), convolution
neural networks (CNNs), etc. are being adopted in the absence of design
charts. Machine learning can be a convenient tool to predict a particular
phenomenon if abundant haphazard data is available and many re­
searchers around the world have used machine learning approaches in
engineering [25].
ANNs are computing skeletons that behave as the biological neurons
of the human nervous system to see the possible trends in the data
[26–28]. Being one of the disciplines of Artificial Intelligence, which
helps machines behave humanely, allows us to train a computer on how
it should perform by providing examples [29]. Due to inference and
erudition capabilities, ANNs are widely used in areas where prediction,
estimation, pattern recognition, and optimization are needed [30–32].
ANNs are being used in the structural engineering field widely,
including estimation of structural responses [28–42], engineering
design [43–47], system identification [48,49], structural condition
assessment and monitoring [50–54], and load rating of bridges [55,56].
Although various studies are available in the literature on splice
joints, there is still a gap regarding the effect of splice plate width and
thickness, maintaining the same cross-sectional area of splice plates. In
the present study, experimental tests were performed on the bolted
splice joints to capture the effect of splice plate dimensions on the ul­
timate load resistance of splice joints. Based on the test results, FE
models were developed for the parametric investigation to study the
behavior of splice joints by varying the splice plate width and thickness,
keeping the splice plate’s cross-sectional area constant. The data set
generated from the FE analysis was used for the training of the ANN
S.A. Kumar et al.
model to predict the load-carrying capacity of splice jointed beams
without going into rigorous and time-consuming testing or finite
element analysis.
2. Methodology
Three steps were followed for the fabrication of the sample: (a) the
steel beams and splices were cut to specified dimensions, (b) holes were
drilled using a magnetic drill of specified diameters, and (c) various
parts of the sample were assembled, and bolts were placed following the
specification for structural joints using ASTM A325 bolt guideline [57].
The steel I-beam, splices, and bolts, were designed based on the
provisions/recommendations of IS 800:2007 [58]. The I-beam was
designed to safely carry a central point load of 375 kN without the local
buckling (flange or web) failure, while the splice plate was designed for
a lower load so that splice plate failure is ensured. The steel I-beam was
spliced in the vicinity of the centre of the beam (left side) so that it is
acted upon by both the maximum moment and shear. A clearance gap of
3 mm is provided between the two halves of the spliced beam [10]. The
width of the splice plate was provided keeping in view the provisions of
IS:800 for gauge length and edge length of the bolts. M10 grade 8.8
high-strength bolts of 12 mm diameter were used for all the specimens.
The bolts were designed so that they do not fail in shear. A chained
arrangement of bolts was preferred for the easy adjustment of bolts in all
the test samples.
Three splice plate test models were fabricated by varying the width
and thickness of the splice as shown in Figs. 1 to 3. These samples were
designated as SP-99–60 (Fig. 1), SP-99–76 (Fig. 2), and plates-126–101
(Fig. 3). The cross-sectional areas of the splice plates (flange and web
splice) is kept constant in all cases, which is achieved by varying the
thickness and corresponding width of these splice plates. Initial torque
was applied to the bolts to achieve a minimal pretension force.
The experimental tests were validated by finite element analysis
(FEA), and subsequently a parametric study was carried out on the
validated FE model. Based on the availability of the FE package, the FE
analysis was carried out in the ANSYS software.
A total of 180 analyses were carried out by varying the width of the
flange splice plate and web splice plate, keeping the same cross-sectional
area of the splice plates. To study the effect of the flange splice plate, and
cross-sectional dimensions, the width of the web splice was varied after
every set of analyses consisting of ten variations in flange width, and the
same was done for the web splice plate. A concentrated line load was
applied at the 1/3 length of the beam, where the beam is spliced, and the
resistance and failure modes are analyzed. A stiffener was placed pre­
cisely below the load to avoid local buckling of the flange. Ten analyses
were carried out for each case (flange and web splice) separately to
study the effect of cross-sectional dimensions of flange and web splice
plates in pure moment. Four-point line loading is applied for the beams,
and the deflection is noted at the middle of the upper flange of the girder
while the load resistance and failure mechanisms are scrutinized. The
data set generated from the FE analysis was used for the training of the
ANN model to predict the load-carrying capacity of splice-jointed
beams.
(All dimensions are in mm)
(a)
Fig. 1. Splice plates for SP-99–60: (a) Flange Splice; (b) Web Splice.
3
Structures 60 (2024) 105917
3. Experimental study
A total of three simply-supported beam specimens were prepared
and tested for failure. Each of the three test samples was placed on a
loading frame of 500 kN capacity in a simply supported condition. The
tests were conducted using an experimental setup shown in Fig. 4. The
load was applied by a hydraulic jack in small increments through a rigid
cylinder (line load) at the center of the beam so that the splice joint was
acted upon by both the shear force and the bending moment. The dis­
placements were measured at the center of the lower flange at half of the
span length using LVDTs (25 mm) having an accuracy of 0.01 mm
connected to the data acquisition system. The load was applied by a
loading jack of 1000 kN capacity through a load cell of 500 kN capacity,
which was connected to the data acquisition system.
For the experimental study, the chosen beams had a clear span of
1.37 m. The beams were laterally restrained so that they did not fail by
lateral-torsional buckling. The dimensions of the beam and material
type were kept the same in all three cases. The test setup and dimensions
of a typical test model is shown in Fig. 5, where all the dimensions are in
mm.
To find the mechanical properties of the beam and splice plate ma­
terial, tensile coupon testing was done using the computerized universal
testing machine. The yield and ultimate strengths of the beam material
were 372 MPa and 479 MPa, respectively, while the yield and ultimate
strengths of the splice plate material were found to be 379 MPa and
486 MPa, respectively.
The experiments were carried out on the spliced beams using the
above-mentioned procedure. Loads and deflections were recorded for all
the test models and are shown in Fig. 6. From this figure it is seen that
SP-99–76, has the maximum load-carrying capacity followed by SP-
99–60. In both of these models, the flange splice thickness is 10 mm,
whereas, the web splice width is 76 mm and 60.8 mm for SP-99–76 and
SP-99–60 respectively (refer Figs. 1–3). Further, it was observed that the
lower flange splice yields first followed by tearing of the splice plate in
all the tested specimens as shown in Fig. 7.
4. Finite-element simulation
Finite-element analysis (FEA) has developed into an authoritative
computational technique for solving various engineering problems by
taking advantage of modern computational tools in commercial FE
packages. In this study, 3-D nonlinear FE-modelling was conducted to
study the behavior of spliced I-beams using ANSYS [59]. In the present
parametric study, the whole process (pre-processing and
post-processing) was scripted to automate the process in ANSYS para­
metric design language (APDL). Verification of the finite element model
was also done with the experimental results.
4.1. Constitutive material model and element type
Finite element models were developed using custom-developed
APDL macros. The beams were modeled by four-node shell elements
(SHELL181) with six degrees of freedom at each node. The first-order
(All dimensions are in mm)
(b)
S.A. Kumar et al. Structures 60 (2024) 105917

Fig. 2. Splice plates for SP-99–76: (a) Flange Splice; (b) Web Splice.

Fig. 3. Splice plates for SP-126–101: (a) Flange Splice; (b) Web Splice.

Fig. 4. Experimental setup showing loading and measuring arrangement.

Fig. 6. Experimental load deflection curves for all the three tests.

shear-deformations in the Shell 181 element are governed by Mindlin-

Reissner shell theory [60,61]. The mid surface deformation field (i.e., u,
v, w displacement components along x, y, z local coordinate directions)
and stress (σ = [σx σ y τxy τyz τzx ]T ) and strain state (ϵ =
[ϵx ϵy γxy γyz γ zx ] ) throughout the shell can be expressed in terms
T

Fig. 5. Test setup and dimensions of a typical beam (all dimensions are in mm):
(a) longitudinal section; (b) sectional view.
w(x, y) and two mid surface normal rotation components ψ x (x, y) and
ψ y (x, y) along local-x and y axis, respectively. The small displacements
and strains can be obtained using Eq. (1), using the three fields i.e., w,
ψ x , ψ y where, ψ x,x = ∂ψ∂xx .
u = − z.ψ x

4
S.A. Kumar et al. Structures 60 (2024) 105917

Fig. 7. Tearing failure of flange splice plates.: (a) SP-126–101 (Flange splice); (b) SP-99–76 (Flange splice).

v = − z.ψ y
ϵx = − z.ψ x,x

ϵy = − z.ψ y,y

γ xy = − z.(ψ x,y + ψ y,x )

γ yz = w,y − ψ y

γ zx = w,x − ψ x (1)

Both geometric and material non-linearity was considered for the

analysis. The first positive buckling mode with a scaling factor of girder
height divided by 100, (Gd /100) was taken as initial imperfection [62]
to account for the imperfections present in the test specimen. The ma­
terial model assumed for the validation is linear-elastic hardening-­
plastic using the multilinear-isotropic hardening rule obeying the von
Mises yield criterion [63-66]. The adopted constitutive stress-strain Fig. 9. Mesh sensitivity results for FE model.
curves (Fig. 8) can also be mathematically represented by Eq. (2) and
Eq. (3). The stress in steel (σ s ) at any given strain (ε) can be determined Elasto − plastic curve
by utilizing material properties obtained from Section 3: Experimental A mesh sensitivity analysis was conducted, wherein the number of
Study and εy = σ y /E, εu = εy + (σ u − σy )/Er . For all numerical sim­ shell elements was systematically altered in the finite element model.
ulations in this study, the linear-elastic material properties, i.e., the Fig. 9 illustrates the convergence results for mesh sensitivity using
modulus of elasticity E = 200GPa; and Poisson’s ratio, νs = 0.3, were nonlinear finite element modeling across the three tests, as outlined in
consistently applied. The reduced modulus (Er = E/100), used for the Section 3: Experimental study. The finite element mesh, with a mesh size
strain hardening curve (Eq. (2)), was employed in the numerical model of 20 mm, produced satisfactory results, confirming the mesh indepen­
validation against the experimental results. However, for the present dence of the FE model. While SP-99–60 and SP-99–76 test samples
parametric study, the typical design assumption of an elasto- plastic converged with a mesh size of 25 mm, however SP-126–101 demon­
steel stress-strain curve was assumed in numerical modeling (Fig. 8) strated mesh independence at a 20 mm mesh size. Consequently, the
represented in Eq. (3). smallest of the three sizes i.e., 20 mm was used in the present study for
{ FE meshing. Since friction bolts were used, the connection between the
σs =
E × ε; ε ≤ εy
(2) splice plates and the beam was established using contact elements and
σy + Er × (ε − εu ); εy < ε ≤ εu constraint equations (MPCs) instead of bolts. Since the MPCs and contact
Strain hardening curve elements gave the same results; thus, the contact elements were chosen
{ instead of MPCs. CONTA173 and TARGET170 [59] elements were
σs =
E × ε; ε ≤ εy
(3) generated on splice and beam to develop a connection, respectively.
σ y ; εy < ε ≤ εu

4.2. Calibration of the FE model

The numerical results obtained were validated with the experimental

results. Typical load-deflection curves are plotted in Fig. 10. From this
figure it is seen that the numerical results are in accordance with the
experimental results for all three test results. further, the failure modes
were observed in the flange splice as were observed in experimental
studies.

5. Parametric study

5.1. Parameters investigated

Fig. 8. Steel stress-strain material model for numerical calibration and para­ After validation of the FE model, the parameters were varied and the
metric study. range of chosen parameters is to keep them in practical ranges. In all

5
S.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 10. Typical load-deflection curves of the three test models: (a) SP-99–60; (b) SP-99–76; (c) SP-126–101.
Table 1
Range of parameters.
S. No Girder parameter Effective range
1 Width of flange splice plate (WFS) 50-140 mm
2 Width of web splice plate (WWS) 60-270 mm
3 Thickness of flange splice plate (TFS) 7-20 mm
4 Thickness of web splice plate (TWS) 2-10 mm
5 Yield strength of flange and web (fy ) 215-420 MPa
6 Ultimate strength of flange and web (fu ) 250-590 MPa
these cases special attention was paid to avoid local buckling in the
flange. The range of chosen parameters are tabulated in Table1. Each of
the web and flange splice widths is varied in 20 and 10 respectively. The
standard available material in the market is chosen for material property
variation (i.e, fy = 215, 235, 250, 255, 275, 335, 390, 410, 415, 420
and fu = 430, 440, 460, 480, 500, 520, 530, 540, 550, 570, 590).
5.2. Discussion of parametric study results
5.2.1. Flange splice width under three-point loading
Fig. 11 shows the variation in load-carrying capacity for different
flange splice widths and thicknesses. From this figure, it is observed that
the load-carrying capacity decreases with the increase in the width of
the flange splice plate for any thickness of the said plate. Further, the
load-carrying capacity is maximum when the splice plate of higher
thickness and lower width is used. The maximum capacity is observed
when WWS = 270 mm and WWF = 50 mm. The increase in the load
capacity by increasing the thickness of the flange splice and the width of
Fig. 11. Variation in load carrying capacity with flange splice width
and thickness.
6
Structures 60 (2024) 105917
the web splice may be attributed to the increase in the moment of inertia
of the flange splice plate and the beam by increased thickness.
The bottom flange splice yields in all the cases; however, the yielding
spread in the flanges is more pronounced when wider-width flange
splices are used. Fig. 12 shows the Von Mises stress distribution for
different types of flange splice widths. The web splices yield a little when
using lower-width web splices, while the yielding was prominent in web
splices when wider-width web splices were used.
5.2.2. Effect of variation in flange splice width on moment capacity under
pure moment loading condition
Fig. 13 shows the variation in moment capacity for different widths
of flange splice, keeping the width of the web splice constant (WWS =
120 mm) under a pure moment loading condition. The ultimate load
resistance decreases with the increase in the flange splice width under a
pure moment loading condition. It can be seen that the reduction in
moment capacity is more when the width of the flange splice is increased
from half of the flange width to full flange width. At the same time, the
decrease in moment capacity is lesser when the flange splice width is
reduced from half of the flange width. The reduction in the load resis­
tance by increasing the width of the splice may be attributed to the
decrease in the thickness of the flange splice, as a result of which the
moment of inertia of the splice plate decreases, resulting in reduced
load-carrying capacity.
5.2.3. Effect of variation in web splice width on load-capacity under three-
point lading
Fig. 14 shows the effect of variation in the width of web splice on the
load-carrying capacity for different WFSs. The load-carrying capacity is
maximum when higher width and lower thickness web splice plates
corresponding to the lowest flange splice width (WFS = 50 mm) are
used. Moreover, the mid-span deflection does not show much variation.
The increase in the load capacity may be attributed to the increase in the
moment of inertia of web splice plates by the increased width of the
splice plate.
The top and bottom flanges are seen to yield in all the cases; how­
ever, the yielding spreads in flanges more pronouncedly when a larger
width web splice plate is used compared to narrow width web splice
plates. Fig. 15 shows the von Mises stress distribution for different types
of web splice plate widths. The flange splice plate yielding is lower when
narrow-width splice plates are used; however, the yielding in flange
splice plates is seen to maximize when larger web splice plates are used.
5.2.4. Effect of variation in web splice width under a pure moment on the
ultimate load resistance
Fig. 16 shows the variation in ultimate load resistance for different
widths of web splice, keeping the width of the flange splice width
S.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 12. von Mises stress distribution at the splice plate location when the width of the flange splice is varied.
Fig. 13. Effect of the flange splice width on moment carrying capacity.
Fig. 14. Effect of web splice width on the load-carrying capacity.
constant under a pure moment. The ultimate load resistance capacity
increases with the width of the web splice. The increase in the load
resistance is almost linear when the width of the web splice is increased.
The increase in the load resistance by increasing the splice width may be
attributed to an increase in the moment of inertia of the splice plate,
resulting in increased load-carrying capacity.
6. Artificial neural network
6.1. Feedforward neural networks
Artificial neural networks (ANNs) can appraise an intricate multi­
dimensional nonlinear relationship without basic principles governing
the relationship. An ANN can be trained by a sample set of cases con­
7
Structures 60 (2024) 105917
sisting of outputs and inputs to predict the output of analogous instances
that were not encountered during training. A multilayered feedforward
neural network, which is mostly used in structural engineering prob­
lems, consists of the network input (n) and output parameters (y), the
number of hidden layers, the number of neurons or nodes (m) in a single
layer and a transfer function (activation function). A schematic diagram
of feedforward network architecture is shown in Fig. 17. The data fed to
the input layer is passed on in the forward direction, which is called a
feedforward network. The neurons are connected to the preceding and
succeeding neurons by weighted connections in a feedforward manner.
Though the rationalization of a neural network depends vigorously
on the training data set, it may also be affected by the network param­
eters (weights and biases), the intricacy of the underlying problem, and
the architecture of the chosen network. Artificial neural networks do not
assure a good approximation based on extrapolation, so ANN imple­
mentation should be limited to the input variable domain. Since this
study desired to estimate a decisive result from a smaller data set, the
extreme values are fed as input variables to expedite reliable interpo­
lation inside the boundary to ensure a good approximation.
6.2. Investigative approach
ANN training is usually performed by dividing the design database
into two sub-parts, i.e., training and validation subsets. During the
learning phase, the training set is employed to set the most favorable
amalgam of design variables to achieve the best predictive model and set
parameters (weights and biases). The validation data set controls the
overfitting of the data, and the network parameters are fixed at the
lowest validation error. The whole work was coded in MATLAB [67].
The numerical results obtained from FE analysis were used to create a
database for the neural network training to create a reliable model to
predict the ultimate load resistance of splice joints for any random input
data.
Based on previous research [68], the entire database of samples (294
numerical and three experimental parameters) was randomly prorated
into two subgroups: a network training and a validation set. The neural
network training is done using the design set of 250 data points. The
validation (testing) set consists of 47 data points, which are not used
during the network training phase. The network was optimized through
several trials based on minimum mean square error (MSE). Each trial
booted haphazard weights and biases and had different random di­
visions of training and validation sets.
6.3. ANN architecture optimization
The primary purpose of network optimization is to model the
complexity of the problem without the model being over-fit, which may
affect the generalization of the model. If the network has too few pa­
rameters (weights and biases), the network exhibits poor performance.
In contrast, if the parameter density is higher, the network may lose its
S.A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 15. von Mises stress distribution at the splice plate location when the width of the flange splice is varied.
Fig. 16. Sensitivity of the web splice width on moment carrying capacity.
Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of feedforward neural network.
generalization capability because the mapping function becomes more
precise to the network training data.
The ANN architecture in the present study consists of one and two
hidden layer(s) sandwiched between a network input layer (containing
nine parameters) and the network output layer having only one output
[9-(m)− 1, 9-(m-m)− 1]. The input parameters consist of span of girder
(L), location of splice plate (LS), location of load (LL), width of flange
(WFS) and web splice (WWS), thickness of flange (TFS) and web splice
(TWS) and yield (Fy) and ultimate strength (Fu) of flange and web. The
networks were provided with an ample number of nodes. The error
minimization algorithms used in this study consist of either Levenberg-
Marquardt LM [69] or Bayesian-regularization BR [70]. The number of
hidden layer nodes (m) varied between 2 to 10, and after retraining the
network 250 times, the most reliable network was chosen based on the
minimum mean square error (MSE) (Fig. 18). The validation set was
randomly reselected with each retraining iteration from the design set;
thus, the design and validation sets changed accordingly. Four distinct
combinations of the network architecture were chosen based on the
various possible combination of training algorithms and the number of
hidden layers: -(m)-1-R; 9-(m-m)-1-BR; 9-(m)− 1-LM and 9-(m-m)−
8
Structures 60 (2024) 105917
Fig. 18. Number of retraining iterations.
1-LM.
The results were optimized for mean absolute error and the number
of hidden layer nodes (m) for the best-trained network with these ar­
chitectures. The design and validation set error decrease with the
increasing number of hidden layer nodes (m = 2 to 10). The best
achievement for the testing data set in a single layer of neurons has a
mean absolute error of 1.6%, obtained at m = 7, whereas for the double
layers of neurons, the mean absolute error of 1.7%, obtained at m =
4(Fig. 19). The network overfitting is indicated by a decrease in the
design set error and a concurrent increase in the validation set error
beyond the optimized number of nodes in a hidden layer. It can be seen
that the error in both the error-minimization algorithms (BR and LM)
and the number of hidden layers (m or m-m) remains around (1 to 2) %.
Thus, we can use a single or two hidden layers of neurons to get
acceptable results.
6.4. Actual and predicted capacity of the splice joint
This section validates the ANN model by comparing the predicted
load capacity by the proposed neural network model to the finite
element-based load capacity of a splice joint. Fig. 20a and b shows the
equal and fitting line between the ANN-based predictions and finite
element-based results for the design and testing set. The ANN-based
results were in close agreement with the FE-based results. The fitting
line between the analytical and predicted results yields a coefficient of
determination of almost 99 (Fig. 20) for both design and testing set. The
higher R-square value shows a better agreement between the FE-based
and ANN-based outputs.
S.A. Kumar et al. Structures 60 (2024) 105917

Fig. 19. Optimized ANN network for the number of nodes (a) Bayesian regularization; (b) Levenberg Marquardt; m = number nodes.

Fig. 20. Comparison between ANN-based predictions with FE-based ultimate load-carrying capacity: (a) design set; (b) testing set.

6.5. Adjusted ANNs

Pult.,FEM
PAF = (4)
Pult.,ANN
A statistical analysis was carried out for the predictions based cu­
mulative distribution functions (CDFs) to proposed a prediction
adjustment factor (PAF; Eq. 4) to make a conservative estimate of the
6.6. ANN formulation
ANN-based predictions within a targeted error margin. Fig. 21 shows the
PAF distribution for the ANN-based predictions. The desired confidence
An ANN-based formulation is presented to predict the ultimate load
for the nonconservative estimates can be attained by adjusting the ANN-
carrying capacity (Pult,ANN ) of spliced beams under different loading
based predictions using PAF distribution as well as their cumulative
conditions. Trained networks for single and double layer of network
distribution. For instance, when ANN based predictions are multiplied
results vary marginally, thus both single and double layer of network
by PAF = 0.960, the resulting estimates have only a 10% probability of
was used to estimate ultimate load resistance (Pult.,ANN ). The Pult.,ANN can
being an unconservative. Similarly, a slightly severe tuning multiplier
be obtained using corresponding normalized network outputs (y) in Eq.
(=0.954) has a 95% probability of having predictions with
(5):
Pult,FEM > Pult,ANN .
(Pult,max − Pult,min )
Pult,ANN = (y + 1) + Pult,min (kN) (5)
(b − a)

where, Pult,min and Pult,max are the extreme values of Pult,FEM in the
respective design datasets. The network inputs (xk ; recall Fig. 17) and
output (y) were used in the normalized form in a closed interval of
[a = − 1, b = 1], which represents the limits of the hyperbolic tangent-
sigmoid activation function (tanh (); [71]). The network outputs (y)
each can be obtained using normalized network inputs (xk ; k = 1to9) of
the respective testing datasets in Eqs. (6)–(8).
∑
3
y = b31 + W 3,2 2
1,i ai (6)
i=1

( )
∑
3
a2i = tanh b2j + W 2,1 1
i,j aj (7)
j=1

Fig. 21. PAFs for ANN-based loading resistance.

9
S.A. Kumar et al.
( )
∑
9 moment the increase in the capacity was about 4% when the WFS
a1j = tanh b1j + W 1,1
j,k xk
k=1
Where, the optimized weights (W3,2 2,1 1,1
1,i ,Wi,j ,W j,k ) and biases
b1i )
obtained for trained networks 9-(3− 3)− 1-BR. The superscripts (i, j)
represent the neuron number in the hidden layer(s) 2 and 1 super­
scripted in Eqs. (6)–(8). Thus, proposed ANN-based formulations can be
used for estimating Pult.,ANN in spliced beams using respective governing
network inputs within their effective ranges (recall, Table 1).
7. Implication and limitations
The increase in the thickness of the flange splice plate along with the
decrease in the flange splice width increases the load-bearing capacity of
splice joints while the decrease in web splice thickness along with the
increase in the web splice width increases the load capacity of a splice
joint. The increase in the load-carrying capacity is caused by the increase
in the moment of inertia of both flange and web splice by way of
increasing the thickness of the flange splice and increasing the width of
web splice. The FE-based or experimental analysis of splice joints is a
time-consuming and an uneconomical process requiring skilled
manpower, so a cost-effective ANN-based machine learning approach
was employed to get the load-carrying capacity of splice-jointed beams.
It was found that the ANN-based approach gives acceptable load-
carrying capacity without any rigorous analysis. we can use a single
hidden layer of neurons to get reliable results; consequently, the
computational effort can be reduced. The observation is in accordance
with the previous literature suggesting that single and two hidden layers
can sufficiently map the input to the output [63,55,56].
The FE-based approach used in this study can only be used for
friction-type bolts because the contact between the splice plate and
beam is defined by MPCs, while the bearing-type bolts are to be modeled
separately. Although the modeling approach exactly validates the
experimental results as suggested in the literature [22]. The ANN-based
prediction model can be used for load prediction if the input governing
parameters are within their effective ranges because the ANN capability
is reduced when values are to be extrapolated between the input
parameter ranges.
Though the study is limited to friction bolts under static loading, it
can further be extended to study the effect of splice joints for bearing-
type bolts both under static and dynamic loads. The study can also be
extended to study the dynamic response of steel-spliced composite
beams.
8. Summary and conclusion
In this study, three experimental investigations were carried out to
understand the behavior of splice joints in steel beams. A numerical
model was calibrated against these experimental results, and a detailed
parametric study was carried out to study the behavior of splice joints
under flexure (shear and moment) and pure moment. The parameters
investigated include the width of splice plates (flange and web splice)
and the thickness of splice plates. Furthermore, the feasibility and effi­
cacy of the ANN-based predictive models were explored on the splice
joints. Based on the above results, the following conclusions were
drawn:
1. In the case of the constant area of the cross-section of the flange
splice plate, under the three-point loading (shear-moment) and pure
moment, the load resistance increases with the increase in the
thickness of the plate, although the stiffness of the beam remains the
same. The increase in strength is due to the rise in the moment of
inertia of the splice plate. The highest increase of 10% was seen in
the load capacity when WFS was decreased from 140 mm to 50 mm,
keeping WWS = 270 mm under three-point loading. Under pure
Structures 60 (2024) 105917
(8) was decreased from 140 to 50 mm.
2. In the case of a constant area of the cross-section of the web splice
plate, under the three-point loading (shear-moment) and pure
(bli = b3i , b2i ,
moment, the load-carrying capacity increases with the decrease in
plate thickness, though the stiffness remains the same. The increase
in strength is due to the increase in the moment of inertia of the web
splice plate. The highest increase of 16% was seen in the load ca­
pacity when WWS was increased from 60 mm to 270 mm, keeping
WFS = 140 mm under three-point loading. Under pure moment the
increase in the capacity was about 23% when the WFS was increased
from 60 to 270 mm.
3. It was found that under the loadings mentioned above, the thicker
flange splice and the thinner web splice perform better in the case of
flexure and pure moment.
4. The ANN-based model predicted the load resistance of the splice
joint with great accuracy. Both the training algorithms viz:
Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) and Bayesian-regularization (BR) show
an error of 1% to 2%. Thus, without rigorous computational efforts
and capital investments, ANNs can provide the results beforehand.
5. To enhance the effectiveness of the suggested Artificial Neural
Network (ANN) estimates for load carrying capacity, Prediction
Adjustment Factors (PAFs) derived from cumulative distribution
functions were suggested. These factors serve to confine the ANN
predictions within a specified error margin. For instance, by
employing the PAF = 0.960, the probability of encountering
unconservative estimates is restricted to 10% within the designated
range of parameters.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
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