Basic Concepts: Elements of

UNIT 3 EVOLUTION OF WORLD SYSTEM National Power, National

Interest, Collective Security,
(UPTO WORLD WAR-II)* Balance of Power

Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 From Ancient to Modern
3.3 Rise of West
3.4 First World War
3.4.1 Factors Responsible for First World War
3.4.2 Peace Treaties
3.4.3 Treaty of Versailles
3.5 Second World War
3.5.1 Causes of Second World War
3.5.2 The Second World War Begins
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 References
3.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, you will get an overview of the world system through various
civilizations; rise of the West; rise of conflicts, and the causes of First and Second
World Wars. After going through this Unit, you should be able to know:
World system through the age
Causes of First World War
Treaty of Versailles and
Causes of Second World War

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The insatiable wants of humans led to the finest discoveries in the world and yet
also caused wars at an unimaginable level. Humans gave up their nomadic style
of living in favour of permanent settlement. They built agriculture to provide
food and fodder. Urbanization also took its root. This promoted trade and led to
the facilitation of communication. The origin of writing also aided in better
communication. But soon the early forms of development fell into abyss after
the advent of Dark Ages. Dark Ages brought the rein of superstition and religion
and logic and rationality took a backseat. The Dark Ages soon ended for betterment
of society and European civilization became the dominant in international
relations. The rule of West caused the dissemination of ideas of rationality, logic,
debate and reason. Scientific temper was celebrated. And the advent of industrial
revolution brought in the provision of basic necessities, comfort of industrial

Dr. Mithila Bagai, Dept. of Political Science, Maitreyi College, University of Delhi, New Delhi
*
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Introduction goods and further development of means of communication and transportation.
But the greed of acquiring more and more profit from the sale of manufactured
goods led to expansion of their territories and converting far away regions and
societies into colonies. This gave rise to imperialism and colonialism. The fight
to retain their colonies and acquire more led to the two World Wars and
immeasurable loss of human lives.

3.2 FROM ANCIENT TO MODERN

The history at the world level commenced with the establishment of successive
ancient civilizations. The hunter-gatherer community gave up nomadism in place
of permanent settlement, developed agriculture to produce crops for food, looked
for avenues for trade and exchange and also set up urban cities. Mesopotamia
civilization, now part of Republic of Iraq, is regarded as the cradle of civilization
as it gave birth to three major civilizations from 3500-1500 BCE- the Sumerian,
the Babylonian and the Assyrian. Other early civilization developed in ancient
Egypt along the River Nile and it ended with the rise of Roman Empire. The two
prominent developments of the civilization were one, agriculture which led to
permanent settlement and the proliferation of urban cities and secondly, writing
that facilitated exchange and communication. Around 1600 BCE, Shang dynasty
sowed the seeds of Chinese civilization which corresponded with the Bronze
Age. Earliest civilization in South Asia arose in Indus river valley, now part of
Pakistan, and it flourished between 2600 and 1900 BCE. Ancient India whose
borders stretched from modern day Afghanistan to Bangladesh, arose in 500
BCE and gave birth to the golden age of classical Hindu culture and rich Sanskrit
literature.

Around 1000 BCE, also known as the period of classical antiquity saw the
emergence of various civilizations in the area of Mediterranean Sea. It led to the
establishment of two prominent cities – Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. But
the classical world soon descended into chaos when nomadic people mounted an
attack on the great ancient civilizations and the era came to be notoriously known
as ‘Dark Ages’ that spread from Mediterranean to China. It not only affected
Greek and Romans but also all the developed civilizations of Eurasia. In the 5th
and 6th centuries, Europe was disrupted by the constant barbarian invasions of
Germanic and Slav people who later settled there. In the 9th and 10th centuries,
Vikings, Magyars and Saracens carried out further invasions. The prominent
was the rise of Mongols, the nomadic people in 1206 and 1405 whose empire
stretched from eastern frontiers of Germany and from Arctic Ocean to Turkey
and Persian Gulf. Mongol invasion left a deep impact on world history, changing
the political organization of Asia and large parts of Europe and the ethnic
composition of many regions by uprooting and displacing them. But it also opened
the routes and connected Europe with Asia and Far East.

3.3 RISE OF WEST

Around 1500, Europe based civilization became the dominant civilization in the
world. Westernization became synonymous with modernization. Non-Western
societies started imitating Western countries for their growth in political,
economic, cultural and social spheres. From fifteenth century and continuing till
early seventeenth century, Portuguese, Spanish, British, French and Dutch
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explored India and Far East. They started trading in spices, tea, cane sugar, Evolution of International
System (Up to the World
tobacco, precious metals, and slaves. Rise of West brought immense changes at War-II)
the world level. Politically, Peace of Westphalia signed in 1648 created
independent and sovereign states with strong central governments. Breakdown
of feudalism and advent of market and capitalist society brought socio-economic
changes. Industrialization started developing in Britain in mid-eighteenth century
becoming the workshop of the world.

Culturally, the rise of West brought in Renaissance in Italy in Middle Ages. The
European intellectuals highlighted the ideas of reason, rationality, scientific
temper, debate and critical enquiry that led to the growth of technological advance
and scientific civilization.With the advent of technology and scientific temper,
Western countries moved out to establish trade links to an extent that they secured
their trading relations with other countries by keeping them as colonies. Therefore,
scramble for colonies started. Building of land and maritime transportation and
communication lines facilitated tradie and migration of people. But this ‘incipient
globalization’ as Scholte calls it, came to an end with the outbreak of the First
World War in 1914.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for answers.
ii) See the end of Unit for tips for your answer.
1) What is meant by Renaissance?
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3.4 FIRST WORLD WAR

The First World War started with the declaration of war on Serbia by Austria
Hungary on July 28, 1914. It was fought between Allied and Associated powers
on one side and Central powers on the other side. The former included France,
British Empire, Russia, Italy, USA which joined three years later, and Japan.
Central powers comprised of Germany, Austria Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.

3.4.1 The Factors Responsible for the First World War

A) After the French Revolution of 1789, nationalism became an important factor
in international relations. This led to unity as well as divisions. For example:
German and Italian reunifications were the result of national aspirations.
Dissolution of Ottoman Empire and demands for national independence in
Balkans and other East European countries are credited to the rise of
nationalism. On one hand, where nationalism brought the freedom of
countries and also led to unification in some. On the other hand, nationalism
also sowed the seeds of conflicts and tensions. Britain propagated the theory
of ‘white man’s burden’ and Germany upheld the ‘supremacy of Aryan race’.
Such ideas created the ‘Other’ and ‘Us’ divide in society. 41
Introduction B) Economic imperialism was another significant factor that contributed to
the First World War. The advent of Industrial Revolution created the grounds
for colonialism and imperialism. Big imperial powers wanted to occupy
new colonies to buy cheap raw materials for manufacturing finished goods,
buy cheap laborers and the market to sell the manufactured goods. In this
horde of occupying new colonies and to build the political, military and
economic strength resulted in many rivalries and conflicts.
C) Formation of secret alliances was another reason. After the Franco-Prussian
war, Germany tried to keep France weak. Bismarck was the undisputed
leader of Germany for twenty years and dominated European politics also.
A secret alliance was concluded between Germany and Austria-Hungary
against Russia after the Congress of Berlin while the League of Three
Emperors between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia was in place.
Later, Germany entered into a Dual Alliance with Russia in a Reinsurance
Treaty. Italy also joined sometime later. This Triple Alliance was formed to
isolate France. After the fall of Bismarck, many counter alliances came
forth. France-Russian entente challenged Triple Alliance. In 1904, the
disputes between France and British were resolved and they signed Entente
Cordiale. Disputes were also settled between Russia and Britain in 1907
and they signed a Treaty of Friendship. A Triple Entente was thus formed.
This divided the major European powers into two camps – Triple Alliance
and Triple Entente and each one befriended other nations to enhance their
military strength.
D) Another reason was the race for armaments. Entire Europe was shaken by
the might of Napolean’s army and his adventures. The other nations also
had to build up their militaries to defeat him. After Napolean was defeated
at Waterloo, new powers emerged and they also joined the arms race.
Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary started acquiring more military power.
Japan’s military strength was not only a concern for China and Korea but
also Russia and United States. War became the major factor for establishing
superiority in international relations.
E) Following the arms race, Anglo-German naval rivalry became predominant.
Britain was the sole superpower who was the king of seas till the end of
nineteenth century. After Germany under young Emperor Kaiser William II
strengthened its navy, Britain left its isolation and jumped to counter the
rising Germany in the seas.
F) Absence of an effective international organization was one of the main
reasons for breakout of the First World War. Though an informal group of
major European powers named Concert of Europe came into being but it
could not abate the rising conflicts. Imperial rivalries and arms race could
not be arrested. It was not a formal organization and did not have the
representation of the world countries. The two Hague conferences did discuss
peaceful settlement of disputes and the institution of arbitration was also
included. But peaceful resolution of disputes could not be brought in.
G) The negative role of press was also considered a significant point for
culmination of the First World War. Forty years prior to the war, several
governments made sincere efforts to ease the tensions simmering between
countries but press played the major spoil sport in creating war psychology
amongst the masses.
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H) Personal ambitions of leaders were also responsible for the First World War. Evolution of International
System (Up to the World
Kaiser William II of Germany wanted to build up naval supremacy and was War-II)
not willing to accept any compromise. Russian Czar and his wife were overly
ambitious and was instrumental in provoking Serbia against Austria-
Hungary.

I) Rivalry between Austria and Serbia deteriorated the international situation.

Austria-Hungary wanted to expand its empire by annexing Slav territories
and having access to seas. On the other hand, Serbia represented Slav
nationalism and was working for the union of Southern Slavs. The tension
between these two was further exacerbated by the intervention of Russian
Czar and his wife.

J) The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Austrian heir apparent and

his wife on June 28, 1914 hit the final nail in the coffin. The allegation was
put on Slav extremists of Serbia. Austria gave 48 hours ultimatum and
demanded – to stop all anti Austrian propaganda, to arrest and prosecute
the Serbian authorities involved in the assassination, to dissolve the terrorist
organizations, and to allow Austrian officials to visit to participate in the
trial of conspirators. Serbia agreed to most of these conditions but Russia
promised assistance to Serbia that made the latter change her attitude.
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and other countries soon joined
in.

Germany, even after the war had started, persuaded Austria to adopt a soft
approach. Russia mobilized its forces on July 30, 1914 and came to the aid of
Serbia. Germany asked Russia to withdraw and when Russia did not oblige,
Germany launched an attack on Serbia and Russia on August 1, 1914. France
was also an ally of Russia. Germany also attacked France on August 3 and invaded
Belgium to enter France from Belgium borders. Britain too entered the war as it
wanted to protect Belgian neutrality. Bulgaria and Turkey joined on the side of
Germany and Austria-Hungary. They were known as Central Powers. France,
Russia, Britain, Serbia and many other countries were called Allied and Associated
powers. Italy remained neutral for some time but then joined Allies when Britain
promised her territories after the war. Germany forced United States to enter the
war after the former were sinking US ships in the Atlantic. Russia withdrew
from war after the Bolshevik Revolution. Germany surrendered unconditionally
in November 1918. Central powers were defeated and peace treaties were imposed
on them.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for answers.
ii) See the end of Unit for tips for your answer.
1) Explain the causes of First World War.
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Introduction 3.4.2 Peace Treaties
Number of peace treaties were signed between the Allies and Central Powers
during 1919-1920 and the most important of them was The Treaty of Versailles
signed between Allies and defeated Germany. Separate treaties were signed with
other defeated powers- Treaty of St. German with Austria on September 10,
1919 and Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria on November 27, 1919; Treaty of
Trianon with Hungary on June 4, 1920.

3.4.3 Treaty of Versailles

It was the most humiliating treaty imposed on Germany. The German delegates
were not even consulted. They were invited to Paris but were put in far away
hotels surrounded by barbed wires and policemen. They were called only when
the draft was ready for the handover. And the second time, they were called for
signing it. German delegation was not allowed to sit on the main table and they
were escorted by armed guards like criminals. The provisions in the Treaty were
also very harsh. Germany lost territories practically from all the four sides and
were distributed to most of her neighbouring countries. She also lost overseas
territories. In total, she lost fifteen per cent of her territory and one tenth of her
population. Huge reparation costs were imposed on Germany to recover losses
made by victors. She was crippled militarily. Her army’s strength was reduced,
was not allowed to have naval aircrafts, submarines and air force. The objective
of Treaty of Versailles was to end war and ensure lasting peace. But the Second
World War began just after 20 years, 2 months and 4 days after signing of Treaty.
League of Nations failed to prevent the outbreak of the Second World War.

3.5 THE SECOND WORLD WAR

The Second World War began with the German attack on Poland on September
1, 1939. Britain and France came in defence of Poland and launched an attack
on Germany on September 3, 1939. Soon many countries waged war on Germany.
Japan attacked China. Italy remained neutral for sometime but finally joined
Germany in June 1940. After Germany had victories over many countries, she
launched war against Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. USA entered war after
Japan bombarded Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. It was fought between the
Allies (Britain, France, Soviet Union, USA and their allies) and Axis powers
(Germany, Italy and Japan). It ended with the unconditional surrender of Italy,
Germany and Japan.

3.5.1 Causes of the Second World War

1) Treaty of Versailles: The treaty was a diktat on Germany. France was
defeated by Germany in 1871 and wanted to avenge this insult. In Paris
conference, France humiliated Germany and the treaty deprived her of her
territories, colonies, and military strength. Hitler took the leadership and
decided to avenge the insult in Paris conference.

2) Failure of Collective Security System: Collective Security system was

devised after the First World War to provide security to the victim of
aggression by either imposing economic sanctions on the aggressor or by
lending military support. This was to be done under the auspices of
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 international organization, League of Nations. But League of Nations proved Evolution of International
System (Up to the World
ineffective. During the inter war years in 1931, Japan invaded China and War-II)
took control of Manchuria province. Japan defended her act by stating it
was a police action and not an aggression. League of Nations believed in
the promises of Japan that it would vacate from Manchuria once the safety
of life and property of Japanese are assured but it did not do it. Rather Japan
established puppet Manchukuo regime. When League of Nations asked
member nations not to recognize it, Japan being a permanent member and
big power left the international organization. In 1935, Italy waged a war on
Abyssinia and brought her under Italian empire. League of Nations imposed
economic sanctions and declared Italy as an aggressor. Since no military
action was taken, Italy did not care much. League of Nations did not take
any action against Germany when she repudiated military clauses of
Versailles Treaty, remilitarized Rhineland or annexed Austria or
dismembered Czechoslovakia. Failure of collective security system caused
another World War.

3) Failure of Disarmament: Paris Peace conference decided that the ultimate

objective of world peace could be ensured if the armaments are reduced to
a point of defense. But none of the countries took it seriously and the horde
for arms continued. Germany was disarmed and victor nations were to be
disarmed later. The latter never did it. Germany left League of Nations and
declared formally that she was no longer bound by Treaty of Versailles.
Thus, Germany began the accumulation of weapons that paved the way for
armed conflict.

4) World Economic Crisis: It began in 1929 with sudden stoppage of American

loans to European countries. Germany was heavily dependent on loans for
its industrial progress. It proved to be the worst affected country where
7lakhs people were left unemployed. Germany stopped making payments
of reparation. Nazi dictatorship under Adolf Hitler took over the reins of
the country. Japan also took advantage of economic crisis and established
puppet Manchukuo regime in Manchuria in 1932. Italy also conquered
Abyssinia.

5) Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis: Germany, Italy and Japan formed an anti-

communist front by concluding Anti Comintern Pact in 1936-37. It was
aimed at imperialist expansion. They discouraged peaceful settlement of
disputes and glorified war. They victimized smaller nations like China,
Austria, Czechoslovakia, Albania and Poland. Their aggressions and war
like acts went unpunished.

6) Problem of National Minorities: Large national minorities were left in

new nation states created in Europe after the First World War. For example:
Large German minorities were in Poland and Czechoslovakia in the company
of non-Germans, Russian minorities were in Poland and Rumania; Hungarian
minorities were in Rumania and Yugoslavia; and German and Slav minorities
were in Italy. This aroused the feeling of dissatisfaction and fear among
minorities. Hitler aroused the sentiments of national minorities and
demanded union with their member states. He annexed Austria and destroyed
and dismembered Czechoslovakia and invaded Poland to bring Germany
under one political umbrella.
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Introduction 7) Failure of League of Nations: The international organization was formed
with the objective of maintaining peace and harmony at the world level.
But it could not protect smaller states against aggression by big powers.
USA itself did not become the member of League of Nations despite it
being the principal architect of the League and promoter of disarmament
and collective security. Germany and Russia were not invited to become its
members. Germany joined the League in 1926 but left it in 1933. USSR
came in 1934 and was expelled after invasion of Finland. Japan exited in
1933 and Italy in 1937. There were many other loopholes in the organization.
Decisions could be taken only through unanimous vote that was difficult to
get. It did not have its own armed forces and therefore could not prevent the
attack. Most of the members paid only lip service to the ideals of League.

8) German attack on Poland: On September 1, 1939 Germany attacked

Poland. When Britain and France ignored USSR’s attempt to ally with them,
Hitler entered into a non-aggression pact with Stalin. The two countries
had resolved to divide Eastern Europe into their spheres of influence. Hitler
wanted justice for his German minorities in Poland and therefore, he attacked
Poland in the West and USSR moved its troops in Poland from East. Britain
and France had assured Poland of their assistance in case of any attack.
Therefore, they attacked Germany to defend Poland. Many other countries
launched an attack on Germany that led to Second World War.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for answers
ii) See the end of Unit for tips for your answer
1) Explain the causes of Second World War.
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3.5.2 The Second World War Begins

Germany attacked Poland on September 1, 1939 and USSR came to the aid of
Germany to divide its territories. Italy did not enter the war till 1940 but when
France was on the verge of surrender, Italy declared war on France from the side
of Germany. League of Nations expelled USSR when she attacked Finland. After
Germany had defeated most of her European neighbours, she attacked Soviet
Union on 22 June 1941. United States was opposed to the war. Neutrality Act
was passed in 1937 that prohibited sale of armaments to all countries engaged in
future wars. But when the war broke out and Germany was attacking the Western
democracies, America weakened the Neutrality Act. America came up with Cash
and Carry Act in 1939 that allowed countries at war to buy weapons in cash and
put those weapons in their own ships. Thus, USA began supplying armaments to
friendly countries such as Britain and China.
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USA finally entered the war in December 1941. America and Japan had tense Evolution of International
System (Up to the World
relations. In July 1941, France agreed to Japan on the right to set up naval and air War-II)
bases in Indo-China. America in response froze Japanese assets. On December
6, President Roosevelt made a personal request to Japanese Emperor to maintain
peace. But, on December 7, Japan bombarded American naval fleet based at
Pearl Harbor. Few hours later, Japan declared war on USA and British Empire.
On December 11, USA was attacked by Germany and Italy. The war assumed
global proportions. Italy surrendered unconditionally on September 3, 1943. But
Germans entered Rome and the war continued. Allies captured Rome on June 4,
1944. On May 7, 1945 German government surrendered unconditionally all land,
sea and air forces of the Reich. The war in Europe ended on May 8, 1945. The
Second World War finally ended with Japan being occupied by Americans. On 6
August 1945, America dropped the first ever atom bomb on the city of Hiroshima
and on 9 August, 1945 on Nagasaki. On August 10, 1945 Japan asked for peace
but the surrender documents were signed only on September 2, 1945.

3.6 LET US SUM UP

In ancient times, humans gave up their nomadic style of living in favour of
permanent settlement. Urbanization also took its root after agriculture. This eas
followed by advent of trade and communication. However, this progress was
soon challenged by the Dark Ages, which brought the rein of superstition and
religion while logic and rationality took a backseat. The Dark Ages soon ended
for betterment of society and European civilization became the dominant in
international relations. The rule of West brought the ideas of rationality, logic,
debate and reason. The industrial revolution brought in the provision of basic
necessities, comfort of industrial goods and further development of means of
communication and transportation. But the greed of acquiring more profits led
to rise of imperialism and colonialism. The two World Wars in the first half of
the 20th century was a result of the fight to retain possession of colonies and
acquire more areas.

3.7 REFERENCES
Baylis, John et al. (eds.) (2015). The Globalisation of World Politics. New Delhi:
OUP.
Chatterjee, Aneek. (2018). International Relations Today. New Delhi: Pearson.
Cartsnaes, Walter, et al. (eds.) (2012). Handbook of International Relations. New
Delhi: Sage.
George, Jim and Anthony D. Burke. (2007). An Introduction to International
Relations.
Heywood, A. (2011). Global Politics. Palgrave Foundations.
Hocking, Brian and Michael Smith. (2014). World Politics: An Introduction to
International Relations. London: Routbdge.
Kumar, Mahendra. (2017). The Theoretical Aspects of International Politics.
Agra: Shivlal Aggarwal.
Wilkinson, Paul. (2007). International Relations.New Delhi: OUP.
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Introduction
3.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) You answer should highlight following points
Renaissance highlighted ideas of reason, rationality, scientific temper,
debate and critical enquiry
It led to the growth of technological advance and scientific civilization
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) You answer should highlight following points
Rise of nationalism after French Revolution in 1789
Economic imperialism
Formation of secret alliances
Arms race
Absence of an effective international organization etc
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) You answer should highlight following points
Treaty of Versailles
Failure of Collective Security System
Failure of Disarmament
World Economic Crisis
Rome- Berlin-Tokyo Axis
Problem of National Minorities
Failure of League of Nation
German attack on Poland

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