FoP 3B Part I

Dr Budhika Mendis (b.g.mendis@durham.ac.uk)

Room 151

Lecture 4: Effective mass and introduction to

magnetism
 Previous lecture

Recall Fermi velocity (vF) is ~1% speed of light (i.e. ~106 m/s).
The collision time  in metals is ~10-15 s. The mean free path,
 = vF, is therefore ~10 Å.

Q: Why is  larger than the ion core spacing (~1-2 Å)?

∂
Key concepts:

-Bloch waves in a periodic solid ✓ 𝜓𝐤 𝐫 = ෍ 𝐶𝐆 (𝐤)𝑒 𝑖𝐆∙𝐫 𝑒 𝑖𝐤∙𝐫

-Band structure ✓ 𝐆

-Electron effective mass

‘Effective’ mass of electrons in a crystal

∂
• Electrons in a crystal are subjected to a periodic potential
from the ion-cores.
• The response to an external force F (e.g. electric/magnetic
field) is therefore different to an electron in free space.
• Define an effective mass m*, such that F = m*a is obeyed.
Expression for effective mass*
Key Results: 𝑑𝜔 1 𝑑𝐸 (group velocity of Bloch wave)
v= =
𝑑𝑘 ℏ 𝑑𝑘 𝜓𝐤 𝐫 = ෍ 𝐶𝐆 (𝐤)𝑒 𝑖𝐆∙𝐫 𝑒 𝑖𝐤∙𝐫
𝐆

𝑑𝐤
F= ℏ
𝑑𝑡
Substituting in F = m*a = m*(dv/dt) gives:
∂
2
𝑑 𝐸
m* = ℏ / 𝑑𝑘2
2

For anisotropic crystals (effective mass tensor):

2
𝑑 𝐸
mij* = 2
ℏ/
𝑑𝑘𝑖𝑑𝑘𝑗

* See supplementary notes for a derivation (non-examinable)

 An example calculation (past exam paper)
Q: The energy of an electron is given by:

𝐸 𝑘𝑥 , 𝑘𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑘𝑥2 + 𝐶𝑘𝑦2 + 𝐷𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦

where A, B, C and D are constants. Calculate the effective mass along x and xy-directions.

𝑑2 𝐸
A: The effective mass tensor is given by mij* = 2
ℏ/
𝑑𝑘𝑖𝑑𝑘𝑗

To calculate effective mass along x set i = j = x. Similarly for the xy-direction i = x, j = y

∂ 𝑑2 𝐸
(the precise order does not matter due to the property of mixed derivatives, i.e. 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘 =
𝑖 𝑗
𝑑2 𝐸
). Therefore:
𝑑𝑘𝑗 𝑑𝑘𝑖
𝑑 2𝐸 ℏ2
∗
𝑚𝑥𝑥 = ℏ2/ 2 =
𝑑𝑘𝑥 2(𝐴 + 𝐵)

𝑑 2𝐸 ℏ2
∗
𝑚𝑥𝑦 = ℏ2/ =
𝑑𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑘𝑦 𝐷
 Magnetism in Solids
Some applications:

-Navigation (compasses)
-Conversion between mechanical and electrical energy (dynamo
∂
and generators)
-Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
-Information storage (magnetic hard disks)
-Deflection of ion particles (e.g. plasma confinement in nuclear
fusion reactors)
-Magnetic cooling etc.
 Aim of today’s lecture

Introduce basic concepts in magnetism.

Key concepts:
-Magnetic moments ∂
-Magnetic fields and susceptibility
-Magnetism as a quantum mechanical phenomenon
Current carrying loops and magnetic moments
-Consider an electron moving clockwise in a circular loop
(as viewed from above in the figure). The electric current
is in the opposite sense. The magnetic moment μ is:
μ = IA
where I is the current and A is the area vector taken in the
sense of the current.
- μ represents the magnetic field lines due to the current
loop (NB: from Biot-Savart law a current generates a
∂
magnetic field).
-The angular momentum l is:
l
l = r x p = m(r x v)
where r is the radial vector of the loop and p = mv is the
momentum.
- For a negatively charged electron μ and l are
anti-parallel. In fact:
μ = -γl
where γ is the gyromagnetic ratio.
The Bohr magneton (μB)
The magnetic moment for an electron in a circular loop is called the
Bohr magneton (μB). It is a fundamental unit for expressing magnetic
moments.
The time taken (t) for the electron to do a circular loop is T = (2r/v),
where v is the speed. The current is therefore I = e/T = ev/(2r).
𝑒𝑣 2
𝑒
l ∴ 𝜇𝐵 = 𝐼𝐴 = ∙ 𝜋𝑟 = (𝑚𝑣𝑟)
2𝜋𝑟 2𝑚
angular momentum
∂
Hence γ = e/2m. From de Broglie equation and Bohr’s model of the atom the ground
state angular momentum is ħ.

𝑒ℏ
∴ 𝜇𝐵 = γℏ =
2𝑚
𝑛𝜆 = 2𝜋𝑟 (Bohr)
ℎ
𝜆= (de Broglie)
𝑚𝑣
 Magnetic fields (terminology)
- In vacuum: B = μ0H (H- magnetic field, B- magnetic induction field and μ0- permeability
of free space)

- In a solid: B = μ0(H + M), M = magnetisation (net magnetic moment per unit volume).

- In SI M has units of Am2/m3 or Am-1. These are also the units of H.

- B has units of Tesla (T). μ0 = 4 x 10-7 Hm-1 (Henry per metre).

- The magnetic susceptibility () links M to H at low fields, i.e.:

M = H∂(as H→0)

-  is dimensionless.  < 0 for a diamagnet (B-field smaller in a solid compared to vacuum).

 > 0 for a paramagnet or ferromagnet (B-field larger in a solid than vacuum).
ferromagnet (MH-curve
M M non-linear w.r.t. H)
paramagnet
H H
diamagnet

* See supplementary reading for VSM

measurement of M-H curves (non-examinable)
 Magnetism as a quantum mechanical phenomenon
-The energy E of a magnetic moment μ is E = -μB. Therefore the magnetisation:
𝑑𝐸vol
𝑀=−
𝑑𝐵
where Evol is the energy per unit volume.
- Since the Lorentz force F = -e(v x B) is normal to the velocity v a magnetic field cannot
do any work on a moving electron. Therefore according to classical physics the
magnetisation must be zero!

∂ phenomenon (the Bohr- van Leeuwen

- Magnetism is therefore a quantum mechanical
theorem demonstrates this rigorously using statistical physics).

The torque  is given by:

𝛕= 𝛍×𝐁
dμ
Since  = dl/dt and μ = -γl:
𝑑𝛍
= −γ(𝛍 × 𝐁)
𝑑𝑡
μ
μ precesses around the B-field.
Short Exam Question (2021)

Q: Aluminium is a paramagnetic material with a magnetic susceptibility

of 2.2 x 10-5. Calculate the energy decrease per unit volume when a
magnetic field of 0.01T is applied.