1.

FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE MODERN AGE:

1.1. SOCIETY AND THE FEUDAL ECONOMY: The term ‘modern’ is used to
describe new or innovative concepts. This means the Modern Age was a time
of change and new inventions.
1.1.1. The basic structure of society was the same as in the Middle Ages.
Social groups were divided according to privileges.

1.1.2. THE THREE ESTATES OF THE REALM: At the very top of the social
system was the king. However, his power and position depended
largely on the powerful privileged estates — the nobles and the
clergy. Each social group played a particular role in society.
1.1.2.1. The nobles did not work, as they considered manual labour
beneath them. Only the king or other nobles could judge them.
They did not pay taxes to the king unless it was agreed on in
the parliaments and courts. The most important members of
the nobility were the lords of feudal manors.

1.1.2.2. The clergy had the social and spiritual function of looking
after the souls of people. They continued to enjoy privileges,
such as collecting tithes for their own benefit and
administering justice. Like the nobles, they did not pay taxes
to the king, unless it was accepted in the courts.

1.1.2.3. They were mostly craftsmen, traders, doctors, jurists, etc.

They were judged by their lords, if they lived on a feudal
manor, or by the king, if they lived in the realengo (the name
of the monarch’s lands). They paid taxes to support the
privileged estates and the monarchy.

1.1.3. COLLECTIVE PRIVILEGES: CITIES: Cities enjoyed the main type of

collective privileges. Monarchs granted cities privileges such as
collecting taxes, enjoying monopolies and administering justice in
the towns under their jurisdiction.

1.1.4. The city council was in charge of exercising these privileges. In

theory, they were for all the city’s inhabitants, but in practice, they
were restricted to its richest members: landowners, rich traders and
craftspeople.

1.2. MONARCHS AND THEIR KINGDOMS: The political system was organised in
the same way as society. Power was very fragmented and disputed between
monarchs, privileged estates and cities.
1.2.1. Political and social conflict such as armed conflict between nobles,
violence between groups of citizens, rebellions against monarchs,
feudal lords, etc. was common.

1.2.2. Institutions such as estate courts and parliaments endured where the
monarchs and the privileged groups in their kingdoms could
negotiate peacefully under the king’s authority.

1.2.3. MONARCHIES OF THE 16TH CENTURY: Most Europeans lived in

kingdoms like Portugal, England and France.
1.2.3.1. Some kingdoms joined together under the same ruler to create
composite monarchies. These were made up of equal
kingdoms that maintained their own laws and institutions.
 1.2.3.2. There were other independent political entities that acted like
kingdoms, although they were not.

1.2.3.3. The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity with little
internal cohesion. The title of Emperor offered more prestige
than real power, because the many territories in the Empire
(from the Italian republics to kingdoms like Bohemia), were
very independent.

1.3. BASIC TRAITS OF A NEW ERA: Although there were some similarities with
the Middle Ages, the Modern Age did represent a big step forward for Europe.
1.3.1. ECONOMIC CHANGES: Craft, trade and financial activities
experienced a huge boom. However, agriculture and livestock
farming continued to be the main economic activities.

1.3.2. CULTURAL CHANGES:New artistic styles appeared, including

Renaissance art and architecture. There were also new cultural
movements, such as Humanism.

1.3.3. RELIGIOUS CHANGES: It was a time of intolerance with great

persecution of Jews and Muslims. There were also wars between
Christians due to the emergence of denominations which separated
from the papal authority of Rome.

1.3.4. SOCIAL CHANGES: The third estate became more diverse and
complex, as a result of urban growth. The bourgeoisie acquired
influence and wealth, and salaried work increased.

1.3.5. POLITICAL CHANGES: The system of privileges and institutions, such

as the estate courts and parliaments, did not disappear, but
monarchies gained power.

1.4. THE FACTORS BEHIND GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY: The 15th and 16th
centuries are known for the geographical discoveries made through sea
voyages.
1.4.1. ECONOMIC FACTORS: Europeans needed gold and silver to produce
coins. They also depended on products from the East, such as silk and
spices. When Byzantium was taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the
traditional trade route to obtain spices closed, so they had to search
for alternate routes.

1.4.2. DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS: After the demographic stagnation of the

Late Middle Ages, the population went through a period of growth.
This increased the demand for precious metals and products from the
East.

1.4.3. POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS FACTORS: There was religious rivalry

with Islam, which was reinforced by the Ottomans. The conflict was
particularly noticeable in the Iberian kingdoms, where the spirit of
the Crusades continued, although it was felt in all European Christian
kingdoms.
 1.4.4. SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS: The spirit of the Renaissance inspired
people to discover and explore. Books like The Travels of Marco Polo
acted as inspiration.

1.4.5. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL FACTORS: Advances were made in

navigation with new ships, such as carracks and caravels. Many
geographers also started to believe that the world was round and not
flat.

2. AUTHORITARIAN MONARCHIES AND SOCIETY

2.1. THE MOST POWERFUL MONARCHIES: The authoritarian monarchies of 15th
and 16th-century European kingdoms evolved from mediaeval feudal
monarchies.
2.1.1. THE TREASURY AND THE ARMY: Monarchs were frequently involved
in wars with other kings, as well as with subjects in their own
kingdoms who were opposed to their authority. Because of this
instability and the need to secure the throne, monarchs created
permanent royal armies so they did not have to depend on the
nobility, the Church or the cities. This resulted in fewer social
conflicts and increased the stability of the kingdoms.

2.1.1.1. Royal treasuries were responsible for collecting money to

maintain administrative and military systems. Monarchs also
asked the regional courts of their kingdoms for larger
financial contributions or services, and tried to conquer other
territories to obtain more wealth.

2.1.2. THE ROYAL COURT AND THE ADMINISTRATION OF KINGDOMS: To

improve the management of the growing tax and military resources,
the administrative structure of kingdoms became more complex.
There were more ambassadors, ministers and officials in the royal
courts. Educated members of the middle class and the lower nobility
also began to work for the monarchy. This development is considered
to be the origin of the modern state.
2.1.2.1. As stability increased and the monarchs gained prestige and
power, it was easier for them to rule their kingdoms.
However, there were still conflicts with the nobility, the
Church and the cities.

2.1.2.2. If the royal treasuries were powerful enough, the monarchs

needed less money from the regional courts and parliaments.

2.1.2.3. Monarchs also began taking part in the process of appointing

important Church figures, sometimes even undermining the
pope’s authority.

2.1.2.4. Monarchs increased their control over the election of

municipal governments by appointing the mayors and
magistrates that they wanted.

2.2. THE 15TH AND 16TH CENTURIES:

2.2.1. ECONOMY: At the beginning of the Modern Age, Europe’s economy
continued to be a rural economy based on working the land
(agriculture and livestock farming). From the 15th century onwards,
craftwork and trade became more important.
 2.2.1.1. The influence of markets continued to grow. Although profit
was the main objective, these markets did not depend as much
on supply and demand as they did on the political authorities.
The authorities imposed restrictions on economic activity,
creating monopolies and awarding privileges to certain
groups.

2.2.1.2. MONOPOLIES AND PRIVILEGES: There were bans on certain

economic activities, for example, on cereal exports in
agricultural areas where food was scarce; or anti-usury laws
prohibiting loans to people in debt.

2.2.2. SOCIETY: At the beginning of the Modern Age, society continued to

be hierarchical, with two privileged classes (the nobility and the
clergy) and a non-privileged class (the third estate).
2.2.2.1. THE NOBILITY: The nobility were rich, as privilege and wealth
usually went hand in hand. They lost the military power they
had in the Middle Ages.
2.2.2.2. THE CLERGY: There were different social levels in the clergy,
from rich bishops to humble rural priests. A clergyman’s
position was usually determined by his background.
2.2.2.3. THE THIRD ESTATE: The third estate was the largest segment
of society. It was also the one that changed the most because
of the economic changes that occurred.

3. THE CATHOLIC MONARCHS:

3.1. THE BIRTH OF A NEW MONARCHY: At the beginning of the Modern Age,
there were five kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula. Members of the same
family (the House of Trastámara) ruled in two of those kingdoms: the Crown
of Aragón and the Crown of Castilla.
3.1.1. In 1469, Fernando II of Aragón married Isabel I, the sister of Enrique
IV of Castilla, who died in 1474. Fernando II inherited the Aragonese
throne in 1479. To gain her right to the throne of Castilla, Isabel I had
to defeat Juana, the king’s daughter and heir, in a civil war that ended
in 1479. Isabel and Juana were supported by Aragón and Portugal,
respectively.

3.1.2. The pope bestowed the title of Catholic Monarchs on the couple in
1496, after they had conquered the Kingdom of Granada and expelled
the Jews.

3.1.3. The new monarchy was a dynastic union because it was the result of a
marriage between two monarchs, not a fusion of two kingdoms. It
was therefore a composite monarchy, where each crown kept its
symbols, laws, institutions and borders, and the subjects of one
kingdom were considered foreign in the other. The monarchs only
shared policies in specific areas, such as foreign policy and religion.

3.2. THE AUTHORITARIAN MONARCHY OF THE CATHOLIC MONARCHS:

3.2.1. THE MONARCHY AND THE ESTATES OF THE REALM: The Catholic
Monarchs’ main objective was to restore the authority of the
monarchy. This brought transformations in the cities, the Church
and the nobility.
 3.2.1.1. CITIES: Corregidores were appointed throughout Castilla.
These representatives of royal power controlled the
kingdom’s towns and territories.

3.2.1.2. THE CHURCH: During their reign, the pope gave the Catholic
Monarchs the authority to intervene in the appointment of
important figures in the Church.

3.2.1.3. THE NOBILITY: The Catholic Monarchs confiscated lands

from noblemen who supported Juana during the civil war, but
they tried to win the support of the nobility when they needed
it. Isabel I therefore granted the higher title of Duke to the
Count of the Infantado and the Count of Medinaceli.

3.2.2. THE RELIGIOUS POLICY OF THE CATHOLIC MONARCHS: The

Catholic Monarchs imposed most of their authority by implementing
a policy of religious unification. The Spanish Inquisition was first
established in the Late Middle Ages by the pope to punish heretics.
3.2.2.1. In 1492, the Catholic Monarchs expelled all Jews that did not
convert to Christianity from their kingdoms. The Inquisition
was not convinced that the conversos (the Jews who
remained) had really converted, so they were under suspicion
and socially marginalised. These Jews were called marranos.
Sephardi Jews (the Jews who were expelled from the
Peninsula) formed a very culturally and economically active
community.

3.2.2.2. Following the conquest of Granada in 1492, the mudéjares in

that kingdom were forced to convert to Catholicismm or be
expelled. The majority converted, but their sincerity was
always under suspicion, so they were marginalised. These
converts were known as moriscos.

3.2.3. KINGDOMS UNDER THE CATHOLIC MONARCHS: The composite

monarchy meant that the influence of the Catholic Monarchs was not
as strong in Aragón as in Castilla. Despite this, they established the
first administrative bodies common to all their kingdoms: the
Council of the Inquisition and the Council of Military Orders, which
also became a part of the Inquisition.
3.2.3.1. CROWN OF CASTILLA:
3.2.3.1.1. The Council of Castilla was an institution established
during the Middle Ages that advised the monarchs. The
Catholic Monarchs reshaped this institution by giving
it more authority.
3.2.3.1.2. The Santa Hermandad was established in 1476. It was
an armed force at the service of the monarchs. In 1510,
a permanent royal army was created with mercenaries.
3.2.3.1.3. The Audiencias of Valladolid (1480) and Granada
(1504) were created to centralise the justice system.

3.2.3.2. CROWN OF ARAGÓN: In the Crown of Aragón, Fernando II

used his authority to influence town councils and was
uncompromising in his implementation of the Inquisition,
despite resistance in Aragón.
 3.3. THE BEGINNINGS OF HISPANIC DOMINANCE: FOREIGN POLICY: A period
of stability began for the Catholic Monarchs, a result of Castilla's recovery
from civil war and the Catholic Monarchs' domestic policy, as well as
conflicts between Catalan noblemen and serfs. This gave way to an active
foreign policy which allowed them to expand their territories.
3.3.1. The Catholic Monarchs formed alliances by marrying their children
to heirs of other kingdoms with two main aims.
3.3.2. Castilla’s Atlantic expansion began at the conquest of the Canary
Islands (1496) and the discovery of America by Columbus (1492).
3.3.3. SOME ALLIANCES THROUGH MARRIAGE:
3.3.3.1. The Infanta Isabel and Manuel I of Portugal.
3.3.3.2. The Infanta Juana and the Duke of Burgundy .
3.3.3.3. Catherine of Aragón and Henry VIII of England.

4. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA:

4.1. PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES: In the 15th century, the Kingdom of Portugal
was the first European power to begin building a colonial empire, and it was
the greatest power in terms of geographical discoveries. Its aim was to
explore the coasts of Africa to find an alternative route to Asia, avoiding the
Ottoman Empire, in order to import spices and silk to Europe.
4.1.1. The Portuguese also established trading posts on the African coast to
obtain slaves, ivory and the gold produced to the south of the Sahara.
Obtaining that gold was essential because European mines had been
exhausted, and increased trade meant that gold was required to pay
for transactions.

4.1.2. Portuguese maritime exploration was supported by the country’s

monarchs, particularly Henry ‘the Navigator’. The experience of the
pilots led to a fairly rapid evolution of Portuguese nautical science,
creating an elite of astronomers, navigators, mathematicians and
cartographers.

4.1.3. Portuguese expansion began with the conquest of Ceuta (1415), an

important strategic point on the gold route between Africa and
Portugal. Then came the following milestones:
4.1.3.1. The discovery of the archipelagos of Madeira (circa 1419)and
the Azores (1427) and the exploration of Cape Verde (1462).
4.1.3.2. The exploration of the Gulf of Guinea.
4.1.3.3. The exploration of the southern coasts of Africa.
4.1.3.4. The exploration of the Cape of Good Hope (1487), opening the
route to southern Asia.
4.1.3.5. Vasco da Gama completed the route to Asia when he arrived in
Calcutta (India) in 1498, achieving the European objective of
discovering a new route to Asia.
4.1.3.6. Expeditions reached Macao (China).

4.2. AMERICA BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF COLUMBUS: Before 1492, America was
inhabited by many different peoples and cultures. In some cases, there were
large, advanced empires with hierarchical societies.
4.2.1. The Aztecs created an empire in Central America. Its capital was
Tenochtitlán, today’s Mexico City
4.2.2. The Mayan civilization was older. When the conquerors arrived, this
civilization was in decline.
4.2.3. The Inca culture formed an empire in the Andes and controlled the
peoples of the area, which was organised in provinces.
4.3. THE ROLE OF THE CANARY ISLANDS IN THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA:
Sailors from Mallorca, Portugal, Genoa and Castilla began to explore the
Atlantic Ocean in the 14th century. These expeditions resulted in the
discovery of the Canary Islands. This led to a rivalry between Portugal and
Castilla, which both wanted to control this group of islands.
4.3.1. THE CONQUEST OF THE CANARY ISLANDS: The conquest of the
Canary Islands by the Crown of Castilla took place between 1402 and
1496.
4.3.1.1. The islands of Lanzarote, El Hierro and Fuerteventura were
conquered between 1402 and 1405, and La Gomera, in 1450.
4.3.1.2. It was more difficult to conquer Gran Canaria, La Palma and
Tenerife because of the resistance of the indigenous peoples,
such as the Guanches in Tenerife.
4.3.1.3. The conquest of the Canary Islands provided practice for the
conquest and colonisation of America.

4.4. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS'S PLAN:

4.4.1. With his experience and knowledge, Columbus formulated his plan to
look for a new route to Asia: he would sail to the west, avoiding
Africa. Columbus explained his theory to the king of Portugal in 1482,
but they rejected it.

4.4.2. Columbus then took his idea to Castilla, explaining his plan to the
Catholic Monarchs in 1486. The Catholic Monarchs postponed their
decision about Columbus's plan because they were very busy with the
conquest of Granada.

4.4.3. Finally, in April 1492, the Catholic Monarchs and Columbus signed
the Capitulations of Santa Fe. According to this document, the
Catholic Monarchs agreed to support Columbus's mission. They
granted him the titles of admiral and viceroy of the lands he
discovered, as well as one tenth of the profit made from exploiting
their riches.

4.5. THE DISCOVERY: Christopher Columbus departed from the port of Huelva,
on 3 August 1492 with a carrack, the Santa María, and two caravels, the Pinta
and the Niña. After stopping in the Canary Islands, the expedition crossed
the Atlantic Ocean and arrived at the island of Guanahani, in the Bahamas,
on 12 October 1492.
4.5.1. Columbus then began to explore islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola,
which he named La Española. After three months, he travelled back to
the Iberian Peninsula convinced that he had reached the coast of Asia.
He therefore called these lands the West Indies.

4.5.2. Columbus made three other voyages. During the second, he founded
the city of La Isabela on La Española, the first colony in America.
Later, he discovered the rest of the Caribbean islands and the coasts
of South America, from the mouth of the Orinoco River to the coasts
of Central America.

4.5.3. The Catholic Monarchs tried to legitimise their right to occupy the
territories discovered. Portugal opposed this. They therefore signed
the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), which established that all the lands
to the west of the line belonged to Castilla, and all of the lands to the
east were for Portugal.