BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO.

DEPARTMENT OF NURSING SCIENCES

Advanced Studies in Family Health

NUR 8322

THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT (FOCUS

ON PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 0-
5YEARS)

BY
HAUWA RABIU USMAN SPS/21/MNS/00042
AISHA IBRAHIM HASSAN SPS/21/MNS/00055

Submitted to
MRS KHADIJA NUHU

APRIL, 2024.

INTRODUCTION
childhood development is the process of physical, social, and cognitive growth and development

that a child goes through starting at birth and ending when the child reaches adulthood. Child

development is affected by both natures, or biological factors, including variables such as

genetics and nutrition, as well as nurture, where social elements such as parenting and other

environmental agents pose as factors for how a child develops (Decoman et.al, 2024). There are

several theories of childhood development. This includes the theories of: Sigmund Freud, Erik

Erikson, John Bowlby, Albert Bandura, and Jean Piaget. Physical development is an aspect of

human development. Human development includes physical, cognitive, and emotional

growth and change.

Physical development is defined as the growth of the body and its parts, including muscle

and motor development.

Gross motor skills refer to skills that use larger muscles in the body to jump, ski, ride a bike, or

dance. Fine motor development is the growth of small muscles used in writing, handling scissors,

or holding a fork to eat. Physical development also includes changes to the brain and senses.

Theorists who study human development assert that there is a connection between physical

growth and creative play and the development of cognitive and emotional functions (Nadeau,

2023).

Physical Development Examples

There are seven stages of development experienced over the course of a person's lifetime. These

seven stages are sometimes consolidated into childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The seven

stages are:
Infancy: This stage runs from newborn through approximately two years of age. At this time, an

infant is limited in its understanding and physical ability. Infants cling to their primary caregivers

as they develop a sense of their world. Their physical growth is rapid, with infants gaining

weight and length on a weekly basis.

Early childhood: Early childhood is defined as the period from eighteen months to three years.

At this stage, children gain mobility and learn to do simple tasks independently. Children can

navigate to their trusted humans and pick up and play with preferred toys.

Middle childhood: From three years old to the age of five, children develop gross motor skills

through play. Cooperative play and independent play include bike riding, jump rope, and

swimming. Children explore activities and discover what they like.

Late childhood: From ages five through approximately twelve, children continue to gain height

and weight. They also make friendships through physical activity, learn the limits of their athletic

skills, and develop a stronger understanding of rules. (Nadeau, 2023)

Age (years) Physical

2 Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs

3 Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle

4 Catches balls; uses scissors

5 Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon

IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING ABOUT CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Knowing about child development, which refers to the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social

changes that occur as a child grows and matures, can have a significant impact on how we

engage with and care for our beloved kids in the manners below:

Have a better understanding of child's learning behavior

Knowing about child development can help parents tailor learning activities to their child's

abilities and interests, identify their child's learning preferences, and recognize any learning

difficulties their child may be experiencing.

Have a better understanding of children's needs

Parents who know their child's developmental stages will be able to provide adequate support

and care, create healthy habits, and form strong bonds with their toddlers.

For example, a parent who knows that their child's communication skills are still developing may

be more patient and understanding when their child struggles to articulate themselves, fostering a

deeper connection and encouraging positive interactions.

Recognize developmental delays and the need for early intervention

Being aware of the typical manners associated with various developmental stages when

observing a child's behaviors can help parents notice any unusual behavior or patterns that may

indicate a delay in emotional or social development in early childhood. Physical difficulties

ranged from crawling and standing to holding pencil and buttoning clothes; difficulties following
instructions, recalling information, or expressing themselves verbally (United Nations

international School of Hanoi,2024).

PHYSICAL GROWTH OF INFANTS AND CHILDREN

Physical growth includes attainment of full height and appropriate weight and an increase in size

of all organs (except lymphatic tissue, which decreases in size). Growth from birth to

adolescence occurs in 2 distinct phases:

Phase 1 (from birth to about age 1 to 2 years): This phase is one of rapid growth, although the

rate of growth decreases over that period.

Phase 2 (from about 2 years to the onset of puberty): In this phase, growth occurs in relatively

constant annual increments.

Length

Length is measured with a supine stadiometer in an infant. The infant is laid on the stadiometer.

The infant's head is held so that the crown is flat against the head plate. Gently, the infant's legs

are straightened and the knees are pressed down. Then the foot plate is moved until it touches the

infant's heels. Three measurements should be taken and averaged to determine an accurate length

measurement.

Height is measured with a standing stadiometer once a child can stand. The child stands against

the stadiometer. The child's feet should be flat on the floor and the heels flat against the wall. The

child's head should be positioned so that the eyes are parallel to the floor. Then the head plate of

the stadiometer is brought down to touch the crown of the head. Again, three measurements

should be taken and averaged to determine an accurate height measurement.

In general, length in full-term infants increases about 30% by 5 months and > 50% by 12

months. Infants grow about 25cm during the first year, and height at 5 years is about double the

birth length. Most boys reach half their adult height by about age 2 years; most girls reach half

their adult height at about age 19 months.

Rate of change in height (height velocity) is a more sensitive measure of growth than time-

specific height measurements. In general, healthy term infants and children grow about 2.5

cm/month between birth and 6 months, 1.3 cm/month from 7 to 12 months, and about 7.6

cm/year between 12 months and 10 years.

Weight

Weight follows a similar pattern. Full-term neonates generally lose 5 to 8% of birth weight in the

first few days after delivery but regain their birth weight within 2 weeks. They then gain 14 to 28

g/day until 3 months, then 4000 g between 3 and 12 months, doubling their birth weight by 5

months, tripling it by 12 months, and almost quadrupling it by 2 years.

Head Circumference

Head circumference reflects brain size and is routinely measured up to 36 months. At birth, the

brain is 25% of adult size, and head circumference averages 35 cm. Head circumference

increases an average 1 cm/month during the first year; growth is more rapid in the first 8 months,

and by 12 months, the brain has completed half its postnatal growth and is 75% of adult size.

Head circumference increases 3.5 cm over the next 2 years; the brain is 80% of adult size by age

3 years and 90% by age 7 years

CHILD DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

There are many child development theories that have been proposed by theorists and researchers.

Some of the major theories of child development are known as grand theories; they attempt to

describe every aspect of development, often using a stage approach. Others are known as mini-

theories; they instead focus only on a fairly limited aspect of development such as cognitive or

social growth.

A theory of child development looks at the children's growth and behavior and interprets it. It

suggests elements in the child's genetic makeup and the environmental conditions that influence

development and behavior and how these elements are related. Many developmental theories

offer insights about how the performance of individuals is stimulated, sustained, directed, and

encouraged. Psychologists have established several developmental theories. Many different

competing theories exist, some dealing with only limited domains of development, and are

continuously revised.

It focuses on five theories that have had the most impact:

 Physical development theory

 Constructivist

 Behavioral

 Psychoanalytic

 ecological.

Each theory offers interpretations on the meaning of children's development and behavior.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY (by Arnold Gesell)

Arnold Gesell’s theory is concerned with physical development of children. Gesell’s observed

hundreds of children and came up with physical developmental age norms. He determines the

normal sequence of development and at what age children should be able to do certain things

like, sit up, roll over, crawl, walk, grasp object etc. These age norms are still used today by the

medical profession, psychology profession and child related fields. These age norms give us a

standard by which to monitor child development. (Gesell, 2010).

The process of child physical growth and development comprise of both internal and external

factors.

The internal factors include;

Genetics

Temperaments

Personality

Learning style

Physical and mental growth

The external factors include;

Environment

Family background

Parenting style
Cultural influence

Health condition

Early experience with peers and adults

Gesell’s Cycles & Stages of Development

Children move from equilibrium to disequilibrium as they move through stages within each
cycle. Gesell’s use of the terms “equilibrium” and “disequilibrium” is more global as compared
to Piaget’s Cognitive Theory.

One Cycle Consists of Six Stages During Early Childhood

• Smooth (E)

• Break-up (D)

• Sorting Out (E)

• Inwardizing (D)

• Expansion (E)

(D) • “Neurotic” Fitting Together

2 years Old -- Smooth

• Equilibrium

• Gentle temperament

• Mesh well with environment

• Socially compliant

• Love role playing, imitating adults, such as

cooking, hammering, infant care, talking on the phone.

2 ½ yr. Old – Break Up

• Disequilibrium
• The terrible two’s

• A peak age of disequilibrium

• Rigid, Inflexible

• “No” is used often

• Cannot adapt, give in, or wait

• For domestic routines, sets up rigid

. sequence of events Domineering -- “Mommy do it”

• Age of violent emotions

• Cannot make decisions, shuttling back and forth between extremes.

• Difficulty making decisions about what to wear

• Perseverates: Wants to go on & on with

• In school, pays more attention to other children than at 2 years, but mostly

conflicts by being casual and assuming they will cooperate.

3 years Old -- Sorting Out

• Equilibrium

• Things quiet down … for awhile

• Loves to conform & cooperate

• Highly social

• Gives as well as takes

• Likes to share (objects as well as experience).

More secure in relationships

• Better motor ability, making daily routines easier

• Language development has improved tremendously

• Loves new words -- adults can use words to influence him, such as “new,” “big,”
“surprise,” and “secret

. Language is, for the first time, directed as much toward other children as toward adults
• Language is reciprocal -- talks with other children, not just to them.

3 ½ year Old -- Inwardizing

• Disequilibrium

• Tremendous change

• Marked insecurity, disequilibrium

• Lack of coordination -- stumbling, falling,

fear of heights

• Stuttering and lisping may occur, Hands may tremble

• Vision is changing, depth perception is off, difficulty going up and down steps

• Reverts to two feet per step

• Tensional outlets are exaggerated, blinking eyes, biting nails, picking nose, facial tics, sucking
thumb excessively.

• Relationships with others difficult due to insecurity -- crying & whining, “You don’t love me”

• “Don’t look!” Don’t talk!” “Don’t laugh!”

• May demand exclusive attention of family or friends

• Emotional extremes -- shy then over boisterous

4-year-Old -- Expanding

• Equilibrium

• Tireless bundle of energy!

• Out of bounds in every direction

• May hit, kick, throw fits of rage

• Language may shock you

• In drawing, tends to improvise

Gets along better with other children than at 3 ½ yr.

• Less need to exclude others

• Vision is focused on the distance

More elaborate sentence structure

• Moods change rapidly, age of extremes

• Highly imaginative

• Beginning cooperative play, “best friends”

4 ½ yr. Old -- Neurotic

• Disequilibrium

• Borrow characteristics from adjacent ages

• Age of opposition, uncertainty, and unpredictability

• Can be scared by the same wild scary stories that they used to love

• May have nightmares

• More self-motivated, stay on task more

• Short attention span

• Concerned with detail, like to be shown

• Improving control, perfecting skills

• Tend to improvise Beginning interest in letters & numbers

• Play is less wild

• Emotions are uncertain

• The “Bothered” age

5-year-Old -- Smooth

• A time of extreme & delightful equilibrium

• Wants to be good, to please you

• Needs approval, therefore, needs consistent guidelines

• Needs “release” from tasks

• Calm, friendly, not too demanding

• Content to stay on or near home base

• Realist -- tries only that which he can accomplish

• Mom is the center of his world

• Is very literal & succinct

• Thinks aloud

• Can now sit still for a while

• Focuses up close, better than far away

CONCLUSION

Understanding developmental milestones in children is critical for parents to provide appropriate

support, create a positive environment, and promote healthy development in children, allowing

them to achieve their maximum potential and thrive.

However, being conscious of child development is still an ongoing process that necessitates

continuous learning and observation

References

Cherry, K. (2023). 7 Main Developmental TheoriesChild Development Theories of Freud,

Erickson, and More https://www.verywellmind.com/child-development-

theories2795068#:~:text=Child%20development%20theories%20focus%20on,a%20rich

%20and%20varied%20subject.

Graber, E. G. (2023). Physical Growth and Sexual Maturation of Adolescents

https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/growth-and-development/physical-

growth-and-sexual-maturation-of-adolescents

Lumen. (n.d) introduction to psychology. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-

psychology/chapter/reading-childhood/
Nadeau, J. (2023). Physical Development | Overview & Examples

https://study.com/learn/lesson/physical-development-overview-examples.html , E

United Nations International School of Hanoi(2024). https://www.unishanoi.org/about/calendar-

news-and-publications/post-default/~board/news/post/why-is-awareness-of-child-

development-important-for p aren ts#:~:text=Understand i n g % 20developme n t al

%20 milestones%20in%20children,their%20maximum%20potential%20and%20thrive.

Wanjohi, A. M. (2010).Child Development Theories. http://www.kenpro.org/papers/childhood-

theory.htm