Name: Mostafa Nasser Zaki

class: D401

subject: Engineering science

(Assignment 2)
1-Describe the structural properties in metal
material and non-metal
Metal properties
What is metal?
A metal in chemistry is defined as an element that can easily form
positive ions called cations and tends to make metallic bonds. The
metals are distinguished by their chemical and physical properties
such as malleability, ductility, ionization and bonding properties etc.
Properties of Metals
Examples of metals are gold, aluminum, iron and magnesium etc. They show the
following properties.

The metal Divided into ferrous and non-ferrous

Physical Properties of Metals: Some of the main physical properties of metals are
given below.

 Metals can be hammered into thin sheets. It means they possess the
property of malleability.

 Metals are ductile. They can be drawn into wires.

 Metals are a good conductor of heat and electricity.

 Metals are lustrous which means they have a shiny appearance.

 Metals have high tensile strength. It means they can hold

heavyweights.

 Metals are sonorous. It means when we strike them, they make a

ringing sound.

 Metals are hard. It means they cannot be cut easily.

FINALLY: The physical properties of the metals include luster, color, size and
shape, density, electric and thermal conductivity, and melting point. The
following table shows the important physical properties of some pure metals.

Table 2.1. Physical properties of metals.

Metal Density Melting point Thermal Coefficient of
conductivity (W/m°C) linear expansion at 20°C
(kg/m3) (°C) (m/m/°C)
Aluminum 2700 660 220 23.0
Brass 8450 950 130 16.7
Bronze 8730 1040 67 17.3
Cast iron 7250 1300 54.5 9.0
Copper 8900 1083 393.5 16.7
Lead 11 400 327 33.5 29.1
Monel metal 8600 1350 25.2 14.0
Nickel 8900 1453 63.2 12.8
Silver 10 500 960 420 18.9
Steel 7850 1510 50.2 11.1
Tin 7400 232 67 21.4
Tungsten 19 300 3410 201 4.5
Zinc 7200 419 113 33.0
Cobalt 8850 1490 69.2 12.4
Molybdenum 10 200 2650 13 4.8
Vanadium 6000 1750 — 7.75
Atomic properties
Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24% of the mass of the
planet. They are all around us in such forms as steel structures, copper wires, aluminum foil,
and gold jewelry. Metals are widely used because of their properties: strength, ductility, high
melting point, thermal and electrical conductivity, and toughness.

These properties also offer clues as to the structure of metals. As with all elements, metals are
composed of atoms. The strength of metals suggests that these atoms are held together by
strong bonds. These bonds must also allow atoms to move; otherwise, how could metals be
hammered into sheets or drawn into wires? A reasonable model would be one in which atoms
are held together by strong, but delocalized, bonds.

Bonding

Such bonds could be formed between metal atoms that have low electronegativities and do
not attract their valence electrons strongly. This would allow the outermost electrons to be
shared by all the surrounding atoms, resulting in positive ions (cations) surrounded by a sea
of electrons (sometimes referred to as an electron cloud).

Figure 1: Metallic Bonding.

Because these valence electrons are shared by all the atoms, they are not considered to be
associated with any one atom. This is very different from ionic or covalent bonds, where
electrons are held by one or two atoms. The metallic bond is therefore strong and uniform.
Since electrons are attracted to many atoms, they have considerable mobility that allows for
the good heat and electrical conductivity seen in metals.

Above their melting point, metals are liquids, and their atoms are randomly arranged and
relatively free to move. However, when cooled below their melting point, metals rearrange to
form ordered, crystalline structures.

Figure 2: Arrangement of atoms in a liquid and a solid.

Crystals

To form the strongest metallic bonds, metals are packed together as closely as possible.
Several packing arrangements are possible. Instead of atoms, imagine marbles that need to be
packed in a box. The marbles would be placed on the bottom of the box in neat orderly rows
and then a second layer begun. The second layer of marbles cannot be placed directly on top
of the other marbles and so the rows of marbles in this layer move into the spaces between
marbles in the first layer. The first layer of marbles can be designated as A and the second
layer as B giving the two layers a designation of AB.

Layer "A" Layer "B" AB packing

Figure 3: AB packing of spheres. Notice that layer B spheres fit in the holes in the A layer.

Packing marbles in the third layer requires a decision. Again, rows of atoms will nest in the
hollows between atoms in the second layer but two possibilities exist. If the rows of marbles
are packed so they are directly over the first layer (A) then the arrangement could be
described as ABA. Such a packing arrangement with alternating layers would be designated
as ABABAB. This ABAB arrangement is called hexagonal close packing (HCP).

If the rows of atoms are packed in this third layer so that they do not lie over atoms in either
the A or B layer, then the third layer is called C. This packing sequence would be designated
ABCABC, and is also known as face-centered cubic (FCC). Both arrangements give the
closest possible packing of spheres leaving only about a fourth of the available space empty.

The smallest repeating array of atoms in a crystal is called a unit cell. A third common
packing arrangement in metals, the body-centered cubic (BCC) unit cell has atoms at each of
the eight corners of a cube plus one atom in the center of the cube. Because each of the
corner atoms is the corner of another cube, the corner atoms in each unit cell will be shared
among eight-unit cells. The BCC unit cell consists of a net total of two atoms, the one in the
center and eight eighths from the corners.
In the FCC arrangement, again there are eight atoms at corners of the unit cell and one atom
centered in each of the faces. The atom in the face is shared with the adjacent cell. FCC unit
cells consist of four atoms, eight eighths at the corners and six halves in the faces. Table 1
shows the stable room temperature crystal structures for several elemental metals.

Table 1: Crystal Structure for some Metals (at room temperature)

Aluminum FCC Nickel FCC
Cadmium HCP Niobium BCC
Chromium BCC Platinum FCC
Cobalt HCP Silver FCC
Copper FCC Titanium HCP
Gold FCC Vanadium BCC
Iron BCC Zinc HCP
Lead FCC Zirconium HCP
Magnesium HCP

Unit cell structures determine some of the properties of metals. For example, FCC structures
are more likely to be ductile than BCC, (body centered cubic) or HCP (hexagonal close
packed). Figure 4 shows the FCC and BCC unit cells. (See Crystal Structure Activity)

FCC BCC
Body Centered Cubic Face Centered Cubic
Figure 4: Unit cells for BCC and FCC.

As atoms of melted metal begin to pack together to form a crystal lattice at the freezing point,
groups of these atoms form tiny crystals. These tiny crystals increase in size by the
progressive addition of atoms. The resulting solid is not one crystal but actually many smaller
crystals, called grains. These grains grow until they impinge upon adjacent growing crystals.
The interface formed between them is called a grain boundary. Grains are sometimes large
enough to be visible under an ordinary light microscope or even to the unaided eye. The
spangles that are seen on newly galvanized metals are grains. (See A Particle Model of
Metals Activity) Figure 5 shows a typical view of a metal surface with many grains, or
crystals.
 Figure 5: Grains and Grain Boundaries for a Metal.

Crystal Defects:

Metallic crystals are not perfect. Sometimes there are empty spaces called vacancies, where
an atom is missing. Another common defect in metals is dislocations, which are lines of
defective bonding. Figure 6 shows one type of dislocation.

Figure 6: Cross Section of an Edge Dislocation, which extends into the page. Note how the
plane in the center ends within the crystal.

These and other imperfections, as well as the existence of grains and grain boundaries,
determine many of the mechanical properties of metals. When a stress is applied to a metal,
dislocations are generated and move, allowing the metal to deform

Mechanical properties of metal

The mechanical properties of metal indicate the nature of its
inherent behavior under the action of external force. Or, we can say
mechanical properties are the properties of the metal which are
associated with its ability to resist failure under the action of external
forces. Some of the most important Mechanical properties of the
metal are as follows
Elasticity is the property of the metals by which they can regain the
original shape and size after the removal of the load is called
elasticity. It is a very important property, since all cutting tools and
metallic objects maintain their original shape while working and after
the removal of the applied force.
For every metal, there will be a maximum limit up to which the force
applied will not leave any deformation after it ceases to exist. This
maximum limit is called the elastic limit. If the Force is Applied
beyond the elastic limit the metal will retain the deformation even
after the removal of applied forces.
Plasticity
Plasticity may be defined as the property of metal by which a
permanent deformation takes place without fracture whenever it is
subjected to the action of external forces. Most of the metals have
been found to possess good plasticity. This property is very
important in forming and shaping an extruding operation.
Some metals are shaped in cold conditions, for example, deep
drawing of sheets. Many metals are shaped in hot conditions, for
example, the rolling of structural steel shapes and the forging of
certain machine parts.
Ductility
Ductility may be defined as the property of metals by which they can
be drawn into wires or elongated before rupture takes place. This
property depends largely upon tenacity and to some extent on
hardness. The ductility of metal is higher when cold than hot, hence
wires are drawn in cold conditions.
The following common metals have ductility in decreasing order
Gold, Platinum, silver, iron, copper, aluminum, nickel, zinc, tin, and
lead.
Brittleness
Brittleness may be defined as the property of metal under which it
will fracture suddenly without any appreciable deformation. Less
ductile metals will be brittle. Cast iron is one of the best examples of
brittle metals.
Hardness
Hardness may be defined as the property of metal by which resist,
abrasion, indentation, and scratch by relatively harder materials. It is
expressed related to the hardness of some standard minerals.
Diamonds, quartz, corundum, etc. are the harder minerals.
The standard test to determine the hardness of metals is Brinell,
Rockwell, and Vickers. The hardness is an important property for
cutting tool materials and the metallic component which have to
resist wear while working
Toughness
Toughness may be defined as the property of the metal by which we
can observe maximum energy before fracture takes place. It is
measured by the amount of energy that a unit volume of material
has after being stressed up to the point of fracture. Toughness
decreases with an increase in temperature.
It is a very important property that is considered while selecting the
material for a power press, punch, pneumatic, hammer, etc.
Stiffness
Stiffness is also known as the rigidity of metal. It may be defined as
the property by which the metal will not deform or deflect when the
load is applied. Although still stronger than cast iron, the latter is
preferred for machine beds and frames because it is more rigid and
less likely to deflect with consequent loss of alignment and accuracy.
Resilience
Resilience may be defined as the property of metal by which it stores
energy and resists shock and impact loads. It is measured by the
amount of energy that can be stored per unit volume after being
stressed up to the elastic limit. The material of higher resistance is
used for spring.
Creep
The creep may be defined as the property of metal by which it
deforms continuously and slowly under a steady load. Metal
generally exhibits creep at Higher temperatures. The creep is
considered an important property while designing the part of the IC
engine and turbine blades as they are subjected to high pressure at
high temperatures.
Electrical Properties of Metal
The characteristic of a metal that enables the flow of electric current
through it is called electrical properties. The most important electrical
properties of metals are conductivity, Resistivity, and dielectric
strength

Conductivity

The conductivity may be defined as the electrical property of the metal

which allows the flow of electric current. It is also defined as the
reciprocal of resistance.

The metals such as copper and Aluminum are good electrical

conductors. Since they are also highly ductile, they are used for making
electrical transmission wires. Pure metals have good conductivity at
room temperature. The material which is a bad conductor is called
insulator.

Resistivity
Resistivity may be defined as the Electrical property of the metal by
which it impedes or resists the flow of electric current. It is also defined
as the reciprocal of conductivity. It increases linearly with an increase in
temperature.

Dielectric Strength

The insulating material will have the insulating ability up to a certain

range of voltage. If the operating voltage is increased gradually, at some
voltage it loses its insulating property.

The minimum voltage that can be applied to the insulating material

which results in the destruction of the insulating properties of the
material is defined as the dielectric strength. It is used in the selection
of insulating materials.

Thermal Properties of Metal

The thermal properties of the metals are the characteristics of the
metal which are influenced by the application of heat.

For example, when metals are heated, they observe the heat energy
resulting in the change of dimension, the flow of heat from the higher
temperature region to the load temperature region, liquefaction of
metals from the solid state when temperatures are raised beyond the
melting point, electrical conductivity, etc.

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity images the ability of the metal to transmit heat
energy through it. The higher the thermal conductivity the greater the
rate at which heat is conducted. Pure metals show only small changes in
thermal conductivity with temperature. The thermal conductivity of
Copper and Aluminum increases as the temperature decreases until a
maximum is reached.

Thermal Expansion

All metals and alloys to a greater or lesser extent, expand when heated
and contract when cooled. The amount of expansion and contraction
will be proportional to the change in temperature. Thermal
expansion is characteristic of metals and alloys. This property of the
metals will be useful in applications such as shrink-fit and bi-metal
alloys.

Specific Heat

The specific heat of a metal may be defined as the quantity of heat

required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance through
1 Degree Celsius.

Melting Point

The melting point is defined as the temperature at which it begins to

melt when the heat is added to it.

Non-Metal properties
The physical properties of non-metals
1- Low Electrical conductivity
In covalent bonds electrons are localized unlike metallic bonds
contain delocalized electrons which they can easily move from the
negative terminal of an electric circuit to its positive terminal which
electrons cannot do in covalent bonds
2- High Thermal conductivity
The same with thermal energy the kinetic energy of electrons don’t
transfer around the whole substance of non-metals because the
electrons are localized in covalent bonds unlike metallic bonds
3- Low Melting and Boiling Points
As strong bonds between atoms give elements higher melting points,
it is also true that lower melting points are a result of weaker bonds
or a lack of bonds between atoms.

A lot of nonmetals, like oxygen and chlorine are highly

electronegative: they have high affinity for electrons and effectively
pry them from the other atom, so the bond breaks easily.
The attractions between molecules are only about 5–10% of the
strength of a covalent bond.
As a result, these nonmetals have subzero melting point
temperatures
Atomic properties of polymer
Linear polymers: resemble ‘spaghetti’ with long chains. The
long chains are typically held together by the weaker van
der Waals or hydrogen bonding. Since these bonding types
are relatively easy to break with heat, linear polymers are
typically thermoplastic. Heat breaks the bonds between the
long chains allowing the chains to flow past each other,
allowing the material to be remolded. Upon cooling the
bonds between the long chains reform, i.e., the polymer

Branched polymers: resemble linear polymers with the

addition of shorter chains hanging from the spaghetti
backbone. Since these shorter chains can interfere with
efficient packing of the polymers, branched polymers tend
to be less dense than similar linear polymers. Since the
short chains do not bridge from one longer backbone to
another, heat will typically break the bonds between the
branched polymer chains and allow the polymer to be a
thermoplastic, although there are some very complex
branched polymers that resist this ‘melting’ and thus break
up (becoming hard in the process) before softening, i.e.,
they are thermosetting.

Crosslinked polymers: resemble ladders. The chains link from

one backbone to another. So, unlike linear polymers which
are held together by weaker van der Waals forces,
crosslinked polymers are tied together via covalent bonding.
This much stronger bond makes most crosslinked polymers
thermosetting, with only a few exceptions to the rule:
crosslinked polymers that happen to break their crosslinks
at relatively low temperatures.
Networked polymers: are complex polymers that are heavily
linked to form a complex network of three-dimensional
linkages. These polymers are nearly impossible to soften
when heating without degrading the underlying polymer
structure and are thus thermosetting polymers.

COMPOSITIES:
Silica Glass Materials
Composite materials with europium chalcogenides thermally stable under 500 °C
are expected to be useful for photonic isolators in high-power laser systems.
Nakanishi focused on the silica glass materials as the matrix for thermally stable
isolators (Nakanishi et al., 2013). Indeed, silica matrixes are thermally stable and
optically transparent in the visible spectral range.
Silica glass with EuS nanoparticles was prepared by the sol–gel method with a
ligand exchange process. The ligand exchange reaction employed is presented
in Fig. 14. In the first step, the initial oleylamine ligands on the EuS nanoparticles
(compound A) are exchanged by partially hydrolyzed tetramethylorthosilicate
(TMOS, compound B). In this reaction, the EuS nanoparticles silanization is
performed in toluene with TMOS. The hydrolysis of TMOS proceeds slowly
because of the small amount of water dissolved in toluene. The resulting silanols
((CH3–O)3Si–OH) obtained by partial hydrolysis of TMOS are coordinated onto
the EuS surface. This is because the coordination ability of OH groups is stronger
than that of the NH2 groups of oleylamine. In the second step, major residential
TMOS are hydrolyzed with EuS/silica particles by the addition of water and
ethanol due to formation of monolithic silicate glass

Properties of Polymer Materials

1. Density
The density of polymer materials is low because it mainly composed of light elements. The
density of Poly Methyl Pentane is 830 kg per cubic meter, Polypropylene (PP) is 905 kg per
cubic meter, and Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is 2150 kg per cubic meter. These densities are
considerably low compared with that of steel which is 7850 kg per cubic meter.

2. Thermal expansion
Thermal expansion of polymers is relatively large. This must be considered in the design and use
of polymer components, particularly when used in conjunction with other engineering materials.

Polymers can expand by differing amounts in different directions due to its composition. It
contains strong covalent bonds along the polymer chain and much weaker dispersive forces
between the polymer chains.
3. Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity (K factor) of polymers is very low. This make it as suitable insulator
materials. Polymers also have outstanding electrical insulation properties.

At ambient temperature unfilled polymers have conductivities in the range of 0.15-0.13 W/m°C,
about 240 W/m°C and that of copper is about 385 W/m°C W/m°C.

Solid polymers have thermal conductivities in the range of 0.16 to 0.45 W/m/K. In foamed
polymers, thermal conductivity is as low as 0.024 W/m/K (watt per metre per degree Kelvin).

4. Permeability
Generally, solid polymers do not contain interconnected pores and may generally be regarded as
practically impermeable. That is why Polymers are frequently used as protective coatings, vapor
barriers, sealants, caulking compounds and proof against gases and vapors.

5. Chemicals Resistant
Polymer can withstand chemicals which makes it a suitable construction material in various
circumstances.

6. Strength
There are several types of the strength such as tensile, compression, flexural, torsional, and
impact strength. The impact strength is strongly influenced by change in temperature, impact
strength generally falling as the temperature falls.

The strength of polymer material is based on molecular weight, cross-linking, and crystallinity.
The tensile strength of the polymer rises with increase in molecular weight. Similarly, large
molecular weight provides high strength.

Moreover, cross-linking decrease motions of chains and increases the strength of the polymer.
The crystallinity of the polymer increases strength, because in the crystalline phase, the
intermolecular bonding is more significant.
7. Durability
The durability is based on the type of polymer, its composition and structure, and on the
synergistic effect of the conditions of exposure. The durability of a polymer determines whether
it is suitable for external construction applications

COMPARISION BETWEEN MATAL AND NON-METAL

Comparison Metals Non-metals

Higher tensile strength because Lower tensile strength because
it has high ultimate tensile it has low ultimate tensile
 Tensile strength strength
Low Carbon Steel: 2450 MPa
High compressive strength
Compressive strength
Low Carbon Steel: 1800 MPa (yield)
Ductile because they are plastic
Ductility
deformed in a tensile test
Malleable because they have
Malleability high compressive strength
Low Carbon Steel: 1800 MPa (yield)
Not-brittle because they have
Brittleness elongation when applied tensile
hardness Metals are hard
Low Carbon Steel: 86.0 - 550
toughness Metals have high toughness
Thermal conductivity Goog thermal conductivity
Low Carbon Steel: 93.0 W/m-K
Good electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity because they have low electrical
Resistivity
Silver: 1.59×10−8 ohm.m
strength
Boron: 2.60 - 3.10 MPa
Low compressive strength
Boron :41.0 - 317 MPa (ultimate)
Not-ductile because they break
without any elongation
Not-malleable because they
breaks when hammered
(toughness test)
Brittle because they break
when hammered (toughness
Non-metals are softer
Boron: 10
Metals have lower toughness
Poor thermal conductivity
Tellurium: 3.38 W/m-K
Poor electrical conductivity
because they have high electric
Resistivity
Sulfur: 1×10−15 ohm.m
2- review elastic and electromagnetic
hysteresis in different material in (steel and
polymer)
Elastic Hysteresis
Elastic Hysteresis is the difference between the strain energy required to generate
a given stress in a material, and the material's elastic energy at that stress.
This energy is dissipated as internal friction (heat) in a material during one cycle of
testing (loading and unloading).

Viscoelastic vs viscoelastic materials

Viscoelastic materials are polymer substances that show both viscous and plastic
properties during the deformation of the material.
The key difference between viscoelastic and viscoelastic is that viscoelastic
materials show both viscous and elastic properties when undergoing deformation,
whereas viscoplastic materials show unrecoverable deformation.
Test of Elastic Material
Elastic material test under a uniform tensile machine. In this machine, when a
sample of steel bar is placed between the anchor and applies controlled tensile
force, a certain point of pull is reversed, material regains its original shape; this
phenomenon can be recorded on paper as a stress-strain curve.

Elastic material value can be termed as modulus of elasticity. This is represented

by E. This modulus of elasticity is directly proportional to stress and inversely
proportional to strain

 Elastic region ends with the elastic limit (yield point)

 Into elastic region (before yielding point) the type of elastic can detect it
Review on elastic hysteresis for steel (metal material)
there is a big group of materials (like metals) that are linear elastics “up to a point” and
then… they start behaving in a nonlinear way!

example for structural steel:

Note that it has a very long linear elastic part. It ends slightly before yielding starts. Of
course, it is often assumed that it’s linear elastic up to yielding
This means that I use the linear elastic property until the material reaches the yield limit.
This means that steel is a nice material to model with linear elasticity, as long as you
don’t reach strains (and stresses) that would cause yielding.

Steel has elastic modulus about 213Gpa

Review on elastic hysteresis for prototype of wood and plastic (non-

metal)
Wood and plastic are a viscoelastic material Because viscoelastic materials have the
viscosity factor, they have a strain rate dependent on time.

Viscoelastic materials dissipate energy (heat) when a load is applied, then removed this
is elastic hysteresis loss
So wood have elastic hysteresis as energy loss when lading then unloading
Wood have elastic modulus about 13Gpa
Electromagnetic Hysteresis
The lag or delay of a magnetic material known commonly as Magnetic Hysteresis,
relates to the magnetization properties of a material by which it firstly becomes
magnetized and then de-magnetized.
Hysteresis occurs in a system that involves a magnetic field. Hysteresis is the common
property of ferromagnetic substances.
The hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the magnetic flux density and the
magnetizing field strength.
The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux coming out from the
ferromagnetic substance while changing the external magnetizing field.

Hard and soft magnetic material

Hard Magnetic Materials: Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult to
demagnetize; it is also called as permanent magnetic material.
These materials are really hard in the basis that it is very difficult to get magnetized. But
if it gets magnetized, it will be permanently magnetized.
They have high coercive force and have high retentivity.

Soft magnetic materials can be simply magnetized and demagnetized. This is because
only small energy is needed
These materials have coercive field very small
Electromagnetic Hysteresis of metal
Steel is soft ferromagnetic material at room temperature, so it has strongly attracted
to both poles of magnets and it is can magnetized and demagnetized easily
Ferromagnetic material has losses (magnetic hysteresis) when it is magnetized then
demagnetized
Because steel is soft magnetic so it has small coercive force
Steel as other ferromagnetic material is ferromagnetic under Curie Temperature and
above it is paramagnetic

The curie temperature for steel is about 770 C

Review on magnetic hysteresis for prototype of copper, plastic and wood (non-
metal)
All of this material (copper-plastic-wood) is diamagnetic material, so all of them repel
both poles of magnets
also, all of them have weak repel o magnets, so they don’t have visually push away
from magnets

As l say diamagnetic material don’t have magnet hysteresis but them can’t magnetize
(they deny the magnets)
 Degradation

Material degradation describes physical breakdown, the disintegration of materials'

molecules into smaller molecules or fragments.

Degradation can be initiated by external influences such as heat, moisture, chemicals,

exposure to UV light, fungi or bacteria and is enhanced by mechanical stress.

Types of degradation in metals:-

1- Corrosion
Corrosion is defined as an attack on a material as a result of chemical,
frequently electrochemical reaction, with the surrounding medium.

Why do metals corrode?

Metals do not occur in the nature in their pure form. They are normally
chemically bound to other substances in ores, such as sulphides, oxides, etc.
Energy must be expended (e.g. in a blast
furnace) to extract the metals from the
sulphides, oxides, etc. to obtain pure
metals.

Pure metals contain more bound energy, representing a higher energy

state than that found in the nature as sulphides or oxides.
As all material in the universe strives to return to its lowest energy state,
pure metals also strive to revert to their lowest energy state which they
had as sulphides or oxides.
 One of the ways in which metals can revert to a low energy level is by
corrosion. The products of corrosion of metals are often sulphides or oxides.

In general, is a process through which refined metals are converted into

more stable compounds such as metal oxides, metal sulfides, or metal
hydroxides

General and local attach

General corrosion is characterized by an overall attack on the surface. The
corrosion takes place without distinguished anodic and cathodic areas.

The opposite of general corrosion is local corrosion which is divided into

different types e.g. pitting, crevice and intergranular corrosion.
In local corrosion, most of the metal surface is unaffected and only small
areas are highly affected.

Types of corrosion in metals (local corrosion)

1) Crevice Corrosion

Crevice corrosion refers to the attack of metal

surfaces by a stagnant solution in crevices, for
example around the edges of nuts and rivet
heads.
When dust, sand and other corrosive substances are deposited on surfaces,
they create an environment where water will accumulate and corrode the
part.
It can happen between two metals or between a metal and a nonmetal.
This causes damage to the metallic part
2) Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion, also known as stress corrosion
cracking, is a type of corrosion that occurs due to
the simultaneous action of a corrodent and a
sustained tensile stress.
This mechanism is characterized by corrosion in the microscopic granular
composition of a metal's surface.
The introduction of stresses (either applied or residual) causes the
boundaries to open, introducing fine cracks on the metal's surface.

3) Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion refers to corrosion damage that
occurs when two different metals are in electrical
contact in an electrolyte, where the more noble metal
is protected and the more active metal tends to
corrode.
For galvanic corrosion to occur, three conditions must all be present:
 Electrochemically dissimilar metals must be present.
 Metals must be in electrical contact.
 Metals must be exposed to an electrolyte.

4) Pitting Corrosion
Pitting is a type of corrosion that occurs in materials
that have protective films. It is an attack with
localized holes on the metal's surface.

The attack can penetrate the metal very rapidly,

while some parts of the metal surface remain free
from corrosion.
 5) Uniform Corrosion
Uniform corrosion is a type of corrosive attack
in which the corroded areas occur in a manner
evenly distributed across the material being
attacked.
Uniform corrosion can render large amounts of material useless quite
rapidly because the attack occurs across the entirety of the exposed surface.
Although uniform corrosion can be incredibly devastating, it is typically
easily detectable and readily preventable.

2- High-Temperature Corrosion
High-temperature corrosion is a chemical attack
from gases, solid or molten salts, or molten metals,
typically at temperatures above 750ºF (400°C).
High-temperature corrosion is a mechanism of
corrosion that can take place in gas turbines, diesel
engines, furnaces or other machinery coming in
contact with hot gas containing certain contaminants.
Almost all metals, alloys and materials of technological interest oxidize and
corrode at high temperatures.

3- Hydrogen Damage
Hydrogen damage refers to the mechanical damage
of metal that occurs due to the interaction with or
presence of hydrogen. It creates structural damage in
various materials.
With hydrogen damage, multiple metal degradation
processes occur due to interaction with hydrogen.
For example, in boiler tubes, hydrogen damage is caused by a corrosive reaction
between steam and steel, resulting in decreased material strength and localized
corrosion.
 4- Liquid Metal Embrittlement
Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME) refers to
environmental cracking caused by contact with a
liquid metal.
There is a specific combination of liquid metals
and stressed metals or alloys that can lead to
catastrophic intergranular cracking.
For example, carbon steels and stainless steels are susceptible to liquid metal
embrittlement by zinc and lithium; aluminum and aluminum alloys are susceptible
to liquid metal embrittlement by mercury and zinc; copper and copper alloys are
susceptible to liquid metal cracking by mercury and lithium.

5- Radiation damage
Radiation damage is the effect of ionizing radiation on physical objects including
non-living structural materials. It can be either detrimental or beneficial for
materials.
For metals, exposure to radiation can result in radiation hardening which
strengthens the material while subsequently embrittling it (lowers toughness,
allowing brittle fracture to occur).

Radiation damage is an important consideration in the design of nuclear reactors,

where radiation levels are high
Types of degradation in non-metals:- (polymer)
1. Thermal degradation
In polymers, such as plastics, thermal degradation refers to a type of polymer
degradation where damaging chemical changes take place at elevated
temperatures, without the simultaneous involvement of other compounds such
as oxygen.

Simply put, even in the absence of air, polymers will begin to degrade if heated
high enough.
 The onset of thermal degradation dictates the maximum temperature at which a
polymer can be used. It is an important limitation in how the polymer is
manufactured and processed.

Although thermal degradation is defined as an oxygen free process it is difficult in

practise to completely exclude oxygen. Where this is the case thermal oxidation is
to be expected

2. Photo-oxidation (UV)
photo-oxidation (oxidative photo-degradation) is the degradation of a polymer
surface due to the combined action of light and oxygen.
resulting in the material becoming increasingly brittle. This leads to mechanical
failure

3. HYDROLYTIC DEGRADATION

Hydrolysis is the degradation of a polymeric material through contact with water,

specifically the hydrogen cations (H+) or hydroxyl anions (OH-).
Hydrolytic degradation can occur within plastic materials as a result of
submersion in water, progression through condensation cycles, or by exposure to
steam.
It can also result from contact with acids (high H+ concentration) or bases (high
OH- concentration), which can dramatically accelerate the process
4. BIODEGRADATION

This term is applied when the transformations and deterioration of the polymer
are due to the action of living organisms: the process is catalyzed by the action of
fungi, bacteria, etc. and enzymes secreted by them.

5. Chemical degradation

Chemical degradation refers exclusively to processes, which are induced under

the influence of chemical reagent (e.g. acids, bases, solvents reactive gases, etc.)

6. Radiolytic degradation

When polymeric materials are subjected to high energy radiation (e.g. gamma
radiation) changes are observed on their molecular structure, mainly chain
scission, which leads to reduction in molar mass

7. Ozone degradation

The reaction occurring between double bonds and ozone is known as ozonolysis
when one molecule of the gas reacts with the double bond

8. MECHANICAL DEGRADATION

Mechanochemistry encompasses all the chemical reactions that take place as a

consequence of the application of a stress to the polymeric material, related to
the machinery used in the processing and transformation stage. Effects that occur:
 Modification of the initial structure (the tension weakens the interaction
forces of the chains, modifying the conformation of the chains and their
relative disposition) breaking the covalent bonds
 Susceptible to ozone attack