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LOCAL APPROACH OF FRACTURE

JEAN LEMAITRE
Laboratoire de Mecanique et Technologie, E.N.S. de Cachan/C.N.R.S./Universitt Paris 6.
6 I, Avenue du President Wilson, 94230 Cachan, France

Abstract-This is a review of papers published during the last 10 or 15 years to describe the crack
behavior in structures by means ofcontinuum damage mechanics. Emphasis is put on a classification
of the different methods used and on the different behaviors taken into account: elasticity, plasticity,
viscoplasticity; brittle damage, fatigue damage, ductile and creep damages.

1. LIMITATIONS OF CLASSICAL FRACTURE MECHANICS

THE LOCAL approach of fracture is a method to predict the behavior of cracks in structures by means
of continuum mechanics concepts defined on the elementary volume element only. Such a material
point may have properties of elasticity, plasticity, viscosity and may be damaged until it breaks,
leading to initiation of a macro-crack. A structural crack is then considered as a set of such volume
elements on which the conditions of macro-crack initiation have been reached.
If constitutive equations describe the phenomena of elasticity, plasticity, viscosity and the micro-
mechanisms of damage by continuous variables, the behavior of a crack may be obtained by structure
calculations, e.g. finite element method, without any reference to concepts taking into account the
material discontinuity of the cracks as stress intensity factors or strain energy release rate.
Structures, cracks, representative volume elements, macro-cracks and micro-mechanisms
represent different scales which have to be carefully defined:
(a) The “micro-scale” is the scale at which the mechanisms of strain and damage may be described
and understood;
atoms for elasticity
dislocations in crystals for plasticity in metals,
inclusions or micro-cracks for damage.
It is at this scale that hypotheses are taken in order to write constitutive equations at macro-scale.
(b) The “macro-scale” is the scale of the representative volume element which is a “mathematic
point” small enough to define space partial derivative but large enough to consider that the
discrete elementary mechanisms of strain and damage are well represented by a mean leading to
continuous variables, let us say:
a scale of N 0.1 mm for metals,
N 1 mm for polymers,
= 10 mm for wood,
N 100 mm for concrete.
A “macro-crack” just initiated is a crack of that size and the phenomenological constitutive
equations govern the behavior at that scale.
(c) The structure scale is the scale of mechanical components (mm, cm, dm, m) for which “a crack” is
of the order of one to several mm or cm.
The conclusion is clear: stress, strain or damage as results of structure calculations can describe
phenomena only at macro and structure scales. Nevertheless it may be an improvement in
comparison with classical fracture mechanics which uses more global concepts. Strain energy release
rate, contour integrals and even stress intensity factors result from an overall energetic analysis of the
cracked structure. These concepts have obtained an enormous success in the prediction of crack
behavior when the structures are two-dimensional (plane stress or plane strain) elastic or in the range
of small scale yielding or when the multidimensional loading is a proportional loading, and periodic if
fatigue crack growth is involved. A tremendous set of applications for safety calculations obeys these
restrictive hypotheses and classical fracture mechanics is, and will remain, a fundamental tool in
designing structures and controf in service.

523
524 J. LEMAITRE

For more sophisticated problems it is difficult to use classical fracture mechanics concepts
mainly because of the following effects:
(1) effects of large-scale yielding plasticity:
overload retardation effects in fatigue: a single overload on a periodic loading may double the
number of cycles to failure! [4],
ductile rupture due to large deformations;
(2) effects of time-dependent behavior:
creep crack-growth,
creepfatigue interaction[75];
(3) three-dimensional effects:
crack loaded in mixed modes,
evolution of crack front shape when the loading is non-proportional[2];
(4) effects of damage:
“short cracks” in metals, that is, cracks of the size of one or several crystals which may grow at a
decreasing rate for a constant amplitude of loading[86],
multiple cracking in concrete,
delamination of composites.
The purpose of this paper is to review and to give a classification with examples of the different classes
of local approaches that have been proposed in the past 10 years.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF LOCAL APPROACHES

The classical way to calculate the critical rupture conditions of a component is to operate in three
steps (Fig. 1)[70].
(1) The geometry of the structure being known, together with the history of loading and initial
conditions, the fields of stress and strain are first calculated by means of strain constitutive
equations and a numerical procedure (FEM for example).
(2) Then, by means of a damage criterion, the most critical point(s) with regard to fracture is (are)
determined and, the load, or the time, or the number of cycles corresponding to a macro-crack
initiation at that point is calculated by integration of damage constitutive equations for the
history of local stress or strain.
(3) In a third step the fracture mechanics concepts are applied in order to calculate the evolution of
that macro-crack up to the final rupture of the whole structure.
In the local approach using continuous concepts, the crack tip is a process zone in which damage
increases until the rigidity and strength vanish. This gives rise to a continuous definition of a crack (at
structure scale).
“A crack is a flat zone of high gradients of rigidity and strength in which the critical conditions of
damage have been reached” (Fig. 2).
This means that the third step of the previous scheme may be avoided considering that the
evolution of that crack is the evolution of the damaged zone as calculated element by element with
recalculation of the state of stress and strain. The geometry of the damaged zone is taken into account
but not the possible coupling between damage and strain (Fig. 3).

Strain
constitutlve

Fig. 1. Scheme of classical rupture calculations.

 Local approach of fracture 525

Fig. 2. Crack as a damaged zone.

(1 piiq
Fig. 3. Scheme of non-coupled damaged zone calculations.

Fig. 4. Scheme of coupled strain-ilamage calculations.

A step further is to take into account the coupling between strain and damage due to the fact
that damage decreases the rigidity and the strength of materials. Then, by means of coupled
constitutive equations, strain and damage fields are calculated in one step and the crack as a damaged
zone is obtained at the same time as the strain (Fig. 4)[70].
It is possible to classify the papers that have appeared recently in the literature with regard to
these three types of calculation, together with analytical computations. Furthermore, another
interesting type of classification which may be pointed out is the type of phenomenon involved:
(a) elastic strain and brittle damage for the behavior of concrete, for example,
(b) elastic strain and fatigue damage for high cycle fatigue of metals,
(c) elasto-plasticity and ductile damage for ductile fracture, which makes possible to calculate the
limitations of metal forming, for example,
526 J. LEMAITRE
_-.-.._____ -.
Strain and damage behaviour
-I
Elasticity Elasto- Elasto- Elasto-visco-
Methods of brittle Elasticity plasti$ty plasticity plasticity No. of
calculation (concrete) fatigue ductile fatigue creep papers

Analytical [8.26,45,62. [24,33, 35, 37. [25, 34. 38. 39. 30

63, 83. 88. 42, 95, 108, 52, 55, 56, 57.
IIO] 1091 S9,65.81.91.
99, loo]

F.E.M: relaxation 136, 50, 54.60, [74,94] [1.3,40,48, [4. 71.87.931 [44,46.49] 23
of nodes 96.98, 1111 78, 79. 1121
F.E.M : Non- [6, 7, 28, 821 [47. 101, 1021 [9, 13,27. 30 17
damaged coupled 43, 51, S3,66,
zone 89,97. lO6]
Coupled [@,;7. 84.85, [14,21-J [l2, 16, 17. 1031 [20] [IO, IOS] 14

Number of papers 24 4 22 S 29 84
--_-

Fig. 5. Chart of references on local approach of fracture.

(d) elasto-plasticity and fatigue damage for low-cycle fatigue of metals,

(e) elasto-visco-plasticity and creep or creep-fatigue damages, for creep rupture and creep-fatigue
interaction in metals.
The chart in Fig. 5 gives an idea of 84 papers listed which describe predictions of crack behavior.
The numbers indicate the references marked (*) in the list. Probably many papers are missing. Dear
colleague, I apologize if some of your papers do not appear in this list or if they are not in the right
box! Thank you for your comprehension.
Nevertheless, a qualitative~nclusion is clear: thedi~erent kinds of methods are roughly equally
represented but applications concern essentially the behavior of concrete, the ductile rupture and the
creep rupture of metals. This was also pointed our in [6 11. Only a few papers deal with fatigue, which
means that we have to work hard in this field! But the difficulty is that fatigue damage is much more
localized than other kinds of damage which are difficult to handle with classical continuum
mechanics.

3. DIFFERENT DAMAGE VARIABLES AND CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

3.1. Damage variables
Two categories of damage characteristics are commonly used.
Those of the first group do not characterize the damage in itself. Their values are supposed to
determine only the damage; they are as follows.
- The stress:
an equivalent stress at a certain distance of the crack tip[14];
a damage equivalent stress deduced from a the~odynamic approach of damage[73] :

111
2 l/2

v* = uq #l+v)+3(1-2v) 2

where Of is the Von Mises equivalent stress, tzHthe hydrostatic stress and v is the Poisson ratio;

the criterion for crack initiation being

8 = cc (characte~stics of each material).

 Local approach of fracture 521

- The strain: the accumulated plastic strain, in the sense of Von Mises for example:

p = (#“Epi)1’2
dt.
s0

- The plastic strain energy:

wp=
s0
a& dt.

The second group introduces damage variables associated with a physical definition of damage.
- The porosity as the relative volume of cavities for ductile damage, essentially [ 1041:

- The radius of these cavities[88].

- The relative area of micro-cracks and intersections of cavities in any plane oriented by its normal
; [76]:

With a correction for micro-stress concentrations and interactions of defects this concept gives rise to
a continuous variable suitable for continuum mechanics:
- a scalar D if damage may be considered as isotropic[57],
- a vector a [63] or a second- or fourth-order tensor a [ 18,32,67,92] for anisotropic damage. Ifwe
restrict ourself to isotropic damage:

D=O
characterizes the virgin state,

D=D,,<l

characterizes initiation of a macro-crack. (D, = 0.2-0.8 for engineering materials).

The concept of effective stress d = a/( 1 -D) [29,57] associated with the hypothesis of strain
equivalence[69] allows us to write the constitutive equations of damaged materials in the same way
as for virgin materials, the variable stresses being replaced by effective stresses.
Let us call Y the thermodynamic variable associated with D in the sense that Yd is the power
dissipated in the damage process. Taking a thermodynamic potential quadratic with respect to the
elastic strain tensor ce and linear in (1 -D), the expression for Y is

a* a**
’ = ‘jjj = -2E(1 __D)2

where CT*is the equivalent stress for damage defined in Section 3.1. The constitutive equations for
evolution of damage derives from a dissipation potential identified for each kind of damage.

3.2. Elasticity coupled with damager7 l]

Plastic strain may be neglected in two important cases of application:
- the strain behavior, cracking and fracture of concrete,
- the high cycles fatigue of metals.
528 J. LEMA~T~~

Assuming linear elasticity and isotropic damage, the coupled constitutive equations are:

where E is the Young modulus, A a multiplicator and cp* is the dissipation potential which takes
different forms for different kinds of damage; they will be given in the examples of Section 4.

3.3. Elasto-plasticity coupled with damage[71]

Two other kinds of applications are concerned:
- the ductile fracture of metals,
- the low cycle fatigue of metals.
The standard isotropic plasticity associated with the Von Mises criterion is written through the
loading function,

u -R
f= L-.0,2= 0
1-D

where R is the associated variable to the accumuiated plastic strain, 0 = (-$~j$J*/2, by is the yield
stress in tension and where the coupling with damage appears by the term (1 -D)

cp* being a potential of dissipation to be identitied for ductile damage[72] or low cycle fatigue.
Using the consistency condition f=O to calculate the plasticity multiplicator 2, the result is:

where 0: is the stress deviator 0: = Oij- OHSij,

W) = 0 if f<O
H(f) = 1 if f=O

(a,> = 0 if CT,~
< 0
<a& = cq if o,>O

K and M being material constants defining the stress-strain hardening experimental curve.

3.4. Elasto-visco-plasticity coupled with damage[23,64,7 I]

Creep rupture and creep-fatigue interaction of metals loaded at temperature above about l/3 of
the absolute mefting temperature are the two phenomena involved now.
 Local approach of fracture 529

Introducing the non-linear cinematic hardening represented by the stress variable Xij and the
isotropic hardening, represented by R, the constitutive equations are

Eij = &Fj + Efj

3 a; - Xij
i?j = 2(1-o)
aq
ti = y(b-R)@

zij = c(a.ib - Xij@)

&_a(P*
ay .

The coefficients ay, y, b, c, a, are identified from cyclic creep tests; K, N are identified from secondary
creep tests and cp*is a potential of dissipation which takes different forms for creep damage[22,90] or
creep-fatigue damage[75].

3.5. Fracture criteria

An important concept in the application of local approach is the criterion to be used to
determine the rupture of the volume element.
In the reviewed literature the following criteria are used:
- a critical value of an equivalent stress at a fixed distance of the crack tip[l5],
- a critical mean value of an equivalent strain over a finite volume[6],
- a critical value of the radius of cavities in ductile rupture[88],
- a critical value of the load on a node in finite element analysis[4],
- a critical value of the damage D as a mean value on a finite mesh[19].
All these criteria are somewhat controversial in the sense that they introduce some distance or volume
which would be a characteristic of each material! This scale concept has no precise physical support
but, if it is not used, the convergence of the solution as regard to the size of the mesh is not ensured[5].
We must say that this is still an open problem!
An energy criterion seems to be the most suitable. The variable Y, introduced in Section 3 as the
associated variable to D, has the meaning of a damage strain energy release rate as G in classical
fracture mechanics. Then a critical value of Y may characterize the macro-crack initiation as the
toughness G, does for instability of cracked structures[76].

- Y = Y, (characteristic of each material)+macro-crack initiation

- Y, being calculated either by:

ldW, a*2
-Y=2= or
-y = 2E(l-0)2

where We is the elastic strain energy density.

4. EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS AND RESULTS

Some typical examples taken from the literature listed in Fig. 5 are briefly described, following
the classification adopted.
EPP125:5/6-C
530 J. LEMAITRE

Fig. 6. Perfectly elastic-brittle material.

4.1. Analytical solution for elastic perfectly brittle material

In this field of highly non-linear problems, analytical solutions are difficult to derive.
Nevertheless with a strong hypothesis on the behavior of material, some interesting results may be
obtained[45]. The material is considered as elastic perfectly brittle, i.e. elastic up to a stress threshold
oR (D=O) and then completely weak (D = D,,) [26] (Fig. 6).
Ey conformal mapping analysis oftwo-dimensional situations, it has been demonstrated that the
damaged zone modelling the crack has a thickness proportional to (K/a,J2 where K is the stress
intensity factor in mode I and crRthe stress threshold in tension for a quasistatic mode I problem. In
the case of a dynamic mode III problem, K is the stress intensity factor in mode III and rrRthe stress
threshold in shear. In both cases the front of the damaged zone is a cycloid which depends upon the
velocity: flat for the quasi-static case, sharp for high-speed crack propagation.

4.2. Finite elements analysis of elasticity coupled with brittle damage of concrete
Many applications have been made to predict initiation and propagation of cracks in concrete
components. In the example described, elasticity coupled with damage constitutive equations are
those of Section 3.2. The damage constitutive equation integrated in the case of proportional loading
and identified for concrete may take the following expression[84] :

1
en(l -A) A
D= l- if E* > ED
&* + exp (B[E* - mu])

where E* is an equivalent strain for damage:

E* = ((E1)2+(E2)2+(&3)2)1’2,

si being the principal strains and the symbols ( ) being already defined in Section 3.3. cn, A and B are
material constants.
The finite elements procedure has to take into account the non-linearity introduced by the
damage equation which gives a “damaged” Young’s modulus E = E( 1 -D) varying with the space
(the elements) and with the loading. This implies a step-by-step procedure and also the possibility to
change the rigidity matrix of the elements according to the damage constitutive equation.
In the example described in Fig. 7 and taken from [ 1071 it is shown how the damaged zone (or
the crack) grows in a reinforced concrete component. The fracture criterion used is D = D, = 0.7 on a
mesh of 20 mm characteristic size.

4.3. Finite element analysis of elasticity coupled with high cycle fatigue damage of metals
A fatigue damage law of evolution may derive from a potential of dissipation written as

s, -Y 2
‘p* =y &

L-1

with a micro-plasticity variable x = [C&C]“:

 Local approach of fracture 531

’ Thickness
100 mm

(b)
Fig. 7. Evolution of a damaged zone in a reinforced concrete structure.

Integrated over one cycle defined by minimum CJ~,,,and maximum CeqM

values of the equivalent stress,
the cyclic damage model is:

6D
6N = B ;(l+v)+3(1-2~)

where B and /I are material coefficients identified from uniaxial experiments through the Woehler
curve.
An application consists of the growth of a crack in a square plate biaxially loaded by two forces
as shown in Fig. 8[2 11. The calculation is made within the hypothesis of plane stress, proportional
loading. F,/F2 = a(t), and minimum values of the loads F,, = F,, = 0. Material coefficients are
those of 2024 aluminium alloy. The two black and grey domains correspond to the critical value of
the damage D, at the Gauss points of the finite element for lo6 and lo8 cycles. Of course a procedure
step-by-step in damage, and not in number of cycles, was used to save computing time.
532 J. LEMAITRE

Fig. 8. Biaxial fatigue crack growth.

4.4. Finite element analysis of elasto-plasticity and ductile rupture

In this example the damage constitutive equation used is[41]

/I=BL&exp
[
2
1
where /I is the damage variable related to the radius of cavities r by

r0 being the initial radius. p is the density related to the damage variable by

p(P)= [ 1-f,C 1+ expB)]_’

where f0 is the initial void volume fraction characteristic of each material. The plasticity constitutive
equations derive from the potential:

rs
F = $$ - Nd + ~,h(B) expCP)

where c1 is the maximum principal stress.

The damage is coupled with the strain through the potential F and with the density p. A mesh of
a “characteristic size” is considered as totally damaged, that is a crack, when the stress reaches zero
on the Gauss points.
Figure 9, taken from [ 1031, shows two interesting results where the location of the crack in a
 Local approach of fracture 533

smooth
rzq

!
/Axis of symmetfy

-Lm!m
-. notch

~
i
Fig. 9. Damage zones in smooth and sharp notched tensile specimens.

circular notched specimen depends upon the radius of the notch as confirmed by experiments:
- cracks in the center part of the specimen for large smooth radius,
- a crack around the sharp zone for small sharp radius.

4.5. Finite element analysis of elasto-visco-plasticity coupled with creep damage

This last example[105] deals with stable crack growth in creep condition. The creep damage
~onstitutive equation is[3 l] :

where xfat is the damage criterion which may be Q* within the hypothesis of isotropy. The rupture
criterion is a value of the damage D 2 0.99 in the elements.

W=fOmm

8=IOmm
F= 73SON

302 elements

666 nodes
_--

Fig. 10. Creep crack growth in a CT specimen.

534 J. LEMAITRE

The application deals with a CT specimen ofINCONEL alloy at 650°C shown in Fig. 10 with the
fully damaged zone in black after a loading period of 2.5 hours. The step-by-step in-time linearized
procedure used is a second-order explicit Euler’s method.

5. CONCLUSION
Damage mechanics is now a viable tool to describe and predict fracture in those cases where
global fracture mechanics analysis fails. The strain and damage constitutive equations coupled or not
are now well established, at least for isotropic behaviors. Their introduction in finite element codes
are in progress in many laboratories where it has been shown that the prediction of growth of the fully
damaged zone is possible. Nevertheless some problems remain to be solved which are all related, in
my opinion, to the high degree of localization of damage. In high cycle fatigue, for example, a
“continuous” damage variable should vary almost like a dirac! This leads to two kinds of research to
be done.
(1) A better understanding of fatigue mechanisms and particularly surface damage in order to model
these phenomena by a “discontinuous variable”.
(2) A relined analysis of convergence with strain-damage coupled structure calculations in order to
define an intrinsic rupture criterion, which avoids the introduction of that material’s
characteristic size which I do not like!

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