Air Pollution

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Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
1.1 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
The Atmosphere
The Earth is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases extending several

thousands of kilometers (about 9600kms) above its surface. This gaseous cover of the
Earth is known as the atmosphere. It is an integral part of the Earth. It is only a very
thin layer of gases. Because of force of Gravity it is inseparable from the Earth.
Significance of the Atmosphere:
• All life forms owe their existence to the atmosphere
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• Animals need oxygen and plants need carbon dioxide.
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• It is the atmosphere that provides oxygen and carbon dioxide.
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• The atmosphere maintains the level of water and radiation in the earth system. In
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the absence of atmosphere there would have been extremes of temperature at
about 260⁰C between day and night.
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• The atmosphere maintains the temperature that suits us.
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and animals. i
• It shields us from the sun’s ultra violet radiation which is injurious to both plants
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• It acts as a protective wall against the bombardment of meteors. net
• The currents, motions, and various other activities on the atmosphere combine
together to produce weather.
Structure of the Atmosphere:
• The atmosphere consists of zones or layers arranged like spherical shells divided
vertically into five layers based on temperature and altitude above the Earth’s
surface.
CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

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Figure1.1.1 Structure of the atmosphere
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[Source: http://unilaggeography2012.blogspot.nl/p/gry-101-introduction-to-physical.html]
Each zone has its own physical and chemical characteristics and properties such as
density, pressure, chemical and electrical and temperature properties .The five layers
are:
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 The Troposphere
 The Stratosphere
 The Mesosphere
 The Thermosphere and Ionosphere
 The Exosphere
The layers in the Atmosphere shown in the fig1.1.2

ww Figure 1.1.2 vertical structure of the atmosphere
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[Source:https://www.assignmentpoint.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Vertical-Structure-of-the-
Atmosphere.jpg]
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Gravity pulls gases toward the Earth’s surface, and the whole column of gases
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exerts a pressure of 1000 hPa at sea level, 1013.25 mb or 29.92 n.Hg. Pressure and
Density Decrease with Height.
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Figure1.1.3 Pressure and Density of Atmosphere
[Source :https://images.app.goo.gl/bYFKZ98YxmDtJv259]

The Troposphere
This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains most
of our weather - clouds, rain, snow. In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets
colder as the distance above the earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometer. The
actual change of temperature with height varies from day to day, depending on the
weather.
The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and
almost all of the water vapour (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in
temperature with height is a result of the decreasing pressure. If a parcel of air moves
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upwards it expands(because of the lower pressure). When air expands it cools. So air
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higher up is cooler than air lower down.
The lowest part of the troposphere is called the boundary layer. This is where
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the air motion is determined by the properties of the Earth's surface. Turbulence is
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generated as the wind blows over the Earth's surface, and by thermals rising from the
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land as it is heated by the sun. This turbulence redistributes heat and moisture within
the boundary layer, as well as pollutants and other constituents of the atmosphere.
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The top of the troposphere is called the tropopause. This is lowest at the poles,
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where it is about 7 - 10 km above the Earth's surface. It is highest (about 17 - 18 km)
near the equator.
The Stratosphere
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This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of
the ozone in the atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs because of
absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone. Temperatures in the
stratosphere are highest over the summer pole, and lowest over the winter pole.
By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us

from skin cancer and other health damage. However chemicals (called CFCs or freons,
and halons) which were once used in refrigerators, spray cans and fire

extinguishers have reduced the amount of ozone in the stratosphere, particularly at

polar latitudes, leading to the so-called "Antarctic ozone hole".
Now humans have stopped making most of the harmful CFCs we expect the
ozone hole will eventually recover over the 21st century, but this is a slow process.
The Mesosphere
The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here the
temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at the
"mesopause".
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The Thermosphere and Ionosphere
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The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which
temperatures again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the
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absorption of energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun.
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The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the
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"ionosphere", since the energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and
atoms, turning them into "ions" with a positive charge. The temperature of the
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thermosphere varies between night and day and between the seasons, as do the numbers
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of ions and electrons which are present. The ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio
waves, allowing us to receive shortwave radio broadcasts in New Zealand from other
parts of the world. net
The Exosphere
The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere. It contains mainly
oxygen and hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of them that they rarely collide - they
follow "ballistic" trajectories under the influence of gravity, and some of them escape
right out into space.
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE:
The three major constituents of Earth’s atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon.
 Water vapour accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass.

 The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from

around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as
5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric
gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor).
 The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are
the greenhouse gases principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
ozone.
 Besides argon, already mentioned, other noble gases, neon, helium, krypton, and
xenon are also present.
 Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds.
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 Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally
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variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of
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mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash.
 Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such
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as chlorine , fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor.
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 Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO2) may be
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derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.
 The atmosphere is composed of
Gases i ng.
Vapor
Particulates
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The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. In addition, it contains huge
numbers of solid and liquid particles, collectively called aerosols.
The gases in the atmosphere are composed of neutral, uncharged particles.

Except for the noble gases, atoms in the gas phase share electrons with other atoms in
chemical bonds so that their electron count can approach the more stable filled-shell
configuration. The Earth's atmosphere consists of a mixture of noble gas atoms and
many kinds of molecules.

Major constituents of dry air, by volume
Gas Volume
Name Formula in ppm in %
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Nitrogen N2 780,840 78.084
Oxygen w.E O2 209,460 20.946
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Argon Ar 9,340
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Carbon dioxide
(December, 2020) CO2 415.00 eer0.041500
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Neon Ne 18.18 0.001818
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Helium He 5.24 0.000524
Methane CH4 1.87 0.000187
Krypton Kr 1.14 0.000114
Not included in above dry atmosphere:
Water vapor(D) H2O 0–30,000(D) 0–3%(E)

Changes in Composition:
Earth's primordial atmosphere was probably similar to the gas cloud that
created the sun and planets. It consisted of hydrogen and helium, along with methane,
ammonia, and water. This was a reducing atmosphere. There was no molecular oxygen
or other reactive oxides. Over time, some of this first atmosphere, particularly the
lighter gases, out gassed and was lost. More water may have arrived with comets
colliding on the surface of the planet. Volcanic activity in the early, Earth created major
changes with release of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ammonia along with small
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quantities of SO2, H2S, HCl, N2, NO2, He, Ar, and other noble gases.
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This produced the second atmosphere. Comet impacts may have increased the
amount of water. Water vapor formed clouds. These produced rain. Over a period of
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thousands of years, the liquid water accumulated as rivers, lakes, and oceans on the
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Earth's surface. Bodies of liquid water acted as sinks for carbon dioxide. Chemical and
biological processes transformed
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CO2 gas to carbonate
argon accumulated in the atmosphere. They do not react
rocks. The nitrogen and
with water or other
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atmospheric components. Oxygen existed in only trace quantities before life began.
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1.2 AIR POLLUTION
Definition of Air Pollution:
Air pollution is defined as the presence of any solids, liquid or gaseous matter present in
the atmosphere in such concentrations that may or tend to be injurious to human beings
or other living creatures, plants, vegetation.
An average human being requires 12KG of air /

day
This is equal to 15 times greater than food /
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SCOPE OR HISTORY OF AIR POLLUTIONS:
 Air pollution has been a public health problem since the discovery of fire.
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In fact, incidents and episodes of air pollution have been documented
throughout history.
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In ancient times, people used fire inside their caves and huts, often filling
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the air with harmful smoke.
The Roman philosopher Seneca noted the “heavy air of Rome” in i ng.
61 A.D., and King Edward I strictly prohibited coal burning in London in
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 The origin of modern air pollution problems can be traced to eighteenth
century England and the birth of the Industrial Revolution.
 As manufacturing replaced predominantly agricultural activities,
populations shifted from the countryside to the city. What resulted was
disastrous, as burgeoning population strained rudimentary public utilities
and services.

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Figure 1.2.1 Smoke, produced by burning coal and wood, was the earliest
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form of air pollution. Smoke and ash produced by power plants
contributed significantly to the problem of air pollution in the late 19th
and early 20th centuries. En
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[source:https://images.app.goo.gl/nFbgJBTQvq3kQ5jy7]

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By 1940, air pollution in the United States and emerging public opinion
pressured government regulators to act. Smog formed around Los
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Angeles, while other metropolitan areas around the country began to
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report degradations in air quality and visibility. Growing familiarity with
environmental issues and increased public pressure hastened federal and
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state action.
 California was the first state to pass air pollution regulations. Shortly after
California acted in 1947, the federal government convened the first
National Air Pollution Symposium composed of the leading
environmental specialists and government representatives of the day. This
landmark symposium marked the introduction of federal government
involvement in environmental regulation.
In 1955, upheld by strong public support and improved science, Congress passed
its first environmental legislation. From these meager beginnings the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency and an effective public policy toward the

environment were instituted.
 Air pollution has been a public health problem since the discovery of fire.
In fact incidents and episodes of air pollution have been documented
throughout history.
 In ancient times, people used fire inside their caves and huts, often filling
the air with harmful smoke.
 The Roman philosopher Seneca noted the ‘heavy air of Rome’ in 61A.D.,
and King Edward I strictly prohibited coal burning in London 1273.

ww The origin of modern air pollution problems can be traced to 18th century
England and the birth of the industrial Revolution.
 As
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populations shifted from the countryside to the city. What resulted was
disastrous, as burgeoning population’s strained rudimentary public utilities
and services.
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Scales of Air Pollution:
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Air pollution problems may occur on three scales:
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i. Micro scale
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Micro-scale problems range from those covering less than a centimeter to those the
size of a house or slightly larger (few meters to 100s of meter).
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ii. Meso-scale
Meso-scale air pollution problems are those of a few hectares up to the size of a
city or county (local-to-regional).
iii. Macro scale.
Macro-scale problems extend from counties to states, nations, and in the broadest
sense, the globe (regional-to continental scale)

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
The air pollutants are classified according to origin, chemical composition and state of
matter.
According to origin:
Air pollutant
ww Primary Air pollutant

Secondary Air Pollutant
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1.Primary Air Pollutant: asy
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 Carbon dioxide (CO2) – Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been
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described as "the leading pollutant and "the worst climate pollutant”. Carbon
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dioxide is a natural component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life and
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given off by the human respiratory system. This question of terminology has
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practical effects, for example as determining whether the U.S. Clean Air Act is
deemed to regulate CO2 emissions.
 CO2 currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of earth's atmosphere,
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compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times, and billions of metric tons
of CO2 are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels. CO2 increase in earth's
atmosphere has been accelerating.
 Sulfur oxides (SOx) – particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the
formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes.
Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion
generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a
catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain is formed. This is one of

the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as
power sources.
 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) – Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are
expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced
during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a
brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a
chemical compound with the formula NO 2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides.
One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a
characteristic sharp, biting odor.
 Carbon monoxide (CO) – CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic gas. It is a product
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contributes to the majority of carbon monoxide let into our atmosphere. It creates
a smog type formation in the air that has been linked to many lung diseases and
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disruptions to the natural environment and animals.
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 Volatile organic compounds (VOC) – VOCs are a well-known outdoor air
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pollutant. They are categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-methane
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(NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes
to enhance global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant
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greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life
of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality.
The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens net
and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another
dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.
 Particulate matter / particles, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM),
atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or
liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and
gas. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms,
forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities,
such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial
processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide,

anthropogenic aerosols those made by human activities currently account for

approximately 10 percent of our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in
the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function
and lung cancer. Particulates are related to respiratory infections and can be
particularly harmful to those already suffering from conditions like asthma.
 Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to
cardiopulmonary disease.
 Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products
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conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc. On release into the air, CFCs rise
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to the stratosphere. Here they come in contact with other gases and damage
the ozone layer. This allows harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's surface.
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This can lead to skin cancer, eye disease and can even cause damage to plants.
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 Ammonia – emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is a compound with
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the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic
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pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of
terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers.
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Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis
of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and
hazardous. In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulfur
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to form secondary particles.
 Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
 Radioactive pollutants – produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events,
war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
2.Secondary pollutants include:
 Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in

photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution. Classic smog results from
large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur

dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and
industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from
the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary
emissions to form photochemical smog.
 Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key
constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain
regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical
and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that
occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations
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pollutant and a constituent of smog.
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 Peroxyacetyl nitrate (C2H3NO5) – similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.
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According to chemical Composition:
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Air Pollutant
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Organic Air Pollutant
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Inorganic Air Pollutant
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• Organic: - Contains H-C (hydrocarbons) net
• Inorganic: - Do not contain hydrocarbons
According to State of Matter
Classification according to the states of matter:
1) Gaseous Pollutants
These pollutants are in gaseous state, like, CO, CO2, NOx, SOx, HC,
Photochemical oxidants, fluorine, chlorine, H2S, CH4, etc , and have different
residence time in atmosphere
2) Particulate Matter
They are in suspended form in the atmosphere and their residence time depends
upon the size of particulate matter. These are in the form of dust, smoke, fumes, mist,
flash, soot, along with natural particulates, like, pollen grains, volcanic dust, fungal
spores, protozoa.
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1.4 SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Air pollution is a growing problem around the world, with individuals and
nations like pumping enormous volumes of harmful pollutants into the atmosphere
every day. These pollutants are not only dangerous to the health and wellbeing of
plants, animals, and people, but they are also a major contributor to recent climate
shifts observed across the globe.
Cutting down on the volume of pollutants produced is a crucial step in

managing our negative effects on the climate. How can this be achieved? One of the
first and most important steps is identifying some of the most common and prevalent
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pollutants, understanding where they come from, and recognizing their effects. This
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knowledge will help you to identify the key ways in which you can cut down on air
pollution and contribute to a global decline in the volume of pollutants found in the
air.
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1.Carbon Monoxide (CO)
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Carbon Monoxide is a highly toxic and dangerous pollutant, infamous for its
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lack of identifying color and smell. At one point, this gas was extremely prevalent in
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homes for use in domestic heating before it was found to be unsuitable, and it has
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since been replaced by much safer solutions such as natural gas and electricity.
However, this gas is far from extinct in human use.
Sources: Most commonly, Carbon Monoxide is produced by combustion engines

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running without modern catalytic converters. Other common sources of Carbon
Monoxide are old gas and fuel appliances, incinerators, and even cigarettes.
Effects: Carbon Monoxide can have a profound effect on the environment as it is

extremely poisonous and can contribute to very dangerous ground-level air and
ozone conditions.
2.Lead (Pb)
Lead has long been known to be a dangerous substance. Once common

place in nearly all gas and aviation fuels, there has since been a tremendous effort to

reduce the amount of lead found in these substances. Since the introduction of lead-
free gasoline, the volume of lead in the atmosphere has dropped enormously.
Sources: While efforts have been made to remove lead from fuel, it continues to be
present in some aircraft fuel. Similarly, the outpouring of lead from metal processing
plants and the release of lead from waste processes such as incineration and battery
acid production means that there is still enough lead in the air to recognize it as
dangerous pollution.
Effects: Lead can not only poison humans, but it also has a profound effect
on natural ecosystems. Contaminating air, soil, and water, lead can cause damage to
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flora and fauna alike.
3.Ozone (O3)
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Ozone is not inherently bad. After all, the ozone layer is one of the major
protections mankind has against harmful solar radiation. However, ground-level
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Ozone has become a major problem in recent years.
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Sources: Ground-level Ozone is formed by chemical reactions between multiple
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different oxides found in the air, which – when exposed to sunlight – can form new
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compounds and leave Ozone as a by-product. The majority of the emissions which
make up Ozone come from the usual suspects, such as car exhausts, factory
processing, electric utilities and power plants, and even some chemical solvents. net
Effects: Ozone is a dangerous substance for most living organisms, and as such, an
increase in ground-level Ozone has a notable effect on human health as well as the
overall health of multiple ecosystems on land and in the seas.
4.Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
Nitrogen Dioxide is one of the oxides which can react to produce Ozone, but
that is far from its only negative effect. Nitrogen Dioxide is one of the gases that one
most commonly thinks of when considering air pollution: thick, brown, and choking,
it is one of the more visibly harmful pollutants.

Sources: Nitrogen Dioxide, like many other pollutants, is most often released into
the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels in car engines, airplane engines,
factories, and power plants.
Effects: In addition to being a choking and obstructive gas in the air, Nitrogen
Dioxide also has the propensity to react with other agents to form nitric acid and
organic nitrates, contributing to the formation of acid rain.
Needless to say, Nitrogen Oxide has a huge effect on humans, increasing the
likelihood of respiratory problems, cancers, and other lung problems. Acid rains
produced by Nitrogen Dioxide are extremely harmful to plants and animals across
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the world and can lead to further problems in water systems.
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5.Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
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Sulfur Dioxide is a substance most closely associated with the steam age
and locomotives, as the biggest culprit in its production is coal combustion.
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However, these days are not so far gone as you may have thought.
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Sources: To this day, locomotives, ships, planes, and other equipment still produce
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huge volumes of Sulfur Dioxide. Industrial processes, particularly ore extraction and
purification, are also producers of the gas.
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Effects: Sulfur Dioxide, like Nitrogen Dioxide, is a compound that often mixes with
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other pollutants in the air to form harmful acids, but it is also harmful on its own.
Common effects of Sulfur Dioxide poisoning are respiratory problems, eye
problems, and even heart and circulatory problems. Importantly, Sulfuric Acid,
created by the mixing of sulfur with water, is a potent acid that is not only
destructive to human property but also to trees, soils, and water systems.
6.Particulate Matter (PM)
Particulate Matter is something a lot more visible and tangible than the
components listed above but is no less dangerous or harmful. The matter generally
consists of soot, dirt, and chemical by-products produced through combustion or
chemical mixing.

Sources: Particle matter is produced by nearly every single process involving

chemicals and fuels, as well as more innocuous processes such as farming and road
construction. Any process which produces a physical by-product will generally
result in particulate matter.
Effects: Particle Matter ranges from annoying to extremely dangerous, often

hampering visibility on roads and causing respiratory problems. Particulate Matter is
associated with a range of heart, lung, and eye conditions in humans and is also
linked to an increased likelihood of developing cancers later in life.
7.Carbon Dioxide
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associated with the burning of fossil fuel.
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Sources: Carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere naturally when organisms
respire or decompose (decay), carbonate rocks are weathered, forest fires occur, and
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volcanoes erupt. Carbon dioxide is also added to the atmosphere through human
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activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and forests and the production of
cement.
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Effects: Carbon dioxide and its role in the greenhouse effect contribute to air
pollution, which causes climate change. Scientists of NOAA believe carbon dioxide
pollution is the primary culprit. When the CO2 Emissions released from fossil fuel-
burning energy plants combine with moisture in the air, the result is precipitation
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with high acid content. Carbon dioxide emissions impact human health by
displacing oxygen in the atmosphere. Breathing becomes more difficult as carbon
dioxide levels rise.
8.Methane
Comes from the gas emitted by livestock and swamps.
Sources: Since the Industrial Revolution, human sources of methane emissions have
been growing. The current increase in methane levels has been caused by fossil fuel
production and intensive livestock farming. Together these two sources are

responsible for 60% of all human methane emissions. Other sources include landfills
and waste (16%), biomass burning (11%), rice agriculture (9%) as well as biofuels
(4%).
Effects: Methane, when released into the atmosphere before it is burned, is harmful
to the environment. It is able to trap heat in the atmosphere, therefore, contributes to
climate change. High levels of methane concentrations in the air can reduce the
amount of oxygen breathed from the air. It is very dangerous to the human body and
can result in suffocation, mood changes, slurred speech, vision problems, memory
loss, nausea, vomiting, facial flushing and headache.
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9.Chlorofluorocarbons
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Once used as propellants in aerosol items and in refrigerants, CFCs have
been outlawed due to the hazardous effect on the ozone layer.
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Sources: Chlorofluorocarbons, also known as CFCs, consist of chemical compounds
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made up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon. CFCs have no significant natural sources.
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CFCs have been used as refrigerants in air conditioners and refrigerators, Halon in
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aircraft, in aerosol spray cans, in manufacturing foams as industrial solvents, and as
cleaning agents in the manufacture of electronics.
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Effects: CFCs contribute to the loss of the protective ozone layer, which blocks
ultraviolet rays from the sun. This exposes more people to UV radiation, which can
cause skin cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, one in five
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Americans will develop skin cancer in their lifetime.
10.Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
VOCs are emitted into the air from products or processes. For example,
Benzene, 1,3-Butadiene are volatile organic compounds.
Sources: The main source of atmospheric benzene in Europe is petrol vehicles,

which account for about 70% of emissions. Another 10% comes from the
distillation, refining and evaporation of petrol from vehicles. The main source of
1,3-Butadiene is also principally from road traffic, in the combustion process of

petrol and diesel vehicles. Unlike benzene it is not a constituent of fuel but is
produced through the combustion of olefins. An additional source is from industrial
processes such as synthetic rubber manufacture. VOCs can also come from personal
care products such as perfume and hair spray, cleaning agents, dry cleaning fluid,
paints, lacquers, varnishes, hobby supplies and from copying and printing machines.
Effects: Some VOCs are harmful by themselves, including some that cause cancer.
VOCs play a significant role in the formation of ozone and fine particulates in the
atmosphere. Under sunlight, VOCs react with nitrogen oxides emitted mainly from
vehicles, power plants and industrial activities to form ozone, which in turn helps the
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formation of fine particulates.

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Remedies to Avoid Air Pollution:
Raise awareness. Whether it be through joining non-profits, activist groups,

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or even just posting about the matter online, raising people’s awareness about
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air pollution and its causes is an important step in reducing the problem
around the world.
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 Try to minimize travel in cars and airplanes. While driving is often
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unavoidable, there are many who could quite easily cut down on their fuel
i ng.
consumption by making use of public transportation or even bikes. Similarly,
making use of a more fuel-efficient vehicle is a good way to make the car
travel you do undertake much less harmful. Keeping a car serviced and safe net
will dramatically improve its fuel-efficiency and reduce the volume of
emissions it releases. Airplanes are among the worst contributors to air
pollution, so consider staying in the country when vacationing.
 Conserve energy where possible. Since electricity production releases a huge
number of air pollutants, using as little energy as possible can help minimize
the amount produced in any one day. If you spread the message too, you can
have a noticeable impact on electricity production. Simply changing light
bulbs to energy-efficient alternatives, turning off appliances when not in use,

and reducing the amount of time spent in front of the television or on the
computer are good starts.
 Make use of 3 R’s. Who wouldn’t have heard of 3 words Reduce, Reuse and
Recycle Reduce simple means reducing the consumption of goods like plastic
bags that can hurt the environment. Reuse means reusing the same thing for
some different purposes; like reusing the old jar for storing cereals or
pulses. Recycling stands for recycling old items so that they can be made into
some useful products again.
 Get your car’s engine tune-up. Keeping your car’s engine tune-up will make
ww sure that it does not consume more fuel and gives you better mileage.
 Keep tires properly inflated. Cars consume more gasoline when tires are not
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properly inflated. Keep the air pressure to the optimum level will reduce
your impact on the environment.
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 Make use of renewable electricity where possible. Installing your own solar
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panels for even small tasks can help to conserve electricity which would
otherwise be provided by power plants.
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 Get an energy audit done for your home. Get an energy audit done and ask the
auditor about changes that you can make in order to ensure that your home is
i ng.
as energy-efficient as possible. They can give you recommendations that will
help you out and even save you money in the long run.
 Consider going green. There are various ways to go green without even
net
spending an extra penny. For e.g.: use the public mode of
transportation instead of a car, opt for eco-friendly hotels when going out on a
holiday, buy items with less packaging, buy energy-efficient appliances, use
daylight as much as possible, avoid buying plastic water bottles, and many
more.
 Plant trees and plants, as they can help to increase the amount of breathable
air available, and reduce levels of certain pollutants that cause harm to the
environment.

1.5 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON HUMANS
People experience a wide range of health effects from being exposed to air
pollution. Effects can be broken down into short-term effects and long-term effects.
Short-term effects, which are temporary, include illnesses such
as pneumonia or bronchitis. They also include discomfort such as irritation to the nose,
throat, eyes, or skin. Air pollution can also cause headaches, dizziness, and nausea. Bad
smells made by factories, garbage, or sewer systems are considered air pollution, too
these odors are less serious but still unpleasant.
Long-term effects of air pollution can last for years or for an entire lifetime.
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They can even lead to a person's death. Long-term health effects from air pollution
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include heart, lung cancer, disease and respiratory diseases such as emphysema. Air
pollution can also cause long-term damage to people's nerves, brain, kidneys, liver, and
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other organs. Some scientists suspect air pollutants cause birth defects. Nearly 2.5
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million people die worldwide each year from the effects of outdoor or indoor air
pollution.
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Health Effects of Sulfur Dioxide:
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Sulfur dioxide irritates the skin and mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, throat,
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and lungs. High concentrations of SO2 can cause inflammation and irritation of the
respiratory system, especially during heavy physical activity. The resulting symptoms
can include pain when taking a deep breath, coughing, throat irritation, and breathing
net
difficulties. High concentrations of SO2 can affect lung function, worsen asthma
attacks, and worsen existing heart disease in sensitive groups. This gas can also react
with other chemicals in the air and change to a small particle that can get into the lungs
and cause similar health effects.
Health Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide:
Breathing air with a high concentration of NO 2 can irritate airways in the human
respiratory system. Such exposures over short periods can aggravate respiratory
diseases, particularly asthma, leading to respiratory symptoms (such as coughing,
wheezing or difficulty breathing), hospital admissions and visits to emergency rooms.
Longer exposures to elevated concentrations of NO 2 may contribute to the development

of asthma and potentially increase susceptibility to respiratory infections. People with
asthma, as well as children and the elderly are generally at greater risk for the health
effects of NO2.
NO2 along with other NOx reacts with other chemicals in the air to form both
particulate matter and ozone. Both of these are also harmful when inhaled due to effects
on the respiratory system.
Health Effects of Particulate Matter:
The size of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health
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problems. Small particles less than 10 micrometers in diameter pose the greatest
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problems, because they can get deep into your lungs, and some may even get into your
bloodstream.
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Exposure to such particles can affect both your lungs and your heart. Numerous
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scientific studies have linked particle pollution exposure to a variety of problems,
including:
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 Premature death in people with heart or lung disease
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 Nonfatal heart attacks
 Irregular heartbeat
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 Aggravated asthma
 Decreased lung function
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 Increased respiratory symptoms, such as irritation of the airways, coughing or
difficulty breathing.
 People with heart or lung diseases, children, and older adults are the most likely
to be affected by particle pollution exposure.
Health Effects of Carbon monoxide:
It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and toxic air pollutant; The largest

anthropogenic source of CO is vehicle emissions, Breathing high concentrations of
carbon monoxide leads to reduced oxygen (O2) transport by hemoglobin and has health
effects that include headaches, increased risk of chest pain for the persons with heart
diseases.
Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas that you cannot see or smell, CO is given off
whenever fuel or other carbon-based materials are burned, vehicle emissions increase
unhealthful ambient CO concentrations, but with the introduction of emissions controls,
particularly automotive catalysts, estimated CO emissions from all sources decreased
by 21%, The locations that continue to have high concentrations of CO contain high
pollution.
When the engines and vehicle emissions-control equipment operate less
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efficiently, The combustion is less complete, and catalysts take longer to become fully
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operational, So, The products of incomplete combustion are formed in higher
concentrations. Carbon monoxide is a dangerous, poisonous substance if the people are
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exposed to it in high quantities, The industrial processes where carbon monoxide may
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be produced include metal manufacturing, the electricity supply, mining metal ore and
coal, food manufacturing, extracting oil and gas from land or sea, The production of
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chemicals, cement lime, plaster and concrete manufacturing, and petroleum refining.
Health Effects of Ozone: eer

 Cause coughing and sore or scratchy throat. i ng.
 Make it more difficult to breathe deeply and vigorously and cause pain when
taking a deep breath.
net
 Inflame and damage the airways.
 Make the lungs more susceptible to infection.
 Aggravate lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis.
 Increase the frequency of asthma attacks.
Health Effects of Lead:
Depending on the level of exposure, lead can adversely affect the nervous system,
kidney function, immune system, reproductive and developmental systems and the
cardiovascular system. Lead exposure also affects the oxygen carrying capacity of the

blood. The lead effects most likely to be encountered in current populations are
neurological effects in children.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTIONS ON MATERIALS:
 The damage due to air pollution on materials is really a serious concern since the
service life of buildings is remarkably reduced. It is true that the intensity of
manmade pollutants on building degradation is more than the impact of natural
pollutants.
 Most importantly the affects of soiling, degradation, corrosion and erosion
caused by sulphur dioxide are very much serious.
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 The effect of air pollution on materials may be seen in terms of discoloration,
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material loss, structural failing and soiling.
 Both discoloration and structural failure due to air pollution on buildings may be
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insignificant and that may not involve huge coasts. But the effect of corrosion
due to acidic deposition costs a lot.
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 Especially the effect of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide emissions is very
much significant.
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 The effect of calcium sulphate has been very significant and may be continued
for fairly long time.
i ng.
 When calcium carbonate dissolves in sulphuric acid leads to the formation of
calcium sulphate. The calcium sulphate when it falls on stone breaks the surface net
of the building blocks.
 The acid rain and photochemical smog affect metals and buildings .Acid rain
pollutes the soil and water sources.
 Acidic products of the air pollutant cause disintegration of textile, paper. Many
small industrial units and sources of locomotive pollutants have been sifted to
save the famous marble structure, Taj Mahal at Agra.
 Hydrogen sulphide decolorizes silver and lead paints. Ozone oxidizes rubber
goods.

1.6 THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON PLANT
Pollution enters the environment from diffuse sources. The causes can be
outright, such as the emissions from a coal-burning power plant. Other times, the source
may be hard to identify, such as nonpoint source pollution (NSP), where there can be
several contributors contaminating surface water. Pollutants can be substances, like
pesticides, that do not naturally occur in the environment. Naturally occurring
substances also carry risks by disrupting the chemical balance in the air or water. A
pollutant, therefore, is any substance that can cause harm. The effects of pollutants can
easily be detected on plant structure.
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Leaf Structure
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Pollutants such as ground-level ozone physically damage leaves by causing
chlorosis, or an abnormal yellowing of the leaves, resulting from a deficiency of
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chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is vital for photosynthesis. This molecule fuels the food-
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making process by capturing energy from the sun. Without chlorophyll, a plant cannot
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manufacture food or energy. In areas with high concentrations of ozone, parts of the
leaf will die as a result of exposure.
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Delayed Flowering
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Exposure to vehicle exhaust impacts plant structure by delaying the flowering of
exposed plants, as reported in a study published in the journal "Environmental net
Pollution." A stressed plant will not flower but, rather, will use its resources to survive
the threat. The study also noted an increase in senescence or plant aging. Because of the
concentration of emissions, plants in urban environments were identified to be at the
greatest risk.
Root Damage
Whether the source is acid rain caused by sulfur dioxide emissions or acidic mine
drainage from abandoned mines, acidic soils create a complex scenario that results in
plants' failure to thrive. Acidic conditions mobilize aluminum ions, normally present in
a non-harmful form in the soil. The mobilized aluminum damages root systems and

prevents calcium uptake. The result is an overall slowing of plant growth from a lack of
nutrients. Aluminum and other heavy metals can further impact plant structure by
reducing soil bacteria. A reduction in soil micro-organisms prevents the breakdown of
organic matter, resulting in a reduction of available nutrients.
Stomata Damage
Stomata are the tiny pores found on leaves. Their function is to act as sites of
gas exchange between the plant and the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is taken up through
the stomata and oxygen released during photosynthesis. Pollution negatively impacts
this plant structure by reducing the size of the stomata, as reported in a 2005 study
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published in the journal "Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences." When gas exchange is
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compromised, photosynthesis slows.
EEFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON ANIMALS:
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• Animals, or wildlife, are vulnerable to harm from air pollution. Pollutant issues
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of concern include acid rain, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
and other toxic substances.
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• Insects, worms, clams, fish, birds and mammals, all interact with their
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environment in different ways. As a result, each animal's exposure and
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vulnerability to the impacts of air pollution can be equally different.
• Air pollution can harm wildlife in two main ways. net

• It affects the quality of the environment or habitat in which they live
• It affects the availability and quality of the food supply
Air pollution harms habitat:
• Habitat is the place in which animals live, including in and on the soil, as well as
in water.

• Acid rain can change the chemistry and quality of soils and water. For example,
water bodies can become too acidic for some animals to survive or have normal
physiological functions.
• Alternatively, acid rain can increase the release of heavy metals, such as
aluminum, from soils into water habitats.
• The result is higher availability of heavy metals in the water column, which are
very toxic to many animals including fish.
• Some heavy metals, such as mercury, can be transported in the air long distances
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Although not as well understood, other forms of air pollution, such
as smog, particulate matter, and ground-level ozone, to mention a few, likely affect
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wildlife health in similar ways to human health including harming the lungs and
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cardiovascular systems. An animal's vulnerability to air pollution is influenced by how
it breathes - whether it uses lungs, gills or some other form of gas exchange, such as
passive diffusion across the surface of the skin. gin
Air pollution harms food supply and quality : eer
i ng.
• Many heavy metals, toxics, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and other air
pollutants affect wildlife by entering the food chain and damaging the supply and
quality of food.
net
• Once consumed, many of these pollutants collect and are stored within the
animal's tissues.
• As animals are eaten by other animals along the food chain, these pollutants
continue to collect and increase in concentration. This process is called
bioaccumulation.
• Top level predators such as bears and eagles, among many others, are particularly
susceptible to the bioaccumulation of these types of air pollutants.

For example, mercury is of great enough concern that it is recommended we limit

how often we eat certain types of fish that may contain high levels of heavy metal.
• Air pollutants can poison wildlife through the disruption of endocrine function,
organ injury, increased vulnerability to stresses and diseases, lower reproductive
success, and possible death.
• Changes in the abundance of any species because of air pollution can

dramatically influence the abundance and health of dependent species.
For example, the loss of some species of fish because of higher levels of aluminum
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may allow insect populations to increase, which may benefit certain types of ducks that
feed on insects. But the same loss of fish could be detrimental to eagles, ospreys and
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many other animals that depend on fish as a source of food.
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• It is very difficult to fully understand and appreciate how far and in what ways
such changes will affect other species throughout the ecosystem, including
humans. En
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EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON AESTHETIC VALUE AND VISIBILITY:
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• Air pollution can create a white or brown haze that affects how far we can see.
•
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It also affects how well we are able to see the colors, forms, and textures of
natural and historic vistas. net
• Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny particles in the air.
• The particles scatter light into and out of the sight path and absorb some light
before it reaches your eyes.
• The more particles in the air, the more scattering and absorption of light to reduce
the clarity and colors of what you see. Some types of particles scatter more light,
especially when it is humid.
• Haze is mostly caused by air pollution from human activity including industry,
power generation, transportation, and agriculture.

• Natural haze from dust, wildfires, and more also occurs in many parks.
• On hazy days, air pollution can be visible as a plume, layered haze, or uniform
haze. A plume is a column-shaped layer of air pollution coming from a point
source (such as a smoke stack).
• Layered haze is any confined layer of pollutants that creates a contrast between
that layer and either the sky or landscape behind it.
• Plumes and layers can mix with the surrounding atmosphere, creating a uniform
haze or overall decline in air clarity.
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• Plumes and layered haze are more common during cold winter months when the
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atmosphere moves less.
• Uniform haze occurs most often when warm air causes atmospheric pollutants to
become well mixed. asy
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1.7 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY AND EMISSION STANDARDS
Air Quality Index (AQI)
• The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a number used to report the quality of the air on
any given day.
• It basically tells you how clean the air is .It measures particles and chemicals in
the air that affect people’s health.
• The health effects from extreme pollution in places like china can be severe.
• These effects can range from slight irritations, to reduced endurance, to

ww respiratory problems.
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Different countries have different AQIs,so it is difficult to compare one location
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to another on a worldwide scale. Some countries are more safety-conscious than
others. The United States uses a 500 point scale to report air quality.
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Any rating between 0 to 50 is considered good. A score between 51 and 100
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indicates a moderate level of health concern. An AQI number between 101 and 150
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is considered un healthy for sensitive groups like the elderly or people with heart or
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breathing problems. Scores between 151 and 200 are described as unhealthy, while
201 to 300 is considered very unhealthy. And finally, air quality in the 301 to 500
range is deemed hazardous. net
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
• AQI helps in understanding the level at which air is polluted and the associated
health effects that might concern.
• EPA calculates the AQI for five major air pollutants :
1. Ground level ozone
2. Particulate matter
3. Carbon monoxide

4. Sulphur dioxide
5. Nitrogen dioxide
 For each of these pollutants, EPA has established national air quality standards to
protect public health.
 The EPA has developed the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) for introducing
consistency in providing information regarding the air quality throughout the US.
The system is based on a scale of 0-500.Table1.7.1Air Quality Index values.
Table1.7.1 AIR QUALITY INDEX VALUES
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Good: The AQI value for a community is between 0 and 50 then the air quality is
net
considered satisfactory, and air pollution poses little or no risk.
Moderate: The AQI is between 51 and 100 then the Air quality is acceptable; however,
for some pollutants there may be a moderate health concern for a very small number of
people.
Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups: When AQI values are between 101 and 150,
members of sensitive groups may experience health effects. This means they are likely
to be affected at lower levels than the general public.

Unhealthy: Everyone may begin to experience health effects when AQI values are
between 151 and 200. Members of sensitive groups may experience more serious health
effects.
Very Unhealthy: AQI values between 201 and 300 trigger a health alert, meaning
everyone may experience more serious health effects.
Hazardous: AQI values over 300 trigger health warnings of emergency conditions. The
entire population is more likely to be affected.
Air Quality Standards:
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• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), in the United States,
allowable levels of harmful pollutants set by the Environmental Protection
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Agency (EPA) in accordance with the Clean Air Act (CAA).
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• The CAA established two types of standards for ambient air quality. Primary
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standards concern the minimum level of air quality necessary to keep people
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from becoming ill and therefore are aimed at protecting public health.
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• The primary standards are intended to provide an adequate margin of safety for
the public, which has been defined to include a representative sample of so-called
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sensitive populations, such as the elderly, children, and persons with asthma.
• The secondary standards are aimed at the promotion of public welfare and the
prevention of damage to animals, plants, and property.
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CLASSIFICATION OF AIR QUALITY STANDARDS:
The air quality standards are classified into two types:
1. Primary standards
2. Secondary standards
1. Primary standards:
Protect public health, including the health of “sensitive” populations such as

asthmatics, children, and the elderly.

2. Secondary standards:
Protect public welfare, including protection against decreased visibility,

damage to animals, crops, vegetation, and building.
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Table 1.7.2 National Ambient Air Quality Standards
AIR QUALITY MONITORING:

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• Air quality monitoring help us in better understanding the sources, levels of
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different air pollutants, effects of air pollution control policy, and exposure of
various substances in the air we breathe.
• Air quality monitoring program assists us in improving and developing air

pollution control programs to reduce the effect of air pollution.
• The purpose of air monitoring is not merely to collect data, but also to provide
the information necessary for engineers, scientists, policy makers, politicians and
planners to make informed decisions on managing and improving the air
environment.

• Monitoring stations continuously monitor and collect information about the

presence and level of atmospheric contaminants as well as the meteorological
indices.
• A typical monitoring stations includes sophisticated gaseous pollutant analyzers,

particle collectors, weather sensors that are continually maintained and operated.
• In U.S, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) with the help of state and local
agencies monitor air pollution.
Types of Monitoring :
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 Emissions Monitoring: This type of monitoring focuses on emissions coming
out of natural and manmade sources.
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Ambient Monitoring: The emphasis is on ambient air concentration of toxic as
well as non-toxic contaminants. En
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• Deposition Monitoring: This type of network measures the dry and wet
deposition of atmospheric contaminants. eer
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• Visibility Monitoring: Ability to see things is primary focus of this type of
monitoring.
• Upper Air Monitoring: A look at ambient concentrations in upper atmosphere

net
with the help of satellites, airplanes etc.
• Health Monitoring: Recognizes the importance of risk assessment and risk

management in public health studies.
Air Quality Monitoring Networks:
Different types of air quality monitoring networks operating today in the

world:
 Ambient Air Monitoring Program in the U. S.

 Atmospheric Integrated Research Monitoring Network in the U. S.

 Canadian Air Monitoring Network
 Mexican Network
 Emission monitoring at industrial plants
 Health monitoring program by WHO
 Satellite monitoring by NASA and USEPA
Air Pollutant Instrumentation:
Air pollution instruments are available for the measurement of indoor and outdoor
air pollution. The available instruments could be grouped into the following major
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categories:
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 Concentration Measurement Instruments: This group includes the
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instruments available for gaseous and particulate sampling.
 Continuous Emission Monitoring Systems (CEMS): Real time monitoring
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of stack gases is the basic thrust behind such systems.
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 Air Measuring Devices: This category includes volume meters, rate
meters and velocity meters.
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 Meteorological Instruments: Basic
atmospheric variables are included in this category. i
devices used
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for measuring
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Figure1.7.1Air Pollutant Instruments
[Source :https://images.app.goo.gl/n4kZhrN6E3vjTd578]

Remediation and Solution:
Efforts to reduce air pollution have largely fallen into three categories:
 Regulatory
 Technological
 Economic or Market-based solutions.
1. Regulatory Solutions
Regulatory solutions involve the passage of laws and establishment of

government agencies which attempt to reduce air pollution through government
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monitoring and punitive measures (usually fines but, in exceptional cases, criminal
sentences as well).
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2. Technological Solutions
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This includes the progress in emissions technology (e.g.,reformulated
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gasoline),pre-warned catalytic converters, and in the extension of emissions rules to
truck, pickups and SUVs
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3. Market-based Solutions
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These solutions allow firms the flexibility to select cost-effective solutions to
achieve established environmental goals.
Emission Inventory: net

Emission inventory is an estimate of the amount of pollutants emitted into
atmosphere.
Developed by:
 Plant
 Local environmental agency
 National environmental agency
Characterized by the following aspects:
 Type of activities that cause emissions,

 Chemical or physical identity of the pollutants included,

 Geographic location,
 Time period over which emissions are estimated.
Details for development of an emission inventory depend on:
 Area of coverage
 Nature of sources
 Purpose
 Well known emission inventories in the US
 Inventory of criteria pollutants
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 Greenhouse gas emissions (first reporting: March 31, 2010)
Emission Rate:
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 Emission rate is the weight of a pollutant emitted per unit time.
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 Emission factor is an estimate of the rate at which a pollutant is released
into the atmosphere per unit level of activity.
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To calculate emission rate:
EMISSION RATE = [INPUT] x [EMISSION FACTOR] x [APPLICABLE

i ng.
CORRECTION FACTORS] x [HOURS OF
VARIATION]
OPERATION] x [SEASONAL net
Emission Inventory:
 The EPA estimates emission levels ranging from counties to the nation level.
 The EPA has developed several models to estimate current and future emissions
in the atmosphere from different sources.
MOBILE 6
NON-ROAD
These models are computer based applications and are available for free from the
EPA’s official website.

Steps to Develop Emission Inventory:
Steps Involved in development of an emission inventory are:
 Planning
 Data Collection
 Data Analysis
 Reporting Data
1. Planning
Defines scope and purpose of inventory Major points considered during this step
are:
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• Pollutants to be enlisted in the inventory are specified along with the methods to
collect or estimate data.
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• Use of data and geographical area involved are determined.
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• Legal authority and responsibility of specific groups to acquire data is considered
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along with an assessment of cost and resources.
2. Data Collection eer

Steps to be taken: i ng.
– Emissions are classified net
– Pollutant sources are located and classified
– Quality and quantity of materials handled, processed, or burned is determined
Collection Methods:
During this stage data may be collected by
– Mail survey
– Plant inspection
– Field surveys

Data from literature:
– Industrial files
– Government files
– Periodicals
– Trade journals
– Scientific publications
Information Collected During Data Collection:
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• General source information - location, ownership, and nature of business
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• Activity levels - amount of fuel and materials (input)
• Amount of production - output of the plant

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• Control device information - type of pollution control devices
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• Information required estimating emissions - temperature, tank conditions, and
hours of operations, seasonal variation and other data.
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3. Data Analysis
 Check accuracy
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 Calculation of emission rate is done using:
Monitoring data (most accurate & most expensive)
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Emission factors.
Mass balance, and
Engineering calculation
4. Reporting Data
 Information can be filed with the following pollution control agencies:

Local
Regional
National

 In US, data gathered by state agencies are reported to the USEPA

 Emission data are available from the USEPA’s web site.
Uses of an Emission Inventory:
The Emission Inventory developed may be used for:
 Identifying types of pollutants emitted from specific sources.

 Determining the magnitude or amount of emissions from those sources
 Developing the emissions distribution in time and space
 Calculating emission rates under specific plant operating conditions
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 Finding out the relation of ambient air pollutant concentration with specific
sources
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 Input data for air quality modeling and risk
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 Determine pollution control options for public health
 Estimating cost based on emissions
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Emission Standards:
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Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released
into the atmosphere. Emission standards set quantitative limits on the permissible
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amount of specific air pollutants that may be released from specific sources over
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specific timeframes. They are generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to
protect human life. Different regions and countries have different standards for vehicle
emissions.
Regulated sources:
Many emissions standards focus on regulating pollutants released

by automobiles (motor cars) and other powered vehicles. Others regulate emissions
from industry, power plants, small equipment such as lawn mowers and
diesel generators, and other sources of air pollution.

Bharat stage emission Standards:
• Bharat stage emission standards (BSES) are emission standards instituted by

the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from compression
ignition engines and Spark-ignition engines equipment, including motor vehicles.
• The standards and the timeline for implementation are set by the Central
Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change.
• The standards, based on European regulations were first introduced in 2000.
•
ww Progressively stringent norms have been rolled out since then. All new vehicles
w.E
manufactured after the implementation of the norms have to be compliant with
the regulations.
asy
• By 2014,the country was under a combination of Euro3 and Euro4 based norms,
En
with Euro4 standards partly implemented in 13 major cities.
gin
• As of April2017, the entire country was under BSIV norms, which is based on
Euro4
eer
i ng.
• It is planned that manufacture and registration of BSIV vehicles will be caused,
by April 2020 and June 2020 respectively.
• Skipping Euro5, BS VI will be introduced across the country by the April1, 2020.
net

1.8 STACK SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF PARTICULATE AND GASEOUS

POLLUTANTS
Air sampling is the process of capturing contaminants in a known volume of

air. The airborne contaminants are measured and compared against the volume of air
and the results are stated as a concentration, usually as milligrams per cubic meter or
parts per million.
• There are two main types of air sampling that can be conducted to estimate the
levels of workers’ exposure to a certain contaminants.
ww 1. Stationary or area monitoring
2. Personal chemical exposure monitoring.

w.E
Personal exposure monitoring measures an individual employee’s exposure to a
asy
chemical or contaminant and area monitoring measures the concentration of a
substance in a given area.
En
gin
Levels of airborne contaminants can be compared with the following guidelines
and standards:
The permissible exposure limit (PEL or OSHA PEL) eer

 i ng.
It is a legal limit in the United States for exposure of an employee to a chemical
substance or physical agent such as high level noise. Permissible exposure limits
are established by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
net
Most of OSHA's PELs were issued shortly after adoption of the Occupational
Safety and Health (OSH) Act in 1970.
Threshold limits value:
• The TLV for chemical substances is defined as a concentration in air, typically

for inhalation or skin exposure. Its units are in parts per million (ppm)
for gases and in milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) for particulates such
as dust, smoke and mist. The basic formula for converting between ppm and
mg/m3 for gases is ppm = (mg/m^3) * 24.45 / molecular weight. This formula is
not applicable to airborne particles.

Three types of TLVs for chemical substances are defined:
• Threshold limit value − time-weighted average (TLV-TWA): average exposure

on the basis of a 8h/day, 40h/week work schedule
• Threshold limit value − short-term exposure limit (TLV-STEL): A 15-minute

TWA exposure that should not be exceeded at any time during a workday, even if
the 8-hour TWA is within the TLV-TWA.
• Threshold limit value − ceiling limit (TLV-C): absolute exposure limit that
should not be exceeded at any time
ww
• There are TLVs for physical agents as well as chemical substances. TLVs for
w.E
physical agents include those for noise exposure, vibration, ionizing and non-
ionizing radiation exposure and heat and cold stress.
asy
Recommended exposure limit (REL):

En
It is an occupational exposure limit that has been recommended by the United
gin
States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
eer
• These levels are the exposure that, in the judgment of NIOSH,will not cause
adverse health effects in most workers.
Basic Principles of Sampling and Analysis

i ng.
1. The components of the air pollution monitoring system includes the, net
 Collection or sampling of pollutants both from the ambient air and from
specific sources.
 The analysis or measurement of the pollutant concentration.
 The reporting and use of the information collected.
2. Emissions data collected from point sources are used to determine compliance
with air pollution regulations, determine the effectiveness of air pollution control
technology, evaluate production efficiencies, and support scientific research.

3. The EPA has established ambient air monitoring methods for the criteria
pollutants, as well as for Toxic Organic (TO) compounds and In-Organic (IO)
compounds.
4. The methods specify precise procedures that must be followed for any
monitoring activity related to the compliance provisions of the Clean Air Act.
5. The procedures regulate sampling, analysis, calibration of instruments and
calculation of emissions.
6. The concentration is expressed in terms of mass per unit volume, usually
micrograms per cubic meter (𝜇g/m³).
ww
Sampling Guidelines
w.E
Survey for preliminary information
During ambient air pollutants sampling, it is also necessary to collect information

asy
on qualitative and quantitative data on the local sources of air pollution, topography,
En
population distribution, land use pattern, climatology, etc., depending upon the
objectives of the survey or measurement campaign.
gin
Example:
eer
i ng.
An area map to locate pollution sources and monitoring, locations, sources of
pollution situated at far distances, etc., and other relevant data that describe the
behaviour of the atmosphere for a specific pollutant to be sampled may also be
required.
net
 It includes:
1. Selection of sampling procedures including procedures for analysis of sampler
2. Sampling locations
3. Period of sampling, frequency of sampling and duration
4. Auxiliary measurements (including meteorological parameters)
5. Processing of data.
Selection of Sampling Procedure
There are two types of sampling

 Continuous
 Time averaged insitu sampling
1. Continuous Sampling
Continuous sampling is carried out by automatic sensors, optical or
electrochemical and spectroscopic methods which produce continuous records of
concentration values.
2. Time Averaged in-Sampling
 The specific time-averaged concentration data can then be obtained from
continuous records.
 Time-averaged data can also be obtained by sampling for a short time i.e.,
ww by sampling a known volume of air for the required averaging time.
w.E
 Samples are then analyzed by establishing physical, chemical, and
biological methods for the concentration values which are the effective
asy
average over the period of sampling.
Sampling Locations En
gin
 Sampling locations are in general governed by factors like objectives, method of
sampling and resources available. eer
i ng.
 If the objective is to study health hazards and material damages, then locations
should ne kept close to the objects.
 Where the effects are being studied and should be kept at breathing level in
the population centres, hospitals, schools, etc.
net
 For vegetation, it should be at foliage level.
 For background concentration, sampling location should be away from the
sources of pollution.
 Fit can also be done by gridding the entire area to get statistically recommended
values.
 The number of locations, however, depends upon the variability of concentration
over the area under survey.
 A spot checking may be done to decide the location besides considering practical
factors.

 Period of sampling, frequency and duration: Period,, frequency and duration of

sampling should be appropriate to the objectives of the study.
 It should be such that the measured quantities are trapped in the sample at the end
of the sampling.
 It is preferable to observe a sampling period consistent with the average times for
which air quality standards of the given pollutants are specified.
Sources and Ambient sampling analysis:
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Figure 1.8.1 Sources and Ambient sampling analysis
eer
i
[Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/GNYTY9nZER5McWYNA]
ng.
Most frequently occurring pollutants in an urban environment are particulate matters
(suspended particulate matter i.e. SPM and respirable suspended particulate matter
i.e. RSPM), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
net
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3) and photochemical oxidants.
Source Monitoring Instruments:
 Pollutants
 Velocity
 Temperature
 Pressure
 The recommended criteria for siting the monitoring stations :

 The site is dependent upon the use/purpose of the results of the

monitoring programs.
 The monitoring should be carried out with a purpose of compliance of
air quality standards.
 Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of new/existing air
pollution sources.
 Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of hazards due to
accidental release of chemicals.
 Monitoring data may be used for research purpose.
Types of ambient monitoring stations:
ww
Station type Description
Type A w.E Downtown pedestrian exposure station- In central
asy
business districts, in congested areas, surrounding by
En
buildings, many pedestrians, average traffic flow >
gin
vehicles per day. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve;
height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.
Type B eer
Downtown neighborhood exposure stations- In central
i ng.
business districts but not congested areas, less high rise
buildings, average vehicles < 500 vehicles per day.
Typical locations like parks, malls, landscapes areas net
etc.Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to
3.5 m from the ground.
Type C Residential population exposure station – In the midst

of the residential areas or sub-urban areas but not in
central business districts. The station should be more
than 100 m away from any street.
Type D Mesoscale stations – At appropriate height to collect

meteorological and air quality data at upper elevation;

main purpose to collect the trend of data variations not

human exposure.Location – roof top of tall buildings or
broadcasting towers.
Type E Non-urban stations – In remote non-urban areas, no

traffic, no industrial activity. Main purpose to monitor
trend analysis.
Type F Specialized source survey stations – to determine the

impact on air quality at specified location by an air
pollution source under scrutiny.
ww
w.E
Table1.8.1Types of ambient monitoring stations
Frequency of data collection:

asy
En
Gaseous pollutants: continuous monitoring
Particulates: once every three day

gin
Number of stations: eer
• Minimum number is three. i ng.
• The location is dependent upon the wind rose diagram that gives predominant
wind directions and speed.
net
• One station must be at upstream of predominant wind direction and other two
must at downstream pre dominant wind direction.
• More than three stations can also be established depending upon the area of
coverage.
Components of ambient air sampling systems:
Four main components are:

1.Inlet manifold

2.Air mover
3.Collection medium
4. Flow measurement device
Characteristics for ambient air sampling systems:
Five main characteristics are:

1.Collection efficiency
2.Sample stability
3.Recovery
4. Minimal interference
ww 5. Understanding the mechanism of collection
w.E
Basic considerations for sampling:
• Sample must be representative in terms of time, location, and conditions to be

studied. asy
En
• Sample must be large enough for accurate analysis.
gin
• The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency of collection.
eer
• Duration of sampling must accurately reflect the fluctuations in pollution levels
i ng.
i.e. whether 1-hourly, 4-hourly, 6-hourly, 8-hourly, 24-hourly sampling.
• Continuous sampling is preferred. net

• Pollutants must not be altered or modified during collection.
Errors in sampling by HVS:
• Particulates may be lost in sampling manifold – so not too long or too twisted
manifold must be used.
• If ’isokinetic’ conditioned are not maintained, biased results may be obtained for
particulate matters.
Advantages of HVS:
• High flow rate at low pressure drop

• High particulate storage capacity
• No moisture regain
• High collection efficiency
• Low cost
• Not appreciable increase in air flow resistance
• Filter is 99% efficient and can collect the particles as fine as 0.3 µm
• Absorption principle is 99% efficient in collecting the gases.
ww
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asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

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UNIT 2a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

2.1 METEOROLOGY
Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes

atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather
forecasting.
EFFECTS OF METEOROLOGY ON AIR POLLUTION
Air movements influence the fate of air pollutants. So any study of air
pollution should include a study of the local weather patterns (meteorology). If the air is
calm arid pollutants cannot disperse, then the concentration of these pollutants will
build up. On the other hand, when strong, turbulent winds blows, pollutants disperse
ww
quickly, resulting in lower pollutant concentrations.
w.E
Meteorological data helps to:
asy
• Identify the source of pollutants.
En
• Predict air pollution events such as inversions and high-pollutant
concentration days.
gin
• Simulate and predict air quality using computer models.
eer
i ng.
When studying air quality, it is important to measure the following factors as
they can help understand the chemical reactions that occur in the atmosphere:
• Wind speed and direction

net
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Rainfall
• Solar radiation
1. Wind Speed and Direction:
• When high pollutant concentrations occur at a monitoring station, wind data

records can determine the general direction and area of the emissions.
• Identifying the sources means planning to reduce the impacts on air quality can
take place.
• An instrument called anemometer measures wind speed. At our monitoring

stations, the type anemometer we use is a sonic anemometer.
• A sonic anemometer operates on the principle that the speed of wind affects the
time it takes for sound to travel from one point to another.
• Sound travelling with the wind will take less time than sound travelling into the
wind.
ww
• By measuring sound wave speeds in 2 different directions at the same time, sonic
w.E
anemometers can measure both wind speed and direction.
2. Temperature:
asy
• Measuring temperature supports air quality assessment, air quality modelling and
forecasting activities. En
gin
• Temperature and sunlight (solar radiation) play an important role in the chemical
eer
reactions that occur in the atmosphere to form photochemical smog from other
pollutants.
i ng.
• Favourable conditions can lead to increased concentrations of smog.
• The most common way of measuring temperature is to use a material with a

net
resistance that changes with temperature, such as platinum wire. A sensor
measures this change and converts it into a temperature reading.
3. Humidity:
• Like temperature and solar radiation, water vapour plays an important role in
many thermal and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.
• As water molecules are small and highly polar, they can bind strongly to many
substances.

• Is attached to particles suspended in the air they can significantly increase the
amount of light scattered by the particles (monitoring aerosols).
• If the water molecules attach to corrosive gases, such as sulphur dioxide, the gas
will dissolve in the water and form an acid solution that can damage health and
property.
• Eporting of the water vapour content of air is as a percentage of the saturation

vapour pressure of water at a given temperature.
• This is the relative humidity. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is
ww highly variable.
w.E
• Relative humidity is generally higher during summer when temperature and
rainfall area also at their highest.
asy
• Measuring humidity uses the absorption properties of a polymer film.
En
• The film either absorbs or loses water vapour as the relative humidity of the
ambient air changes. gin
eer
• A sensor measures these changes and converts them into a humidity reading.
4. Rainfall: i ng.
• Rain has a ‘scavenging’ effect when it washes particulate matter out of the
atmosphere and dissolves gaseous pollutants.
net
• Removing particles improves visibility. When there is frequent high rainfall, the
quality is generally better.
• If the rain dissolves gaseous pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide, it can form acid
rain resulting in potential damage to materials or vegetation.
• A common method to measure rainfall is to use a tipping bucket rain gauge see
illustration.
• The gauge registers rainfall by counting small amounts of rain collected.

• When rain falls into the funnel, it runs into a container (the tripping bucket)
divides into 2 equal compartments by a partition.
• The design of the tipping bucket makes one compartment tilt downward and rest
against a stop when it is empty, positioning the other compartment under the
funnel ready to receive rain water.
• The collected water then empties out and the other compartment starts to fill.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Figure 2.1.1 Tipping bucket Rain gauge
eer
i
[Source:https://www.qld.gov.au/]
6. Solar radiation: ng.

 It is important to monitor solar radiation for use in modeling photochemical
smog events, as the intensity of sunlight has an important influence on the rate
net
of the chemical reactions that produce the smog.
 The cloudiness of the sky, time of day and geographic location all affect
sunlight intensity.
 An instrument called a pyranometer measures solar radiation from the output
of a type of silicon cell sensor.

2.2 WIND ROSE
A wind rose is a graphical tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of

how wind speed and direction are typically distributed at a particular location.
Historically, wind roses were predecessors of the compass rose (found on maps), as
there was no differentiation between a cardinal direction and the wind, which blew from
such a direction.
 Using a polar coordinate system of gridding, the frequency of winds over a

long time period is plotted by wind direction, with color bands showing
wind ranges.
ww  The directions of rose with the longest spoke show the wind direction with
w.E
the greatest frequency.
Uses of wind rose:

asy
 Presented in a circular format, the modern wind rose shows the frequency of
En
winds blowing from particular directions over a specified period.
gin
 The length of each “spoke” around the circle is related to the frequency that the
wind blows from a particular direction per unit time.
eer
the center to increasing frequencies at the outer circles. i
 Each concentric circle represents a different frequency, emanating from zero at
ng.
 A wind rose plot may contain additional information, in that each spoke is broken
down into color- coded bands that show wind speed ranges.
net
 Wind roses typically use 16 cardinal directions, such as north (N), NNE, NE, etc
although they may be subdivided into as many as 32 directions.
 In terms of angular measurement in degrees, North corresponds to 0°/360°, east
to 90°, South to 180° and West to 270°.
 Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing
airport runways, as aircraft typically perform their best takeoffs and landings
pointing into the wind.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Figure2.2.1wind Rose Diagram
eer
Lapse Rate: i
[Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wind_rose_plot.jpg]
ng.
As a parcel of air rises in the earth’s atmosphere, it experiences lower
and lower pressure from the surrounding air molecules, and thus it expands. This
net
expansion lowers its temperature. Ideally, if it does not absorb heat from its
surroundings and it does not contain any moisture, it cools at a rate of 1°C/100 m
rise. This is known as dry adiabatic lapse rate. If the parcel moves down it warms
up at the same rate.
 For a particular place at a particular time, the existing temperature can be
determined by sending up a balloon equipped with a thermometer.
 The balloon moves through the air, and not with it.

 The temperature profile of the air, which the balloon measures, is called
the ambient lapse rate, environmental lapse rate are the prevailing lapse
rate.
 A super-adiabatic lapse rate also called a strong lapse rate occurs when the
atmosphere temperature drops more than 1°C/100 m.
 A sub-adiabatic rate also called weak lapse rate, is characterized by drop of
less than 1°C/100 m.
 A special case of weak lapse rate is the inversion, a condition which has
warmer layer above colder air.
 During super-adiabatic lapse rate the atmospheric conditions are unstable.
ww This is illustrated in the below figure2.2.2.
w.E
o If a parcel of air at 500m elevation, at 20°C is pushed upward to
1000m, its temperature will come down to 15°C (According to
asy
adiabatic lapse rate)
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net
Figure2.2.2 Stability and vertical air movement
[Source:https://www.sciencedirect.com/browse/journals-and-books]

 The prevailing temperature is however 10°C at 1000m. The parcel of air will be
surrounded by colder air and therefore will keep moving up.
 If the parcel is displaced downwards, it will become colder than its surroundings
and therefore will move down.
 Super-adiabatic conditions are thus unstable, characterized by a great deal of
vertical air movement and turbulence.
 The sub-adiabatic condition is by contrast a very stable system.
 Consider again a parcel of air at 500m elevation at 20°C. If the parcel is
displaced to 1000m, it will cool by 5°C to 15°C. But the surrounding air would
be warmer.
ww
 It will therefore fall back to its point of origin.
w.E
 If a parcel of air at 500m is pushed down, it will become warmer than its
surroundings and therefore will rise back to its original position. Thus, such
asy
systems are characterized by very limited vertical mixing.
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

2.3 ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY AND TURBULENCE
Stability:
 The ability of the atmosphere to enhance or to resist atmospheric motions.

 Influences the vertical movement of air.
o If the air parcels tend to sink back to their initial level after the lifting
exerted on them stops, the atmosphere is stable.
o If the air parcels tend to rise vertically on their own, even when the lifting
exerted on them stops, the atmosphere is unstable.
o If the air parcels tend to remain where they are after lifting stops, the
ww atmosphere is neutral.
w.E
 The stability depends on the ratio of suppression to the generation of turbulence.
 The stability at any given time will depend upon:
asy
o Static stability ( related to changes in temperature with height)
En
o Thermal turbulence ( caused by solar heating)
o Mechanical turbulence ( A function of wind speed and surface roughness)
 Stability classified into 6 classes (A-F) gin
eer
A Strongly Unstable
i ng.
B
C
Moderately
Slightly
Unstable
Unstable
net
D Slightly Neutral
E Slightly Stable
F Moderately Stable
Table 2.3.1 Classification of stability

 Atmospheric stability can be determined using adiabatic lapse rate..

Γ>Γd Unstable
Γ= Γd Neutral
Γ< Γd Stable
Table 2.3.2 Condition of lapse rate
Where,
Γ is environmental lapse rate
Γd is the dry adiabatic lapse rate (1°C/100 m)
ww dT/dZ = -1°C/100 m
Turbulence:
w.E
 Fluctuations in wind flow, which have a frequency of more than 2 cycles/hr.
asy
 In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is fluid motion characterized by
En
chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity.
gin
 It is in contrast to a laminar flow, which occurs when a fluid flows in parallel
layers, with no disruption between those layers.
eer
 Turbulence is commonly observed in everyday phenomena such as surf, fast
i ng.
flowing rivers, billowing storm clouds, or smoke from a chimney, and most fluid
flows occurring in nature or created in engineering applications are turbulent.
 Turbulence is caused by excessive kinetic energy in parts of a fluid flow. net
o Which overcomes the damping effect of the fluid’s viscosity.
o For this reason turbulence is commonly realized in low viscosity fluids.
 In general terms, in turbulent flow, unsteady vortices appear of many sizes which
interact with each other, consequently drag due to friction effects increases.
 Turbulence can be exploited.
Example:
By devices such as aerodynamic on aircraft that “spoil” the laminar flow to

increase drag and reduce lift.

Types of Turbulence:
1. Mechanical turbulence:
It occurs because friction slows the wind in the lowest layers causing the air to
turn over in turbulent eddies which can cause fluctuations in winds and vertical
velocities.
2. Convective Turbulence:
Turbulence occurring in convective storms, particularly thunderstorms, that is

felt by aircraft. The turbulence is caused by strong updrafts and downdrafts.
ww
3. Clear- Air Turbulence (CAT):
w.E
Clear-air turbulence is the turbulent movement of air masses in the absence of
any visual clues, such as clouds, and is caused when bodies of air moving at widely
different speeds meet. asy
4. Wake Turbulence: En
gin
Wake turbulence is a disturbance in the atmosphere that forms behind an aircraft
eer
as it passes through the air. Wake turbulence can impose rolling moments exceeding the
i ng.
roll-control authority of encountering aircraft, causing possible injury to occupants and
damage to aircraft.
5. Thermal Turbulence: net

Thermal turbulence is caused by solar heating of the surface, which in turn heats
the lower atmosphere resulting in uneven convective currents, which lead to turbulence.
These thermals act as obstructions to the normal air flow similar to mountainous terrain.
6. Temperature inversion turbulence:
An inversion occurs when the normal temperature (warm air below, cold air
above) profile is reversed, creating a stable configuration of dense, cold air sitting
below lighter, warm air.

7. Frontal Turbulence:
Frontal turbulence is caused by lifting of warm air, a frontal surface leading to

instability, or the abrupt wind shift between the warm and cold air masses. The most
severe cases of frontal turbulence are generally associated with fast-moving cold fronts.
8. Mountain Wave Turbulence:
It is as air flows over the tops of mountains, traveling down the leeward side, a
standing mountain wave is formed and air currents oscillate between altitudes.
Mountain waves and turbulence can extend for hundreds of miles downwind of the
mountain range.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

2.4 INVERSION
 Inversion is defined as increase in temperature with respect to altitude. It is also

known as negative lapse rate.
 An inversion is an extreme sub-adiabatic condition, and thus the vertical air
movement within the inversion is almost nil.
 The two most common kinds of inversion are subsidence inversion and radiation
inversion.
 The base of the subsidence inversion lies some distance above the earth’s surface.
 This type of inversion is formed due to adiabatic compression and warming of
ww sinking air mass to a lower altitude in the region of a high pressure centre.
 In the case of radiation inversion, the surface layers of a atmosphere during the
w.E
day receive heat by conduction, convection and radiation from the earth’s surface
and are warmed.
asy
 This results in a temperature profile in the lower atmosphere, which is
En
represented by a negative temperature gradient.
gin
 On a clear night, the ground surface radiates heat and quickly cools.
Types of inversion: eer

1. Subsidence Inversion i ng.
2. Radiation Inversion
3. Combination of subsidence and radiation

net
1. Subsidence Inversion
• It occurs high above emission sources.

• Associated with high-pressure systems Inversion layer is formed aloft Covers
hundreds of thousands of square kms contributes to long term air pollution
problems.
• Persists for several days and greatly contribute to long term accumulation of
pollutants.
• Gets broken by strong winds at that altitude.
• Elevation of base of inversion varies from about 200m to around 1000m.
2. Radiation Inversion
• Surface layers of the atmosphere during the day receive heat by conduction,
convection and radiation from the earth’s surface and are warmed.
• This results in temperature profile in the lower atmosphere that is represented by a

negative lapse rate.
• These types of inversions are intensified in river valleys.
• Cause pollutants to be “trapped”.
ww
• Breakup after sunrise.
w.E
• Occurs in winter season in India.
asy
• Most likely to occur during windless and cloudless nights.
En
3. Combination of radiation and Subsidence inversion
gin
• It is possible for subsidence and radiation inversions to appear in the atmosphere
at the same time.
eer
i ng.
• Joint occurrence of these two types of inversions leads to a special phenomena
called ‘Trapping of plume’.
net
Figure 2.4.1 Illustrations of a) subsidence inversion, b)radiation inversion

and c)combination of subsidence and radiation inversion
[Source:https://images.app.goo.gl/Tc18ZmMKU6yUj27d7]

2.5 WIND PROFILES AND STACK PLUME PATTERNS/PLUME RISE
• The moving air is called wind, such a movement caused by the unequal
distribution of temperature and pressure on earth surface.
• A critical relationship exists between atmospheric stability and pollutant

concentrations.
• Pollutants that cannot be transported or dispersed into the upper atmosphere

quickly become trapped at ground level and pose a significant risk to human
health and the environment.
ww
• This relationship can be visualized in the behaviour of emission plumes from
Plume:
w.E
industrial smoke stacks.
asy
The dispersion of emitted gases from the source of their production is known as
plume and the source is known as stack. En
Plume rise: gin
eer
It is defined as the distance of the hot plume from the stack into the atmosphere,
due to the buoyancy and momentum. i ng.
Types of Plume rise:
net
Six types of air pollution plumes illustrate the relationship between atmospheric
stability and pollutant emissions:
• Looping plumes
• Fanning plumes
• Coning plumes
• Lofting plumes
• Fumigating plumes

• Trapping plumes.
1. Looping plumes:
• Pollution that is released into an unstable atmosphere forms looping plumes.
• Rapid changes in temperature and pressure may result in plumes that appear
billowing and puffy.
• While unstable conditions are usually favorable for pollutant dispersion, high
concentrations of air pollution forced down by cooling air can be harmful if
trapped at ground level.
ww
• This can occur on sunny days with light to moderate winds, which combine with
w.E
rising and sinking air to cause the stack gases to move up and down in a wavy
pattern producing a looping plume (Godish, 1997).
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
Figure 2.5.1 Looping plumes
net
[Source:http://stream1.cmatc.cn/pub/comet/EmergencyManagement/afwa_dis/comet/dispersion/afwa/txt/sect3.ht
m#classic]
2. Fanning plumes:
• A fanning plume occurs during stable conditions and is characterized by long,

flat streams of pollutant emissions.
• Because atmospheric pressure is stable, there is neither a tendency for emissions

to raise nor descend permitting (horizontal) wind velocity to transport and
disperse the pollutant.

• Fanning plumes are usually seen during the early morning hours just before the
sun begins to warm the atmosphere and winds are light (Godish, 1997).
ww Figure2.5.2 Fanning Plume
[Source:http://stream1.cmatc.cn/pub/comet/EmergencyManagement/afwa_dis/comet/dispersion/afwa/med
w.E
ia/graphics/classic1.gif]
3. Coning plumes:
asy
• Neutral or slightly unstable conditions create a coning plume that is distinguished
En
by large billows or puffs of pollutants.
gin
• Coning plumes are typically formed on partly cloudy days when there is an
alternate warming and cooling of the atmosphere. eer
i ng.
• Warm gases released into cool, ambient air mix, expand, and rise into the upper
atmosphere (Godish, 1977).
net
Figure 2.5.3 coning Plume
[Source:http://stream1.cmatc.cn/pub/comet/EmergencyManagement/afwa_dis/comet/dispersion/afwa/me
dia/graphics/classic4.gif]

4. Lofting plumes:
• When the atmosphere is relatively stable, warm air remains above cool air and
creates an inversion layer.
• Pollutants released below the inversion layer will remain trapped at ground level
and, in the absence of any atmospheric instability, prevent the upward transport
of the pollutant.
• When there is little or no vertical mixing, pollutants tend to form in high

concentrations at ground level.
ww
• When conditions are unstable or neutral above the inversion layer, stack gases
w.E
above that level form a lofting plume that can effectively disperse the
pollutant into the upper atmosphere (Godish, 1997).
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
Figure 2.5.4 Lofting Plume net
dia/graphics/classic2.jpg]
5. Fumigating plumes:
• In the early morning, if the plume is released just below the inversion layer, a
very serious air pollution episode could develop.
• When pollutants are released below the inversion layer, gaseous emissions
quickly cool and descend to ground level.

• This condition is known as fumigation and results in a high concentration of

pollution that can be damaging to both humans and the environment alike.
ww Figure 2.5.5 Fumigating Plume
w.E
6. Trapping plumes:
asy
• Lapse rates and atmospheric stability weak lapse rate below, Inversion
aloft(Trapping) En
gin
• Radiation inversion at ground level, subsidence inversion at higher altitude
(evening-night) eer
i ng.
net
Figure 2.5.6 Trapping Plume

2.6 ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION THEORIES
Dispersion of Pollutants:
 Air pollution dispersion is distribution of air pollution into the atmosphere.

 Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or
other harmful materials into Earth’s atmosphere, causing disease, death to
humans, and damage to other living organisms such as food crops, or the
natural or built environment.
 Air pollution may come from anthropogenic or natural sources.
 Dispersion refers to what happens to the pollution during and after its
ww introduction; understanding this may help in identifying and controlling it.
w.E
 Air pollution dispersion has become the focus of:
 Environmental conservationists
asy
 Governmental environmental protection agencies (local, state,
En
province and national) of many countries regarding air
pollution control.
gin
Dispersion Modelling
eer
reducing the concentration of the pollutants. i
Dispersion is the process of spreading out the emission over a large area thereby
ng.
 Plume dispersion is in two dimensions
 Horizontal
net
 Vertical
 It is assumed that the greatest concentration of the pollutants is on the
plume centreline in the direction of the prevailing wind.
 The further the away from the centreline the lower the concentration.
Air Quality Modelling
 Predict pollutant concentrations at various locations around the source.

 Identify source contributions to air quality problems.
 Assess source impacts and design control strategies.

 Predict future pollutant concentrations from sources after implementation

of new regulatory programs.
 Mathematical and numerical techniques are used in AQM to simulate the
dispersion of air pollutants.
ww
w.E
asy
Figure 2.6.1 Areas Surrounding the Site of Release
En
[Source:https://slideplayer.com/slide/13655520/84/images/95/Areas+Surrounding+the+Site+of+Release.jpg]
 Modelling of the dispersion of pollutants

gin
 Toxic and odorous substances
 Single or multiple points eer
 Point, area, or volume sources. i ng.
 Input data required for Air Quality Modelling
 Source characteristics net
 Meteorological conditions
 Site and surrounding conditions.
 Types of Pollutant Sources
 Point sources (e.g., stacks or vents)
 Area sources (e.g., landfills, ponds, storage piles)
 Volume sources (e.g., conveyors, structures with multiple vents)

Air Quality Models

Air Quality Models
Deterministic Stastical Physical
Regression Emprical Wind tunnel

simulation
Deterministic Time Dependent
ww
Gaussian Plume
w.E Box Gold Spectral Puff Trajectory
asy Eulerian Lagrangian
En
Figure 2.6.2 Classification of Air Quality Models
gin
[Source:https://images.app.goo.gl/hK4D6GWGL7Bj5nqd6]
Factors affecting in Dispersion of Pollutants

eer
 Factors affecting Dispersion of pollutants in the Atmosphere i ng.
 Source characteristics
 Emission rate pollutant net
 Stack height
 Exit velocity of the gas
 Exit temperature of the gas
 Stack diameter
 Meteorological conditions
 Wind velocity
 Wind direction
 Ambient temperature
 Atmospheric stability

TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION DISPERSION MODELS
 There are four types of air pollution dispersion models, as well as some
hybrids of the five types:
 All the models studied here will be using a general material balance that is
(Equation 1):
Accumulation rate = All flow rates in - All flow rates out
+ Creation rate - Destrction rate ...(1)
1. Box Model
ww
 The box model is the simplest of the model types.
w.E
 It assumes the air shed (i.e., a given volume of atmospheric air in a geographical
region) is in the shape of a box.
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
Figure 2.6.3 Rectangular city, showing the symbol of used in the fixed box model
net
[Source:http://shodor.org/media/content/hpcu/website/resources/xsede14/AirPollutantConcentrationModels]
It also assumes that the air pollutants inside the box are homogeneously
distributed and uses that assumption to estimate the average pollutant concentrations
anywhere within the air shed.
Although useful, this model is very limited in its ability to accurately predict
dispersion of air pollutants over an air shed because the assumption of homogeneous
pollutant distribution is much too simple.

 The city is a rectangle with dimension W and L and one side is parallel with wind
direction.
 Complete atmospheric turbulence is produced and totals mixing of pollutants up
to H and no mixing above this height.
 The turbulence is strong enough in the upwind direction that the pollutant
concentration is uniform in the whole volume of air over the city and not higher
as downwind side than upwind side.
 The wind blows in x direction with velocity u. This velocity is constant and is
independent of time, location or elevation above the ground (steady state
condition). We use average u between at the ground and at H.
ww
 The concentration of pollutant entering the city (at x= 0) is constant and is equal
w.E
to b (background concentration). The units are g/m³ or μg/m³.
 The air pollution rate of the city is Q (g/s). This is usually given as emission rate
asy
per unit area, q, g/s.m². the conversation can be made by
Q= qA
En
Where,
gin
A is the area (W x L)
eer
 No pollutant enters or leaves through the top or side of the box. i ng.
 The pollutant is long-lived in the atmosphere (destruction rate= 0).
The emission rate is constant and unchanging with time (in steady state
net
condition). With all these assumption, the general mass balance equation is simplified
as below (Equation 2):
0
Accumulation rate = = All flow rate in - All flow rate- out
0 0
+ + Creation rate - - rate
Destruction ...(2)

So, that the equation is simplified as below;
0= (all flow rates in) – (all flow rates out)
There are 2 flow rates. The flow rate of the pollutant into the upwind side is
Flow rate in = (uWH)b = (volume/time) x (mass/volume)
= mass/time
The second flow in is that the pollutant emitted by the city into the lower boundary,
Flow rate in = Q = qWL
ww
According to the assumption, the concentration of entire city is a constant and equal to
c.
w.E
The flow rate out is:
asy
Flow rate out = (uWH)c
En
Then, substitute all these equations into equation 2, will ield;
0= (uWHb + QWL –uWHc) gin

0= [W(uHb + QL – uHc)] eer
uHc = b+QL/uH i
....(3) ng.
This equation is the same as the continuous-stirred-tank reactor (CSTR) model
that is widely used in chemical engineering.
net
2. Gaussian Model
The Gaussian Model is perhaps the oldest (circa 1936) and perhaps the most
commonly used model type.
Gaussian plume model is usually called as diffusion model and sometimes

dispersion model. Most of diffusion model used Gaussian plume idea which is also a
material balance model. In this model, a point source such as a factory smoke stack is
selected and the downwind concentration resulting from this point source is calculated.

 It assumes that the air pollutant dispersion has a Gaussian distribution,

meaning that the pollutant distribution has a normal probability
distribution.
 Gaussian models are most often used for predicting the dispersion of
continuous buoyant air pollutant distribution has a normal probability
distribution.
 Gaussian models may also be used for predicting the dispersion of non-
continuous air pollution plume (called puff models).
 The primary algorithm used in Gaussian modelling is the Generalized
Dispersion Equation for a Continuous Point-Source Plume.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net
Fig 2.6.4 Co-ordinate system and nomenclature for Gaussian Plume
[Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gaussian_Plume_(SVG).svg]
Where,
C = Downwind concentration
Q = Pollution source emission rate
u = Average wind speed
σy = y direction plume standard deviation
σz = z direction plume standard deviation

x = Position in the x direction or downwind direction
y = Position in the y direction
z = Position in the z direction
H = Effective stack height
From the figure , the origin of the coordinate system is placed at the base of the
smokestack with the x axis aligned in the downwind direction.
 The contaminated gas stream or plume rising from the smoke stack (∆h)
and then travel in x direction and spread in the y and z direction as it
ww travels.
w.E
 The plumes normally rise higher above the smoke stack because they are
emitted at higher temperature than atmosphere and with vertical velocity.
asy
En
For the calculations, the plume is assumed to be emitted at coordinate.
(0, 0, H)
gin
Where,
eer
and plume rise i
H is effective stack height which is the summation of the physical stack height
ng.
(h + Δh). net
The smoke emitted at the point source is assumed to be a non- buoyant pollutant
ar emission rate Q(g/s) and blows in x direction with velocity u that independent of
time, elevation or location.
The problem is to compute the concentration due to this source at any point (x, y,
z) for x>0.
If the molecular diffusion alone were causing the plume to mix with the
surrounding air, the plume will spread slowly as a thin steak moving straight down the
sky.

Figure 2.6.5 Time exposure of a visible plume
 The spread of the plume does not depend on molecular diffusion only.
 The main cause of the spreading is the large scale turbulent mixing that exists in
ww atmosphere.
w.E
 The twisting behaviour is caused by the turbulent motion of the atmosphere that
is superimposed on the plume’s large scale linear motion caused by horizontal
wind.
asy
En
 This turbulent motion is random in nature; a snapshot taken after a few minutes
gin
after the first will show different snapshot in different places.
 Time averages the variation and thus the concentration will appear quit uniform
and symmetrical. eer
i ng.
net
Figure 2.6.6 Snapshot of a visible plume
(i)Gaussian Plume Derivation
Discovering on how the air expands by turbulent mixing, we need to

perform material balance around some small cube of space near the centre of the plume.
Assume that neither material is created nor destroyed in the atmosphere:

Accumulation rate = = All flow rates in - All flow rates

- out
0 0
+ Creation rate - -
Destruction rate ...(4)
Accumulation rate = (all flow rates in) – (all flow rates out)
ww
w.E
asy
En
Figure 2.6.7 Dimension of cube used for material balance
gin
eer
The accumulation rate is the time derivative of the amount contained that is
concentration and volume. But the volume of the cubes is not changing with time:
i ng.
Dispersion = Advection (Transport) + Dilution
= Advection + Diffusion
net
(∂C/∂t) = -∂/∂x(u ̅ C)∇t + Ki (𝜕 2 C/∂t2 )
̅ ∇C - ∇F
(∂C/∂t) = U ̅t + Q + R
Where,
̅̅̅̅̅ , ̅̅̅̅̅
̅ t = [u'C'
F v'C' , ̅̅̅̅̅
w'C']
Where,
C = pollutant concentration
t = time

= wind vector
Q = source term
R = removal term
= turbulent flux of pollutants
The deterministic based air quality model is developed by relating the rate of
change of pollutant concentration in terms of average wind and turbulent diffusion
which, in turn, is derived from the mass conversation principle.
∂C ∂C ∂C ∂C 𝜕 ∂C 𝜕 ∂C 𝜕 ∂C
= − (u +v +w )+ KH + KH + Kz +Q+R
ww
Where,
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z 𝜕x ∂x 𝜕y ∂y 𝜕z ∂z
C w.E
= pollutant concentration
t = time asy
En
x, y, z = position of the receptor relative to the source
u, v, w gin
= wind speed coordinate in x, y and z direction
Kx, Ky, Kz = coefficients of turbulent diffusion in x, y and z direction eer

Q = source strength i ng.
R = sink (changes caused by chemical reaction) net
 The above diffusion equation is derived in several ways under different set of
assumptions for development of air quality models.
 Gaussian model is one of the mostly used air quality model based on
‘deterministic principle’.

ww Figure 2.6.8 Gaussian plume Dispersion model
w.E
 The basic approach for development of deterministic vehicular pollution
asy
(line source) model is the coordinate transformation between wind
En
coordinate system (X1, Y1, Z1) and line source coordinate system (X, Y,
Z).
gin
eer
i ng.
net
Figure 2.6.9 Line co-ordinate system

 A hypothetical line source is assumed to exist along Y 1 that makes the

wind direction perpendicular to it (fig). the concentration at receptor is
given by Csanady (1972):
(ii)Gaussian plume Dispersion model: Assumptions
 Steady state conditions, which imply that the rate of emission from the
ww point source is constant.

 Homogeneous flow, which implies that the wind speed is constant both in
w.E
time and with height (wind direction shear is not considered).
asy
 Pollutant is conservative and no gravity fallout.
 Perfect reflection of the plume at the underlying surface, i.e. no ground
absorption. En
gin
 The turbulent diffusion in the x-direction is neglected relative to advection
eer
in the transport direction, which implies that the model should be applied
for average wind speeds of more than 1 m/s (> 1 m/s).
i ng.
 The coordinate system is directed with its x-axis into the direction of the
net
flow and v (lateral) and w (vertical) components of the time averaged wind
vector are set to zero.
 The terrain underlying the plume is flat.
 All variables are ensemble averaged, which implies long-term averaging
with stationary conditions.
Advantages
 Produce results that match closely with experimental data

 Incorporate turbulence in an ad-hoc manner
 Simple in their mathematics
 Quicker than numerical models

 Do not require super computers
Disadvantages
 Not suitable if the pollutant is reactive in nature

 Fails to incorporate turbulence in comprehensive sense
 Unable to predict concentrations beyond radius of approximately 20 Km
 For greater distances, wind vibrations, mixing depths and temporal variations
become predominant.
3. Lagrangian Model
ww  A Lagrangian dispersion model mathematically follows pollution plume

parcels (also called particles) as the parcels move in the atmosphere and they
w.E
model the motion of the parcels as a random walk process.
asy
 The Lagrangian model then calculates the air pollution dispersion by
computing the statistics of the trajectories of a large number of the pollution
plume parcels. En
gin
 A Lagrangian model uses a moving frame of reference as the parcels move
from their initial location.
eer
i
 It is said that an observer of a Lgrangian model follows along with the plume.
ng.
4. Eulerian Model
An Eulerian dispersions model is similar to a Lagrangian model in that it also

net
tracks the movement of a large number of pollution plume parcels as they move from
their initial location.
 The most important difference between the two models is that the Eulerian model
uses a fixed three-dimensional Cartesian grid as a frame of reference rather than a
moving frame of reference.
 It is said that an observer of an Eulerian model watches the plume go by.
APPLICATIONS OF DISPERSION MODELLING
The application of dispersion modelling is given below.

 Air shed modelling

 Roadway emissions modelling
 Modelling coastal fumigation
 Visibility modelling
 Dispersion modelling on larger scales
 The regional scale
 Long-range transport
 Salt and steam effects: cooling towers
EXAMPLE FOR MODELLING
ww Prognostic meteorological models Prognostic models ate driven by large-scale
w.E
synoptic analyses and numerically solve the equations if atmospheric dynamics to
determine local meteorological conditions.
1. RAMS and MM5 asy

En
 RAMS is most commonly used prognostic meteorological model in New
gin
Zealand (Wratt et al., 2001), followed by MM5, ARPS, and (more
recently) TAPM, RAMS and MM5.
eer
 RAMS and MM5 are three-dimensional, non-hydrostatic prognostic
mesoscale models. i ng.
MM5 is the fifth-generation NCAR/Penn State Mesoscale model. The model
includes a multiple nesting capability, non-hydrostatic dynamics and four-dimensional
net
data assimilation (Dudhia et al., 1999). MM5 is free to users, while RAMS is subjected
to licensing costs.
Both models enjoy widespread use throughout the world, are well supported,
continually under development, have been used in many studies, and appear regularly in
the scientific literature.
Advantages
 Have the ability to assimilate local meteorological data.

 Have realistic dynamical and physical formulations, suitable for simulations in

New Zealand’s complex environment.
 Can produce realistic meteorological fields in data-sparse regions.
 Are flexible enough to couple output meteorological fields to the dispersion
model runs at any resolution (e.g. RAMS coupled to HYPACT).
Disadvantages
 Have relatively high computational demands

 Require a large amount of user knowledge and expertise to produce reliable and
convincing results
ww
 Do not themselves include dispersion models, and the associated dispersion
w.E
models do not necessarily comprise all of the features required for regulatory
assessments (e.g. building effects).
2.TAPM asy
En
At present, most prognostic models require significant computer resources
gin
to run. They also describe a comprehensive collection of meteorological
eer
phenomena and are widely used in meteorological research.
i ng.
However, some features that contribute significantly to the computational
cost of mesoscale modelling are not important for air quality simulations, such as
gravity waves and complicated microphysical processes. net
Careful formulation of the model dynamics so as to omit or filter out these
features can increase the run speed, enabling longer runs to be contemplated for
regulatory applications. This has been done with the CSIRO’s TAPM.
 TAPM is a PC-based three-dimensional prognostic meteorological

modelling system, including various dispersion modules.
TAPM has a GUI that allows the user to set up and run the model under
the Windows operating system.

It connects to databases of terrain, vegetation, soil type, sea surface temperature

and synoptic-scale meteorological analyses for Australia and New Zealand, as well as
most regions throughout the world.
 TAPM is driven by six-hourly synoptic analyses at approximately 75 km

resolution.
 This database is derived from LAPS analysis data from the Bureau of
Meteorology.
Advantages
 It is easy to use and completely self-contained, with good visualization of model

ww results.
w.E
 The model output is easy to convert for input into other models, such as
CALMET, AUSPLUME, DISPMOD and ISCST3.
asy
 As for any prognostic model, it requires no local data to run, although it has the
En
ability to assimilate local surface meteorological data.
gin
 It is designed to run on a modern personal computer.
 Describes the effects of point, line and volume sources, simulates the effects of
eer
buildings on dispersion, and simulates chemical reactions between pollutants.
i ng.
 Resolution of the pollution dispersion models can be higher than that of the
meteorological model- and will usually need to be for regulatory assessments.
Disadvantages
net
 Although easy to use, a high level of understanding of boundary-layer
meteorology and pollution dispersion is needed, as with all prognostic model
systems, to produce meaningful results.
 The maximum horizontal resolution of the meteorological model component of
TAPM is of the order of a 1 km grid-size.
 If meteorological features are expected, or geographical forcing is present at
smaller scales, then the user should take care.

 Although assimilation of meteorological data is possible, care must be taken to

ensure that the meteorological data are representative of the scales modelled by
the meteorological model.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

ww
w.E
UNIT 3a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF CONTROL EQUIPMENT
There are a number of factors to be considered prior to selecting a particular in

air pollution control equipment. In general, they can group into three categories.
o Environmental
o Engineering
o Economic
1. Environmental
Equipment location, availability space, ambient conditions, availability of
ww
adequate utilities and ancillary system facilities.
w.E
 Maximum available emissions ( air pollution regulation )
 Contribution of air pollution control system to waste water and solid waste.
asy
 Contribution of air pollution control system to plant noise levels.
2. Engineering
En
gin
 Design and performance characteristics of the particular control system ( size and
eer
weight, pressure drop , reliability and dependability, temperature limitation,
maintenance requirement)
i ng.
 Gas stream characteristics ( volume, flow rate, temperature, pressure, humidity,
composition, viscosity, density, reactivity, corrosiveness and toxicity)
 Contaminant characteristics ( physical and chemical properties, concentration,
net
particulate shape and size distribution in the case of particulates )
3. Economic
 Capital cost ( equipment, installation, engineering, etc. )

 Operating cost ( utilities, maintenance, etc. )
 Expected equipment lifetime and salvage value.

3.2 GAS PARTICLE INTERACTION
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid
and plasma). A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like
neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atoms (e.g. Oxygen), or compound
molecules made from a variety of atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide)
 A gas mixture, such as air, contains a variety of pure gases. What distinguishes a
gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles.
 This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer.
 The interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields
ww are considered negligible, as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the

image.
w.E
 The gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states, the
asy
latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases.
En
 Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases,
which are gaining increasing attention.
gin
Physical properties/ Macroscopic characteristics:
eer
four physical properties or macroscopic characteristics: i
Most gases are difficult to observe directly, they are described through the use of
ng.
o Pressure
o Volume
net
o Number of particles
o Temperature
 Gas particles are widely separated from one another, and consequently, have
weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids.
 These intermolecular forces result from electrostatic interactions between gas
particles.
 Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged
regions of different gas particles attract one another; Gases that contain
permanently charged ions are known as plasmas.

 Gaseous compounds with polar covalent bonds contain permanent charge

imbalances and so experience relatively strong intermolecular forces, although
the molecule while the compound’s net charge remains neutral.
 Transient, randomly induced charges exist across non- polar covalent bonds of
molecule and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Vandar
Waals forces.
 The interaction of these intermolecular forces varies within a substance which
determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas.
 A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent
bonds leads as to this conclusion.
ww
 The drifting smoke particles in the image provide some insight into low –
w.E
pressure gas behavior.
 Compared to the other states of matter, gases have low density and viscosity.
asy
Pressure and temperature influence the particles within a certain volume.
En
 This variation in particle separation and speed is referred to as compressibility.
gin
This particle separation and size influences optical properties of gases as can be
found in the following list of refractive indices.
eer
 Finally, gas particles spread apart or diffuse in order to homogeneously distribute
themselves throughout container.
i ng.
net

3.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE, DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE EQUATIONS OF

GRAVITY SEPARATORS
Working Principle
 They are generally used to remove large, abrasive particles (usually > 50 mm)
from gas streams. Since most of the troublesome particles have much smaller size
than 50 mm, there devices are usually used as per cleaners prior to passing the
gas stream through high efficiency collection device.
 Settling chambers, which rely on gravitational settling as a collection mechanism,
are the simplest and oldest mechanical collectors. Settling chambers are generally
ww built in the form of long, horizontal, rectangular chambers with an inlet at one
w.E
end and an exit at the side or top of the opposite end.
 Flow within the chamber must be uniform and without any macroscopic mixing.
asy
Hoppers are used to collect the settled-out material, though drag scrapers and
En
screw conveyers have also been employed.
 The dust removal system must be sealed to prevent air from leaking into the
gin
chamber which increases turbulence, causes dust re-entrainment, and prevents
dust from being properly discharged from the device. eer
i ng.
 There are two primary types of settling chambers: the expansion chamber and the
multiple-tray chamber. In the expansion chamber, the velocity of the gas stream
is significantly reduced as the gas expands in a large chamber. The reduction in
velocity allows larger particles to settle out of the gas stream.
net
 A multiple-tray settling chamber is an expansion chamber with a number of thin
trays closely spaced within the chamber, which causes the gas to flow
horizontally between them.
 While the gas velocity is increased slightly in a multiple-tray chamber, when
compared to a simple expansion chamber, the collection efficiency generally
improves because the particles have a much shorter distance to fall before they
are collected. Multiple-tray settling chambers have lower volume requirements
than expansion-type settling chambers for the collection of small particles.

 The efficiency of settling chambers increases with residence time of the waste
gas in the chamber. Because of this, settling chambers are often operated at the
lowest possible gas velocities.
 In reality, the gas velocity must be low enough to prevent dust from becoming re-
entrained, but not so low that the chamber becomes unreasonably large. The size
of the unit is generally driven by the desired gas velocity within the unit, which
should be less than 3 m/s (10 ft/sec), and preferably less than 0.3 m/s (1 ft/sec).
Design and Performance Equations of Gravitational Settling Chamber:
If we assume that Stokes law applies we can derive a formula for calculating
ww
the minimum diameter of a particle collected at 100% theoretical efficiency in a
w.E
chamber of length L.
asy
Vt/H=Vh/L
En
gin
Where ,
eer
Vt=terminal settling velocity, m/s
i ng.
g=gravitational constant m/s
ρp=density of particle, kg/m

2
3
net
ρa=density of flue gas, kg/m3
dp=diameter of particle, m
µa=viscosity of air, kg/ms
H=height of settling chamber, m
vh=horizontal flow velocity, m/s
L=length of settling chamber, m.

Solving for dp gives an equation that predicts the largest-size particle that can be
removed with 100% efficiency from a settling chamber of given dimension.
ww
w.E Figure3.3.1 Gravity settling chamber
asy
[Source:https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/psr-2016-0122/asset/graphic/j_psr-2016-0122_figure6.jpg]
Advantages of Settling Chambers:

En
1. Low capital cost
gin
2. Very low energy cost
eer
i
3. No moving parts, therefore, few maintenance requirements and low operating costs
ng.
4. Excellent reliability
5. Low pressure drop through device

net
6. Device not subject to abrasion due to low gas velocity
7. Provide incidental cooling of gas stream
8. Temperature and pressure limitations are only dependent on the materials of

construction
9. Dry collection and disposal.

Disadvantages of Settling Chambers:
1. Relatively low particulate matter collection efficiencies, particularly for particulate

matter less than 50 µm in size.
2. Unable to handle sticky or tacky materials.
3. Large physical size; and
4. Trays in multiple-tray settling chamber may warp during high-temperature

operations.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

3.4 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS
Working Principle / Operational Considerations:
A cyclone separator consists of a cylindrical shell, conical base, dust hopper and
an inlet where the dust-laden gas enters tangentially. Under the influence of the
centrifugal force generated by the spinning gas, the solid particles are thrown to the
wall of the cyclone as the gas spirals upward at the inside of the cone. The particles
slide down the walls of the cone and into the hopper. The operating efficiency of a
cyclone depends on the magnitude of the centrifugal force exerted on the particles. The
greater the centrifugal force, the greater the spreading efficiency. The magnitude of the
ww
centrifugal force generated depends on particle mass, gas velocity within the cyclone,
w.E
and cyclone diameter.
asy
Where, En
Fc= Centrifugal force, N gin
Mp=Particulate mass, Kg eer
Vi=Equals particle velocity i ng.
R= Equals radius of the cyclone, m/s. net
From this equation ,it can be seen that the centrifugal force on the particles, and thus the
collection efficiency of the cyclone collector can be increased by decreased R. Large-
diameter cyclone have good collection efficiencies for particles 40 to 50μm in diameter.
Mechanism of Action
The dust laden gas enters tangentially, receives a rotating motion and generates a
centrifugal force due to which the particulates are thrown to the cyclone walls as the gas
spirals upwards inside the cone. The particulates slide down the walls of the cone and
are discharged from the out let.

ww
w.E Figure 3.4.1 Cyclone Separator
asy
[Source:https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/psr-2016-0122/asset/graphic/j_psr-2016-0122_figure7.jpg]
En
 Centrifugal force is utilized to separate the particulate matter.
 It can remove 10 to 50μm particle size. gin
 Used mostly in industries.
eer
Advantages:
i ng.
 Low initial cost.
 Require less floor area.
net
 Simple construction and maintenance.
 Can handle large volume of gas at high temperature.
Disadvantages:
 Requires large head room.

 Less efficiency for smaller particles (<10μm).
 Sensitive to variable dust load and flow rate.

3.5 FABRIC FILTERS
 Flue gas is allowed to pass through a woven fabric, which filters out particulate
matter.
 Small particles are retained on the fabric.
 Consists of numerous vertical bags 120-400 mm dia and 2-10 m long.
 Remove particles up to 1 μm.
 Its efficiency up to 99%.
Working Principle/Operational Considerations:
ww Most baghouses use long, cylindrical bags (or tubes) made of woven or felted
fabric as a filter medium. For applications where there is relatively low dust loading and
w.E
gas temperatures are 250 °F (121 °C) or less, pleated, nonwoven cartridges are
asy
sometimes used as filtering media instead of bags.
 Dust-laden gas or air enters the baghouse through hoppers and is directed into the
baghouse compartment. En
gin
 The gas is drawn through the bags, either on the inside or the outside depending
eer
on cleaning method, and a layer of dust accumulates on the filter media surface
until air can no longer move through it.
i ng.
 When a sufficient pressure drop (ΔP) occurs, the cleaning process begins.
 Cleaning can take place while the baghouse is online (filtering) or is offline
(in isolation).
net
 When the compartment is clean, normal filtering resumes.
 Baghouses are very efficient particulate collectors because of the dust cake
formed on the surface of the bags.
 The fabric provides a surface on which dust collects through the following four
mechanisms:
1. Inertial collection
Dust particles strike the fibers placed perpendicular to the gas-flow direction
instead of changing direction with the gas stream.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
Figure 3.5.1 Fabric Filter
i ng.
[Source:https://emis.vito.be/sites/emis/files/data_sheets/migrated/fabric_filter_luss_2.PNG]
2. Interception net
Particles that do not cross the fluid streamline come in contact with fibers because
of the fiber size.
3.Brownian movement
Submicrometre particles are diffused, increasing the probability of contact between

the particles and collecting surfaces.
4.Electrostatic forces
The presence of an electrostatic charge on the particles and the filter can
increase dust capture.

A combination of these mechanisms results in formation of the dust cake on

the filter, which eventually increases the resistance to gas flow. The filter must be
cleaned periodically.
 Filter bags usually tubular or envelope –shaped are capable of removing most
particles as small as 0.5mm and will remove substantial quantities of particles as
small as 0.1mm.
 Filter bags ranging from 1.8 to9m long ,can be utilized in a bag house filter
arrangement shown in figure 3.5.2
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Figure 3.5.2 Baghouse eer
i ng.
[Source:https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/3-s2.0-B9780750672948500208-f20-07-9780750672948.gif]
 As particulates build up on the inside surface of the bags, the pressure drop
increases.
net
 Before the pressure drop becomes too severe, the bag must be relieved of some of
particulate layer .Fabric filter can be cleaned intermittently, periodically, or
continuously.
Design and performance equations:
 Pressure drop, filter drag, air-to-cloth ratio, and collection efficiency are essential
factors in the design of a baghouse.
 Pressure drop is the resistance to air flow across the baghouse. A high pressure
drop corresponds with a higher resistance to airflow.

 Pressure drop is calculated by determining the difference in total pressure at two

points, typically the inlet and outlet.
 Filter drag is the resistance across the fabric-dust layer.
 The air-to-cloth ratio (ft/min or cm/s) is defined as the amount of gas entering the
baghouse divided by the surface area of the filter cloth.
 Commonly baghouses are designed with 99.9% collection efficiency. Often
cleaned air is recirculated back into the plant for heating.
Advantages
 Higher collection efficiency for smaller than 10 μm particle size

ww
 Performance decrease becomes visible, giving pre warning.
w.E
 Normal power consumption.
Disadvantages
asy
En
 High temperature gases need to be cooled.
 High maintenance and fabric replacement cost.
 Large size equipment. gin
 Fabric is liable to chemical attack eer
i ng.
net

3.6 PARTICULATE SCRUBBERS
Combustion is sometimes cause of harmful exhausts, but, in many cases, combustion

may also be used for exhaust gas cleaning if the temperature is high enough oxygen is
available.
1. Wet Scrubber
Wet scrubbers to solve air pollution control problems for over 40 years. The five
principal designs customizable to meet your requirements:
 Scrubber with no moving parts
ww
 Dynamic scrubber with integral fan
 High
w.E
efficiency venturi scrubber
 Multi-venturi scrubber
 Packed
asy
towers for gas absorption
Working Principle/Operational Consideration:
En
gin
 Scrubbing liquid is introduced into the scrubber as a spray directed down over a
circular “scrubbing vane” arrangement.
eer
 As the liquid drains through the vanes, it creates curtains of scrubbing liquid.
i ng.
 Dust laden gas enters the scrubber tangentially and collides with the curtains
initiating particle agglomeration.
 The coarse particles produced are washed down to the slurry outlet.
net
 A restriction disc located in the scrubbing vane assembly accelerates the spin
velocity of the gas.
 This action combined with the flood of atomized liquid from the spray causes the
formation of fine liquid droplets which encapsulate the fine particulates, again
enhancing agglomeration.
 The cyclonic action of the saturated gas stream as it spins upward forces the
agglomerated particles to fall out of suspension.
 The coarser droplets impinge on the mist eliminator vanes and the finer droplets are
forced to drop out of suspension by gravitational and centrifugal forces acting on the
gas stream as it exits through the top.
Design and Performance Equations:
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
Figure 3.6.1 Wet scrubbers
net
[Source:https://energyeducation.ca/wiki/images/thumb/e/eb/Wetscrubber.png/360px-Wetscrubber.png]
 The design of wet scrubbers or any air pollution control device depends on the
industrial process conditions and the nature of the air pollutants involved.
 Inlet gas characteristics and dust properties (if particles are present) are of
primary importance.
 Scrubbers can be designed to collect particulate matter and/or gaseous pollutants.
 The versatility of wet scrubbers allow them to be built in numerous

configurations, all designed to provide good contact between the liquid and
polluted gas stream.

 Wet scrubbers remove dust particles by capturing them in liquid droplets.
 The droplets are then collected, the liquid dissolving or absorbing the pollutant
gases.
 Any droplets that are in the scrubber inlet gas must be separated from the outlet
gas stream by means of another device referred to as a mist eliminator
or entrainment separator (these terms are interchangeable).
 The resultant scrubbing liquid must be treated prior to any ultimate discharge or
being reused in the plant.
 A wet scrubber's ability to collect small particles is often directly proportional to

ww the power input into the scrubber.
w.E
 Low energy devices such as spray towers are used to collect particles larger than

5 micrometers.
asy
En
To obtain high efficiency removal of 1 micrometer (or less) particles generally
requires high-energy devices such as venturi scrubbers or augmented devices
such as condensation scrubbers. gin
 eer
A properly designed and operated entrainment separator or mist eliminator is
important to achieve high removal efficiencies.
i ng.
 The greater the number of liquid droplets that are not captured by the mist
eliminator, the higher the potential emission levels. net
 Wet scrubbers that remove gaseous pollutants are referred to as absorbers.
 Good gas-to-liquid contact is essential to obtain high removal efficiencies in

absorbers.
 Various wet-scrubber designs are used to remove gaseous pollutants, with

the packed tower and the plate tower being the most common.
 If the gas stream contains both particulate matter and gases, wet scrubbers are
generally the only single air pollution control device that can remove both
pollutants.

 Wet scrubbers can achieve high removal efficiencies for either particles or gases
and, in some instances, can achieve a high removal efficiency for both pollutants
in the same system.
 In many cases, the best operating conditions for particles collection are the
poorest for gas removal.
 In general, obtaining high simultaneous gas and particulate removal efficiencies

requires that one of them be easily collected (i.e., that the gases are very soluble
in the liquid or that the particles are large and readily captured), or by the use of
a scrubbing reagent such as lime or sodium hydroxide.
ww
2.Dynamic Scrubber
w.E
Working Principle/Operational Considerations
 Dust laden gas enters the lower chamber of the scrubber tangentially, imparting a
asy
cyclonic action to the stream.
En
 Coarse particles are removed by a combination of centrifugal and gravitational
forces. gin
eer
 The stream encounters slurry, created in a later stage, coming down from the upper
i
chamber and becomes partially wetted, initiating agglomeration.
ng.
 As the stream spins through a series of scrubber vanes, intermediate sized particles
net
impinge on the wetted surfaces of the vanes. These particles are then washed down.
 The gas stream containing the remaining fine dust is drawn into an adjacent chamber
containing a wetted fan.
 Atomized scrubbing liquid is sprayed into the eye of the fan, further reducing
droplet size.
 These droplets encapsulate the fine dust particles, thus enhancing agglomeration.
 The gas stream then flows into the upper chamber tangentially at high velocity.
 The wet agglomerated particles are forced by cyclonic action against the chamber
walls and drain down to the internal discharge cone.

 The gas stream, free of liquid droplets, spins out through an outlet atop the scrubber.
Clean gas
Wetted fan
Cyclonic separator
Scrubbing
liquid inlet
ww
Dirty gas
w.E
Scrubbing vanes
Slurry
asy
Figure 3.6.2 Dynamic Scrubber
En
[Source: https://www.nedermanmikropul.com/en]
3.Venturi Scrubber: gin

eer
 The design of the MikroPul Venturi Scrubber consists of a “wet approach” venturi
followed by a liquid entrainment separator.
i ng.
 Dust laden gases enter the venturi and instantly make contact with the tangentially
introduced scrubbing liquid swirling down the venturi’s converging walls. net
 At the venturi throat, the gas and liquid streams collide and the liquid breaks down
into droplets which trap dust particles.
 This gas/liquid mixture passes through a flooded elbow, and then enters the
entrainment separator through a tangential inlet.
 Centrifugal action removes the heavy wetted particles from the gas stream. As an
alternate, when very large diameter separators are required, the liquid is separated by
passing the stream through a chevron-type mist eliminator baffle.
 The dust/liquid mixture is discharged from the separator bottom drain and the
cleaned gas leaves through the top of the separator.

ww
w.E
asyFigure 3.6.3 Venturi Scrubber
[Source:https://emis.vito.be/sites/emis/files/data_sheets/migrated/venturi_scrubber_luss_2.PNG]
4. Multi-venturi scrubber: En
Working Principle/Operational Considerations gin
eer
The dirty gases are directed through a venturi-rod deck where atomized scrub
i ng.
water is introduced cocurrently with the gas stream. The scrub water is sprayed through
a series of low pressure, large orifice nozzles, dis- tributing it evenly across the deck.
The gas rapidly accelerates as it passes through the venturi-rods. This action
net
creates smaller droplets, causing encapsulation of the particles and increasing the
collection efficiency of submicron particles.
As the gases exit the venturi-rod area, velocity slows causing the larger
particulate laden droplets to fall out of the stream. The scrubbed gasses are then
directed toward a two-stage demisting zone by distribution baffles or turning vanes.
Primary demisting and gas distribution occurs in the pre- demist area, which removes
90% of the water. The remaining free water droplets are removed by impingement on
the final stage demist vanes.

The scrub water collected prior to the demist section flows down the scrub-
ber floor to the drain trough. The de- watered scrubbed gases are exhausted via the
scrubber outlet.
ww
w.E Figure 3.6.4 Multi-Venturi Scrubber
[Source:https://emis.vito.be/sites/emis/files/data_sheets/migrated/venturi_scrubber_luss_2.PNG]
Advantages: asy
En
 Can handle flammable and explosive dusts with little risk
 Can handle mists gin

 Relatively low maintenance eer
 Simple in design and easy to install i ng.
 Collection efficiency can be varied
 Provides cooling for hot gases; and

net
 Corrosive gases and dusts can be neutralized
Disadvantages:
 Effluent liquid can create water pollution problems
 Waste product collected wet
 High potential for corrosion problems
 Protection against freezing required
 Off gas may require reheating to avoid visible plume

 Collected PM may be contaminated, and may not be recyclable; and
 Disposal of waste sludge may be very expensive.

5.Two-stage scrubbers:
 The most commonly used is a Mikropul Venturi Scrubber with a Packed Bed
section.
 It is used to remove particulate as well as gaseous contaminants from the gas

stream.
 The principles of operation are as described for the Venturi scrubber and Packed
ww Tower designs.
w.E
 The designs are optimized by using pH control, liquid circuit separation, and mist
asy
eliminators to enhance removal efficiencies for specific contaminants.
Another common 2-stage design is a Multi-venturi inlet with a Dynamic or

En
Mikrovane Scrubber. It utilizes the Multi-Venturi rod deck technology as a pre-cleaner
gin
to the Dynamic Scrubber or as a retrofit component to enhance performance of an
existing Dynamic or Mikrovane Scrubber.
eer
Clean gas
i ng.
Packed Tower
net
2nd stage
Venturi 1st stage
Figure 3.6.5 Two-stage scrubbers
[Source :https://www.nedermanmikropul.com/en]

3.7 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
This electrical equipment was first introduced by Dr.F.G. Cottel in 1906 and was
first economically used in 1937 for removal of dust and ash particles with the exhaust
gases of thermal power plants
 The electrostatic precipitators are extensively used in removal of fly ash from
electric utility boiler emissions.
 The use of this collector is growing rapidly because of the new strict air quality
codes.
 An electrostatic precipitator can be designed to run at any desired efficiency for
ww use as a primary collector or as a supplementary unit to a cyclone collector.
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net
Figure 3.7.1 Electrostatic Precipitators
[Source:http://www.redecam.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ESP1.jpg]

It is often considered worthwhile to retain an existing cyclone as a primary

collector in cases where collection efficiencies must be upgraded especially where there
is large amount of unburnt carbon in fly ash( about 15%) because the presence of large
quantities of carbon in the gas can adversely affect the collection efficiency of a
precipitator.
General Arrangements of an ESP:
 Ionization
Charging of particles.
 Migration
ww Transporting the charge particles to collecting surface
w.E
 Collection
Precipitation of the charged onto the collecting surfaces.
 Particle discharge:
asy
En
Removing the particles from the collecting surface to the hopper.
 Particle removal:
gin
Conveying the particles from the hopper to a disposal point
Components of ESP: eer

i.Control cabinet i ng.
net
Control cabinet is used to interconnect the 3φ ac supply and transformer
through cables Transformer. Transformer is used to step up or step down voltage
as per design of Electrostatic precipitator.
ii.Rectifier
Rectifier is used to convert ac supply into dc supply.
iii. Hooper
Hooper is used to store dust particles and ash content coming out from
the Electrostatic precipitator.

ww
w.E
asy
Figure 3.7.2 Basic Diagram for ESP
En
[Source:https://images.app.goo.gl/PXjCWhC6RUm4c1Zk8]
iv. Electrodes
gin
eer
Based on DC current flow terminals electrodes can be divided as
below
i ng.
v. Discharge electrode
Electrodes wire which carries negatively charged high voltage

net
(between 20 to 80KV) act as discharge or emitting electrodes.
vi.Collector electrode
Electrode plate / wire which carries positively charged high voltage

act as Collecting electrodes. Collector electrodes Discharge electrode

Working Principle /Operational Considerations:
ww Figure 3.7.3 Electrode in ESP
w.E
[Source:https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/word-image356.png]
The dust laden gas is passed between oppositely charged conductors and it
asy
becomes ionized as the voltage applies between the conductors is sufficiently large.
En
As the dust laden ad is passed through these highly charged electrodes, both
gin
negative and positive ions are formed, the later being as high as 80%. The ionized gas is
eer
further passed through the collecting units which consist of a set of vertical metal
plates. Alternate plates are positively charged and earthed.
i ng.
As the alternate plates are earthed, high intensity electrostatic field exerts a
force on positively charged dust particles and drives them toward the grounded plates.
The deposited dust particles are removed from the plates by giving the shaking motion
net
to the plates with the help of cam driven by external means.
The dust removed from the plates with the help of shaking motion is
collected in the dust hoppers. Care should be taken that the dust collector in the hopper
should not be entrained in the clean gas.
Advantages of Electrostatic Precipitator
 This is more effective to remove very small particles like smoke, mist and fly
ash.

 Its range of dust removal is sufficiently large (0.01 micron to 1.00 micron). The
small dust particles below 10 microns cannot be removed with the help of
mechanical separators and wet scrubbers cannot be used if sufficient water is
now available. Under these circumstances, this type is very effective.
 This is also most effective for high dust loaded gas (as high as 100 grams per cu.
meter)
 The draught loss of this system is the least of all forms(1 cm of water)
 It provides ease of operation.
 The dust is collected in dry form and can be removed either dry or wet.
ww
Disadvantages of Electrostatic Precipitator

w.E
The direct current is not available with the modern plants, therefore considerable
asy
electrical equipment is necessary to convert low voltage (400 V) A.C to high
voltage (60000 V) D.C. This increases the capital cost of the equipment as high
En
as 40 to 60 cents per 1000 kg of rated installed steam generating capacity.

gin
The running charges are also considerably high as the amount of power required

for charging is considerably large.
The space required is larger than the wet system. eer
 i ng.
The efficiency of the collector is not maintained if the gas velocity exceeds that
net
for which the plant is designed. The dust carried with the gases increases with an
increase of gas velocity.
 Because of closeness of the charged plates and high potential used, it is necessary
to protect the entire collector from sparking by providing a fine mesh before the
ionizing chamber. This is necessary because even a smallest piece of paper might
cause sparking when it would be carried across adjacent plates or wires.
Factors affecting the performance of E.S.P.
The present trend in adopting the gas cleaning device is to discharge the
clean gas without containing SO2 to the atmosphere. One solution to this problem is to
burn fuels containing less sulphur, but unfortunately low sulphur fuels are costly to use.

 In most cases burning low sulphur fuel increases the electrical resistivity of fly
ash, particularly at low temperatures.
 This higher and unpredictable resistivity at low temperatures coupled with high
collection efficiencies demand can spell trouble for low temperature
precipitators.
 That's why pollution engineers are leaning towards precipitators operating at
about 345 degrees where resistivity is not dependent on sulphur level in the flue
gases.
 The principle of electrostatic precipitator is described in 3 stages as charging of
the suspended particles, collecting of particulates under the influence of
ww electrostatic field and removal of the precipitate from the collector plate.

w.E
Many factors influence these three fundamental steps but they are critical to the
reliability and performance of high temperature precipitators which are
listed below: asy
1.Corona characteristics: En
gin
eer
 Initiation of corona depends upon free electrons by random sources such as
natural radioactivity.
i ng.
Under the influence of an electrical field, these electrons are accelerated
to a terminal velocity.
The rapidly moving electrons produce additional free electrons y
net
colliding with the orbital electrons of gas molecules and by ionization.
 At higher temperatures, flue-gas density is reduced, resulting in a reduced
starting potential.
At higher temperatures, lower voltages initiate the corona to start the
precipitation process, resulting in more collection for a given voltage
than at lower temperatures.
 Electrostatic precipitators operated at maximum power input have steep
corona characteristics.

The rate of change of corona current is much greater than the

concurrent charge in precipitator-circuit voltage.
The steeply rising corona current is further enhanced by increasing
temperature of the stack gases.
The net effect is to maximize power levels to achieve high
efficiency.
2.Resistivity of the particles:
 Particulate resistivity is probably the most important basic variable
ww influencing the precipitator and therefore is an important design

consideration.A too high level of electrical resistivity or too low level
w.E
causes collection difficulty.
 A high resistivity dust, such as sulphur, does not readily give up its
asy
negative charge and assumes a positive charge. This causes the particulate
En
to be repelled back into the gas stream of negatively charged particles.
gin
 A low resistivity dust can be collected and repelled in this manner many
eer
times before finally being emitted to the atmosphere. Therefore, the
presence of large quantities of carbon in the ash can adversely affect the
collection efficiency of a precipitator. i ng.
 One thumb rule followed by designer is to downgrade the efficiency of the
unit by 1% for every 1% of carbon in the gas over 15%. Therefore, one
net
always wishes a medium resistivity for good collection efficiency.
 In coal fired boilers, sulphur in the form of SO2 affects resistivity.
Resistivity has two components, one related to the bulk of the material and
another is related to the surface of the particle, absorbed layer of gas.
 As the temperature increases, the absorbed surface contaminants evaporate
and surface resistivity increases. And with all insulating materials, the
volume resistivity increases with decreasing temperature.

3.Rapping behaviour:
 This is perhaps the most complex among the three performance steps. Non
electrical adhesive forces which play a significant role in plate rapping, vary
inversely with particle diameter, but depend generally on the chemical and
physical nature of the particle. Moisture can increase adhesion at lower
temperatures.
 Particle resistivity has a critical effect on the electrical force causing particles
to slick to the collection plates: the more resistive the particle, the greater the
force.
ww  Operation at low temperatures and high resistivity requires considerably more
w.E
rapping acceleration on the collection plates than it does under normal
resistivity, and higher temperatures.
asy
 Conventional practice limits maximum average gas velocity in high resistivity
En
and low temperature operation to approximately 1.2 m/s.
 This limit avoids losses due to re-entrainment of particles which can occur
gin
when the dust layer is dislodged violently. In contrast, precipitators run at 1.7
m/s gas velocity at higher temperature.
eer
4.Gas velocity: i ng.
 There are two forces acting on a particle having direct right angles to each
other.
net
First is due to the flow of gas
Second is produced by the electric force on the ionized particle
perpendicular to the motion of the gas.
 The path followed by the particle will take direction which is resultant of the
two forces mentioned above.
 Therefore the efficiency of the collector decreases with an increase in velocity
which can be compensated by increasing the voltage supplied to the plates.

ww
w.E
UNIT 4a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF CONTROL EQUIPMENT
There are a number of factors to be considered prior to selecting a particular in

air pollution control equipment. In general, they can group into three categories.
o Environmental
o Engineering
o Economic
1. Environmental
Equipment location, availability space, ambient conditions, availability of
ww
adequate utilities and ancillary system facilities.
w.E
 Maximum available emissions ( air pollution regulation )
 Contribution of air pollution control system to waste water and solid waste.
asy
 Contribution of air pollution control system to plant noise levels.
2. Engineering
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 Design and performance characteristics of the particular control system ( size and
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weight, pressure drop , reliability and dependability, temperature limitation,
maintenance requirement)
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 Gas stream characteristics ( volume, flow rate, temperature, pressure, humidity,
composition, viscosity, density, reactivity, corrosiveness and toxicity)
 Contaminant characteristics ( physical and chemical properties, concentration,
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particulate shape and size distribution in the case of particulates )
3. Economic
 Capital cost ( equipment, installation, engineering, etc. )

 Operating cost ( utilities, maintenance, etc. )
 Expected equipment lifetime and salvage value.

4.2 ABSORPTION
Absorption is a physical or chemical process of removing a pollutant from a gas

phase media by dissolving the pollutant into a solvent media. Solvent media is most
commonly a liquid phase, but can be a dry bulk solid in certain systems. The material
that absorbs is called the solvent, and the gas that is to be absorbed is called the solute.
The most common form of absorption is wet scrubbing. A wet scrubber is the generic
name of a control device that uses the process of absorption to separate the pollutant
from a gas stream
The most common type of wet scrubber is a packed-bed counter flow scrubber
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(which is what we will be discussing in this technology review). There are other types
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of scrubbers, such as cross flow, bubble plate and tray scrubbers, and more
sophisticated or proprietary designs.
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The sketch below provides a very basic flow diagram and points out the common
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components of a cross flow wet scrubber. The gas stream that contains the pollutants to
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be removed enters from the bottom of the scrubber and quickly turns upward towards
the exhaust at the top of the scrubber. The random packing provides necessary surface
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area to distribute the liquid solvent and encourage contact between the two medias. The
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liquid scrubbing media (or solvent) enters near the top of the scrubber and is distributed
over the random packing. The liquid adsorbs the pollutants from the gas phase and is
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collected in the sump of the scrubber. Prior to exiting the scrubber, the gas phase passes
over a mist eliminator and exits to the atmosphere.
Water is a very common scrubbing fluid, but there are many processes or
pollutants that require different fluids or solvent types. One of the determining factors
in calculating the performance capability of a scrubber is understanding the pollutants’
solubility in water (the assumed scrubbing fluid in this example). Calculating the
relationship of the pollutants’ solubility in a scrubbing fluid is called the absorption
equilibrium.

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Figure 4.2.1Absorption
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[Source:https://www.cpilink.com/hsfs/hubfs/Images/Product_Images/Scrubber.jpg?width=483&name=Scrubber.jpg]
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The principle advantages of a wet scrubber for gaseous organic pollution control are
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low capital and installation costs and simplicity of design. However, there are a number
of limitations that should be understood:
1. Pollutant Removal Efficiency: i ng.

Depending on the organic pollutant, the absorption equilibrium may not allow
enough of the pollutant to be absorbed into the solvent, and the resultant exhaust to the
net
atmosphere may not be adequate to meet EPA clean air act regulations. For a wide
variety of VOCs, the maximum removal efficiency may only reach 90%.
2. Scrubbing Liquid:
Water is the most common scrubbing liquid. Water has a relatively low cost, and
control loops allow for some degree of recirculation, which helps to lower the fresh
water addition to the system. However, if certain pollutants require a modified solvent,
additional chemical costs and control systems can quickly increase the total cost of
solvent use.

3. Byproducts:
The principle drawback to using a wet scrubber for organic pollutant removal is
the transference of an air pollution control problem to a water (liquid) pollution control
problem. If the site has a water treatment plant, a study must be conducted to determine
if any impact to the plant’s operation will be affected by adding the new waste stream.
If the liquid waste is discharged directly to the sewer, careful examination must be
conducted to insure the downstream municipality is not negatively affected, or
additional fees will be incurred.
4. Maintenance:
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target gas stream has particulates or biological impurities, these can increase the
potential for plugging media, biologic growth, and pump and piping degradation.
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4.3 ADSORPTION
 When a gas or vapor is brought into contact with a solid, part of it is taken up by
the solid.
 The molecules that disappear from the gas either enter the inside of the solid, or
remain on the outside attached to the surface.
 The former phenomenon is termed absorption (or dissolution) and the latter
adsorption.
 The most common industrial adsorbents are activated carbon, silica gel, and
alumina, because they have enormous surface areas per unit weight.
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 Activated carbon is the universal standard for purification and removal of trace
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organic contaminants from liquid and vapor streams
 Carbon adsorption systems are either regenerative or non-regenerative.
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 Regenerative system usually contains more than one carbon bed. As one bed
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actively removes pollutants, another bed is being regenerated for future use.
 Non-regenerative systems have thinner beds of activated carbon.
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 In a non-regenerative absorber, the spent carbon is disposed of when it becomes
saturated with the pollutant.
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Use of Activated carbon is determined by: i ng.


Flow rate
Pollutant concentration: Higher usage at higher pollutant concentrations.
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However, the specific load increases; in other words, one needs less activated
carbon to collect a particular pollutant quantity.
 Pollutant type
 Gas temperature: Higher temperatures lead to higher usage.
 Gas humidity: Higher humidity level leads to higher usage
 Pressure: Higher pressure leads to lower usage

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Figure 4.3.1 Adsorption
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Advantages
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[Source:https://emis.vito.be/sites/emis/files/data_sheets/migrated/active_carbon_adsorption_2.PNG]
 High efficiency in VOC removal net

 Simple and robust technology
 Suitable for discontinuous processes
 Easy to maintain
 Easy to place
Disadvantages
 Dust can lead to blockages
 Component mixes may lead to early malfunction
 Not suitable for wet flue gases (less critical for impregnated activated carbon)
 Risk of spontaneous combustion in the bed (ketones, turpentines…)

 Polymerisation risk for unsaturated hydrocarbons on the activated carbon

(exothermal and causes blockages)
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net

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4.4 CONDENSATION
 Condensation is the process of converting a gas or vapor to liquid.
 Any gas can be reduced to a liquid by lowering its temperature and/or increasing
its pressure.
 Condensers are typically used as pretreatment devices.
 They can be used ahead of absorbers, absorbers, and incinerators to reduce the
total gas volume to be treated by more expensive control equipment.
 Condensers used for pollution control are contact condensers and surface
condensers
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 In a contact condenser, the gas comes into contact with cold liquid.
 In a surface condenser, the gas contacts a cooled surface in which cooled liquid
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or gas is circulated, such as the outside of the tube.
 Removal efficiencies of condensers typically range from 50 percent to more than
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95 percent, depending on Surface condenser Contact condenser.
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Figure 4.4.1 Contact and Surface Condenser
[Source:https://www.prakrriti.com/images/air-pollution-control-systems/condensation.jpg]
 REFRIGERATED CONDENSER
A refrigerated condenser is a control device that is used to cool an emission stream
having organic vapors in it and to change the vapors to a liquid.
A refrigerated condenser condenses organic vapors just as moisture is condensed
to water in an air conditioning system.

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However, while condensed water from an air conditioning system is disposed of

via a drain, condensed organic vapors can be recovered, refined, and might be reused,
preventing their release to the ambient air.
 Importance
Nitrogen oxides (NOx, the x is used because there are five oxides) and VOC
react with each other in ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun to produce tropospheric
ozone.
Ozone in the troposphere (the air we breathe in the lower atmosphere) is the
principle constituent of smog and is harmful to public health. Refrigerated condensers
can reduce VOC emissions, which reduces the ozone generating potential of NOx. NOx
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reduction techniques are discussed in a separate CATC Technical Bulletin.
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Many organic compounds have been designated as negligibly reactive with
regard to ozone formation and are exempt from VOC regulations. Although some VOC
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maybe HAP, compounds exempt from VOC regulations also may be HAP and need to
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be controlled, in addition, stratospheric ozone depleting chemicals are not considered
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VOC or HAP, but still need to be controlled. Stratospheric ozone protects us from the
harmful rays in sunlight.
 Uses: eer
i ng.
A refrigerated condenser works best on emission streams containing high
concentrations of volatile organic emissions. They are less effective on dilute streams
(i.e., where there is much more air flow than organic vapor flow). net
Example:
A paint spray booth requires a substantial amount of air flow through it to
protect worker health and safety. As a result, most of the heat removed by a
refrigerated condenser would come from air. The organic vapor content in a paint booth
emission stream could be recovered by using .a refrigerated condenser, but it would be
very costly per ton of organic compound recovered. In addition, to reuse the organic
compound, moisture condensation would probably need to be removed.

A refrigerated condenser could be a viable control option for any source of

evaporative organic emissions if:
 There is minimal air flow carrying the organic emissions (i.e., the air stream is
saturated with the organic compound)
 The organic vapor containment system limits air flow
 Required air flow does not overload a refrigeration system with heat
 Only one organic compound is emitted (or the system is designed for the
compound that is the most difficult to control)
Refrigerated condensers often are used in the following applications:
1.Dry Cleaning Industry :
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solvent) with virtually no air flow. The vapors are usually condensed without air being
used to transport them.
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2.Degreasers using VOC or Halogenated Solvents :
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Some air is mixed with vapors because the solvent is uncovered (i.e.,
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exposed to the atmosphere). Preparation (degreasing/cleaning) of parts prior to powder
coating is one example of this.
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 Transfer of Volatile Organic Liquid (VOL) and Petroleum Products (e.g., bulk
plants, bulk terminals, and similar transfer operations). i ng.
 Vapors from Storage Vessels/Tanks
 REFRIGERATION net
All refrigeration units are basically "heat pumps," absorbing heat on the "cold
side" of the system and releasing heat on the "hot side" of the system. All refrigeration
systems have a hot side and a cold side. Some have a compressor.
The difference between refrigeration systems is whether the refrigerant is actually
liquified within the apparatus and how low a temperature the "cold side"can reach.
Working of the Refrigerated Condensers:
 Each type of refrigeration system chills a heat exchanger surface in a
condenser, and organic vapor condenses on the cold heat exchanger (or heat
transfer) surface.

 Condensation of organic vapor causes it to lose volume.

 This loss of volume produces a lower concentration of vapor near the heat
exchanger (i.e., the condensation) surface.
 This produces a concentration gradient that causes the flow of the emission
stream toward the heat exchange surface.
 Condensation is assisted by turbulence in the emission stream that also brings
the emission stream close enough for heat transfer and subsequent condensation
of the organic vapors.
Only a negligible fraction of a percent escapes this combined action when the
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condenser is sized large enough and the refrigerant temperature is low enough. A
finite vapor pressure is always present that allows some vapor to remain in the
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exhaust stream at all times.
 Reverse Bravton Cycle Systems
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Reverse Brayton Cycle machines must be externally powered by an electric
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motor, a gas turbine, or an internal combustion (piston) engine. It is easier to reach the
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rotational speed of the turbine with either an electric motor or a gas turbine than with a
piston engine.
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Reverse Brayton Cycle turbines operate inversely from the normal operating
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cycle for gas turbines. Instead of converting heat to shaft horsepower, the Reverse
Brayton Cycle system uses shaft horsepower to remove heat and reject it to the
atmosphere.
net
As shown in Figure, it does this by first compressing the refrigerant air, then
rejecting the heat of compression at an elevated temperature, and finally expanding the
refrigerant air through a turbine to get useful work from it.
 As a result of the lack of heat input, temperature rise from compression, followed by
dissipation of heat, and the work that the refrigerant air flow does on the expansion
turbine, exhaust from the expansion turbine is very cold, reaching about -73°C (-
100°F).
 The expansion turbine assists the external power source in spinning the compressor
turbine.

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Figure 4.4.2 Reverse Brayton Cycle Refrigeration System
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[Source:https://www.nuclear-power.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/reverse-Brayton-cycle-cooling-and-heat-pumps-min-
259x300.png?ezimgfmt=ng:webp/ngcb49]
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 The refrigerant air never liquefies in this cycle. Organic vapors may go through the
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Reverse Brayton Cycle along with the refrigerant air and no heat exchanger surface ng.

would then be required.
Reverse Brayton Cycle machines cool the refrigerant air (and organic vapors if they
net
are contained in the refrigerant air) to a very low temperature in what appears to be a
single step, although it may actually be several steps in the expansion turbine.
 All of the vapors condense essentially together.
 If the cold refrigerant air is used to chill a heat exchanger (surface condenser) as
in Figure, the organic vapor can be condensed without going through the cycle.
 When organic vapor is exposed only to a heat exchange surface, the heat
exchanger can be like any other refrigerated condenser.
 The refrigerant air in a Reverse Brayton Cycle system does not contaminate the
organic
compound, but several organic compounds may be mixed in the vapor state and
therefore may be condensed together and mixed in a condensed liquid or slurry.
Reverse Brayton Cycle machines do not have a pre-cooling feature to separate
moisture. To the extent that moisture is present in the vapor, it will be present in the
condensed organic liquid. Some organic compounds can be separated by skimming,
others require fractional distillation for purification.
After completing the Reverse Brayton Cycle, the refrigerant air can be either
recycled or exhausted to the atmosphere. Because some organic compounds are
actually frozen they should be separated as solid particles. To the extent that the
refrigerant air recovers some of its heat before it is again compressed, or for some low
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melting point compounds, these organic compounds also maybe recovered as a liquid.
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Multiple filter channels can allow one compound to warm up for recovery, while the
other is chilled by cleaning the cold refrigerant air flow. While frozen organic particles
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must be captured by a filter, organic droplets can be captured by inertia! impact or in a
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cyclone separator. In both cases the cut-off particle/droplet size depends on the design.
 Cryogenic Cooling
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Cryogenic Cooling uses no power at the plant where it is used for cooling, but the
air separation plant that generates liquid nitrogen usually is electrically powered. The
i ng.
truck used to deliver liquid nitrogen to the user's plant will also use fuel. The
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distribution of liquid nitrogen in a plant is self-powered by the pressure of the gaseous
nitrogen that results from heat leakage which causes the liquid nitrogen to boil.
Cryogenic Cooling starts at an air separation plant. Air is compressed, cooled
and then expanded to atmospheric pressure. This expansion cools some fraction of the
compressed air to make it a liquid. The air that has become liquid is then allowed to boil
to give off Argon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, etc. at their respective boiling point temperatures.
Each gas is then collected and condensed again by compression and expansion just like
the air originally was. This produces relatively pure liquid nitrogen that is used for
cryogenic cooling.
Factors Affect The Performance Of Refrigerated Condensers:
Any refrigerant can be used to cool the surface of a heat exchanger. The only
requirements are that the temperature is low enough and that the cooling capacity is
sufficient. When organic compounds are recovered along with moisture and other
contaminants, an impure organic compound may require too much effort to purify and
might be destroyed by burning. However, recovery and recycling of the organic
compound is the preferred outcome.
Each organic compound becomes liquid below its dew point, and becomes a solid
"frost" below its freezing point. This "frost" must be removed from a condenser
periodically, especially in cryogenic condensers because they are so cold, to allow free
flow of the emission stream containing organic vapor and to permit heat transfer to
occur as designed. The "frost" can be removed by flushing the condenser with the
condensed organic compound in its liquid phase. However, the liquid organic
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compounds are always mixed in the frost and slurry, just as the organic vapors were
mixed.
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Cryogenic condensers can be the coldest and therefore are capable of the highest
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DRE. Fluctuations in heat load caused by fluctuations in emission stream flow and
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organic vapor concentration are offset by a thermostatically controlled valve
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modulating the nitrogen flow.However, if cryogenic cooling is operated at a
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temperature well above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen, there will be locations
within the condenser that will be somewhat warmer than the thermostat setting because
i ng.
gaseous nitrogen has a low specific heat and is warming up as it passes through the
shell of the condenser.
The DRE is limited by the amount of organic vapor that escapes with the exhaust net
from the condenser. The amount of organic vapor that escapes is determined by both
the vapor pressure of the condensed liquid (i.e., the partial pressure of the organic
vapors in the emission stream) and the amount of air present in the emission stream. We
cannot always eliminate the air from the emission stream, but we can minimize both the
amount of air in the emission stream and the vapor pressure of organic compounds.
Therefore, condensation technology needs to:
1. Maximize the portion of the organic vapor that is affected by the cold surface in
the condenser (i.e., make the residence time large enough and the flow sufficiently
turbulent).

2. Minimize the partial pressure of the organic vapor after it comes in contact with
the heat exchanger (i.e., make the condenser cold enough and the refrigeration capacity
large enough).
3. Reduce the temperature of the organic compounds below the freezing point, if
possible,because vapor pressure becomes a minimum when organic compounds are
frozen. (This should be done even though frozen organic compounds must be removed
periodically.)
4. Minimize the amount of air in the emission stream that contains organic vapors.
Heat load is greater when you must chill a lot of air. Minimizing the amount of air
mixed with the organic vapors will reduce the heat load and increase the useful cooling
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(i.e., the cooling available for condensation). Reducing the heat load will reduce the
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cost of refrigeration. Increasing the useful cooling will improve the DRE.
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4.5 INCINERATION
 Incineration, also known as combustion, is most used to control the emissions of

organic compounds from process industries.
 This control technique refers to the rapid oxidation of a substance through the
combination of oxygen with a combustible material in the presence of heat.
 When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream is converted to carbon dioxide
and water vapor.
 Equipment used to control waste gases by combustion can be divided in three
categories:
ww  Direct combustion or flaring

 Thermal incineration and
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 Catalytic incineration
1. Direct Combustor asy

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 Direct combustor is a device in which air and all the combustible waste gases
react at the burner.
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 Complete combustion must occur instantaneously since there is no residence
chamber
i ng.
 A flare can be used to control almost any emission stream containing volatile
organic compounds.
 Studies conducted by EPA have shown that the destruction efficiency of a flare is
net
about 98 percent.
2. Thermal incineration
 In thermal incinerators the combustible waste gases pass over or around a burner
flame into a residence chamber where oxidation of the waste gases is completed.
 Thermal incinerators can destroy gaseous pollutants at efficiencies of greater than
99 percent when operated correctly.

Figure 4.5.1Thermal incinerator

[Source:https://mk0pccgroupd070oma36.kinstacdn.com/wp-content/uploads/thermal-oxidizer-graphic-
e1555350485609.png]
3. Catalytic incinerators
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 Catalytic incinerators are very similar to thermal incinerators.
 The main difference is that after passing through the flame area, the gases pass
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over a catalyst bed.
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 A catalyst promotes oxidation at lower temperatures, thereby reducing fuel costs.
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 Destruction efficiencies greater than 95 percent are possible using a catalytic
incinerator.
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Figure 4.5.2 Catalytic incinerator
[Source:https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/3-s2.0-B9780122896767500163-f13-22-9780122896767.jpg]
Performance Equations of Incineration or Oxidation:
Oxidation, or combustion as it pertains to the air pollution control industry,

can simply be defined as a rapid combination of oxygen with a fuel (in this case, a
volatile organic compound, or VOC). This process will result in the release of energy in
the form of heat and, if completed correctly in our world, the process will also release
carbon dioxide and water.

The basic combustion reaction looks like this:
CXHY + (x + y/4)O2 + Heat = xCO2 + (y/2)H2O + Heat
Where, CxHy is any hydrocarbon
O2 is oxygen
CO2 is carbon dioxide
H2O is water
The air pollution control industry typically refers to the equipment which
performs this process as oxidizers (i.e. thermal oxidizers, catalytic oxidizers,
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or regenerative thermal oxidizers).
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This is because most processes have excess oxygen (excess air),
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producing a lean mixture or an oxidizing combustion reaction. This blog will only focus
on these type of reactions.
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So far, we have talked about the end results of the combustion reaction.
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These end products are the same for all fuels containing different combinations of
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hydrogen and carbon within their chemical formulas. However, it should be noted that
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how these end products are achieved can take many different paths or reaction
mechanisms. Therefore, different flames, cold spots, or quenching surfaces can produce
many varied and unknown intermediate products. net
Example:
Carbon and hydrogen atoms may combine and disassociate to form unstable
compounds like carbon monoxide and different types of aldehydes.
The types of compounds formed and the speed of their formation and
disassociation depend upon the reaction conditions. Other reaction conditions that can
affect the combustion process other than temperature are items like pressure, O 2 levels
present, and mixing.
Most oxidizers operate at or near atmospheric pressure, so we will not explore

that variable in depth. As discussed above, most oxidizers also operate with excess air,
oxidizing the atmosphere, which means that the combination of the final products is
more dependent on temperature and mixing.
The mixing of the VOC is important to the combustion reaction. This reaction
needs a minimum temperature to start the process and efficiently proceed to the desired
end products of CO2 and H2O. Mixing is very important to provide a uniform
temperature to start the reaction. This is key to lowering fuel gas costs.
Mixing is also important with regards to the mixture of VOC and O 2. Every
particle of fuel or VOC must contact a particle of oxygen in order for the combustion
reaction to take place. Oxygen content and residence time at the combustion
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temperature is also important.
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The reaction rate of the combustion reaction is dependent on temperature; for
instance, an increase in temperature actually decreases the amount of time that is
needed to convert CO to CO2. asy
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 A decrease in O2 concentration would require better mixing, due to the lack of
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availability of O2 for the reaction completion.
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 Temperature, oxygen concentration, and residence time to reduce CO actually
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must be controlled in the opposite direction to reduce the amount of nitrogen
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oxides (NOx) emitted, so raising the temperature isn’t always the best solution.
Advantage: net
 One advantage of thermal incineration is that the energy and heat produced by
the process can be recovered and used to power other processes in the facility.
Disadvantages:
 Thermal incinerators are also not generally cost-effective for low-concentration,

high-flow organic vapor streams
 Thermal incinerators are not usually as economical, on an annualized basis, as
recuperative or regenerative incinerators because they do not recover waste heat
energy from the exhaust gases.

4.6 BIOSCRUBBERS
 A bio scrubber couples traditional air pollution control and wastewater treatment
technologies and consists of two units:
 The soluble waste gases and oxygen are continuously absorbed into water in the
scrubber.
 Biological oxidation occurs in the basin unit, which often is the activated sludge
basin of a wastewater treatment plant.
 Bio scrubbers are used where the biological degradation products (such as the acids
produced during H2S and NH3 removal) would harm a biofilter bed.
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 In addition to hydrocarbons, bio scrubbers are being used to remove chlorinated
organics. Bio scrubbers come in two forms:
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1. Activated-sludge scrubber:
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 Gaseous pollutants are absorbed by a solvent in a countercurrent packed column
tower.
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 The absorption solution generally is a water and sludge mixture (1-10 g sludge
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per liter of water). After absorption in the column, the solution proceeds to a
sedimentation tank where biodegradation takes place.
i ng.
 Clean solution from the sedimentation tank recycles back to the packed column.
2. Trickling-filter scrubbers: net

 As with the activated-sludge scrubber, gaseous contaminants are transferred into
the liquid phase with a countercurrent scrubber.
 Instead of being fed into an activated sludge pond, however, the pollutant-laden
scrubber wastewater is spread over a trickling filter.
 The technology offers greater control than does the activated sludge scrubber.
Applications Biofilters and Bioscrubbers:
 Biofilters and bioscrubbers have different applications, such as VOC treatment,

inorganic compounds treatment or odor reduction.

 Biofiltration is a biological process used for the treatment of volatile organic and
inorganic compounds.
 Biofiltration application uses microorganisms that subject contaminants
contained in air to biological degradation.
 During an air treatment process by biofiltration, polluted air passes through the
macro pores of the filter material.
 At this time the contaminants degrade in order to be subsequently transferred to a
liquid medium where they are used as carbon and energy sources (organic
compounds) or as a source of energy (inorganic compounds).
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 Use of biofiltration implies the production of biomass and the partial or
total oxidation of the contaminant.
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Biomass, under certain conditions, undergoes oxidation by endogenous

respiration.
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Thus, biofiltration processes result in a complete decomposition of the
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contaminants, creating non-hazardous products.
Advantages of bioscrubbers compared to biofilters: gin

• Smaller volume of the equipment eer
• Better pH control i ng.
• No clogging problems of packing materials net
• Lower occurrence of toxic concentrations in the water phase.
Disadvantages:
• Only cost-effective for pollutants with a dimensionless Henry's law's coefficient

below 0.01
• More difficult to attain elimination efficiencies higher than 98%
• More complicated start-up procedure
• Higher operational costs.

4.7 BIO-FILTRATION
 Bio-filtration is a pollution control technique using a bioreactor containing living

material to capture and biologically degrade pollutants.
 Common uses include processing waste water, capturing harmful chemicals or
silt from surface runoff, and microbiotic oxidation of contaminants in air
Examples of bio-filtration include:
 Bioswales, biostrips, biobags,bioscrubbers, Vermifilters and trickling

filters
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 Slow sand filters
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 Treatment ponds
 Green belts
 Green walls asy
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 Riparian zones, riparian forests, bosques
 Bivalve bioaccumulation
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Control of Air Pollution using Bio-Filters:
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i ng.
When applied to air filtration and purification, Bio-filters use microorganisms
to remove air pollution. The air flows through a packed bed and the pollutant transfers
into a thin biofilm on the surface of the packing material. Microorganisms, net
including bacteria and fungi are immobilized in the biofilm and degrade the pollutant.
Trickling filters and bio-scrubbers rely on a biofilm and the bacterial action in their
recirculating waters.
 The technology finds greatest application in treating malodorous compounds and

water-soluble volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
 Industries employing the technology include:
 Food and animal products
 Off-gas from wastewater treatment facilities
 Pharmaceuticals

 Wood products manufacturing

 Paint and coatings application
 Manufacturing and resin manufacturing .
 Compounds treated are typically mixed VOCs and various sulfur compounds,
including hydrogen sulfide.
 Very large airflows may be treated and although a large area (footprint) has typically
been required a large biofilter (>200,000 acfm) may occupy as much or more land
than a football field this has been one of the principal drawbacks of the technology.
 Engineered biofilters, designed and built since the early 1990s, have provided
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significant footprint reductions over the conventional flat-bed, organic media type.
 One of the main challenges to optimum biofilter operation is maintaining proper
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moisture throughout the system.
 The air is normally humidified before it enters the bed with a watering (spray)
asy
system, humidification chamber, bio-scrubber, or biotrickling filter.
En
 Properly maintained, a natural, organic packing media like peat, vegetable mulch,
gin
bark or wood chips may last for several years but engineered, combined natural
eer
organic, and synthetic component packing materials will generally last much longer,
up to 10 years.
i ng.
 A number of companies offer these types or proprietary packing materials and multi-
year guarantees, not usually provided with a conventional compost or wood chip bed
bio-filter.
net
 The scientific community is still unsure of the physical phenomena underpinning
bio-filter operation, and information about the microorganisms involved continues to
be developed.
A bio-filter/bio-oxidation system is a fairly simple device to construct and

operate and offers a cost-effective solution provided the pollutant is biodegradable
within a moderate time frame (increasing residence time = increased size and capital
costs), at reasonable concentrations (and lb/hr loading rates) and that the airstream is at
an organism-viable temperature.

 For large volumes of air, a bio-filter may be the only cost-effective solution.
 There is no secondary pollution (unlike the case of incineration where additional
CO2 and NOx are produced from burning fuels) and degradation products form
additional biomass, carbon dioxide and water.
 Media irrigation water, although many systems recycle part of it to reduce operating
costs, has a moderately high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and may require
treatment before disposal.
 This "blowdown water", necessary for proper maintenance of any bio-oxidation
system, is generally accepted by municipal publicly owned treatment works without
ww
any pretreatment.
 Bio-filters are being utilized in Columbia Falls, Montana at Plum Creek Timber

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Company's fiberboard plant.
asy
The bio-filters decrease the pollution emitted by the manufacturing process and the
exhaust emitted is 98% clean.
En
 The newest, and largest, bio-filter addition to Plum Creek cost $9.5 million, yet even
gin
though this new technology is expensive, in the long run it will cost less overtime
eer
than the alternative exhaust-cleaning incinerators fueled by natural gas (which are
not as environmentally friendly).
Types of Bio-Filters:
i ng.
1. Fixed Bed Bio-filters net
 Fixed Bed Bio-filters consist of a filter material that may be synthetic or organic,
which serves as support for the microorganisms.
 Some of the filter materials that may be used are porous rock, diatomaceous
earth, perlite, and ground wood chips as well as different types of compost or
organic waste.
 Fixed bed bio-filters operate by passing a humidified gas stream containing the
contaminants through the bed where they are degraded by the microorganisms.
 This is recommended for treating contaminants poorly soluble in water due to the
absence of the aqueous phase.

 It is important to note that the physical footprint of fixed bed bio-filters is greater
than other types of bio-filters.
2. Drained Bed Bio-filters
 Drained Bed Bio-filters consist of a packed column with an inert support where
biofilm develops.
 Through the bed, a gaseous stream is fed that contains the substrate to biodegrade
in addition to a liquid stream that is continually recycled through the bed.
 This liquid stream has the function of providing nutrients to the biofilm, as well
as removing the degradation products of the microorganisms.
ww These systems are recommended for water-soluble compounds.

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The recirculation of fluid facilitates the elimination of the reaction products as
well as better control over the biological process by pH control and composition
of the liquid medium. asy
En
 Drained bed bio-filters are the equipment with the smallest physical footprint in
addition to being simple to operate.
gin
3. Bio scrubbers
eer
i
 The compound to be degraded first is absorbed in the liquid phase located in an
absorption tower filled with liquid. ng.
 The operation involves making the gas flow in a countercurrent through the
liquid where the contaminants and oxygen are absorbed.
net
Figure 4.7.1Biofilter Schematic

[Source:http://compost.css.cornell.edu/odors/biofilter.gif]

 The liquid is fed to a reactor packed with an inert material covered with biofilm
that is responsible for degrading the pollutant.
 Bio-scrubbers are the most suitable systems for the treatment of highly water-
soluble compounds.
 Their advantage in respect to biofilters is that they do not accumulate products
that can have harmful effects on the microorganisms.
 They facilitate control of the biological process through the composition of the
liquid medium.
However, bio-scrubbers are more costly because they require two systems, one
ww
for absorption and one for the biodegradation of the contaminant, therefore making
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them less economical than drained bed bio-filters.
The selection of the most appropriate system depends on the characteristics of
asy
the gas stream being treated, the expected removal efficiency and the costs involved.
Parameters of Bio-Filtration:
En
gin
The main parameters to consider when designing a Bio-filtration system are:
eer
 The characteristics the gas contaminate (concentration, flow, particulate
matter, temperature)
 Selection of filter material
i ng.
 Moisture content of the filter material
 Microorganisms
net

4.8 PROCESS CONTROL AND MONITORING
Air pollution control efforts by federal, State, regional, and municipal

agencies and by industry have expanded tremendously within the past few years. That
this increased effort is a reflection of elevated public understanding of the problem and
rising public insistence upon action is inescapable.
Through all media of mass communication, through the efforts of public

service organizations, and through the actions and pronouncements of public officials at
all levels of government, the popular desire for better control of air pollution is being
expressed with mounting frequency and increasing impact.
ww To generating an unprecedented expansion in control activity, requires that
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communication between the individuals and agencies responsible for air pollution
control and the citizen, to whom this responsibility is owed, be open, comprehensive,
and forthright. asy
En
Any other response to the need for public information and education
gin
concerning the problem of air pollution must in the long run seriously jeopardize the air
pollution control effort.
eer
i ng.
There are various air pollution control technologies and land-use planning
strategies available to reduce air pollution.
net
At its most basic level, land-use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport
infrastructure planning.
Land-use Planning
In most developed countries, land-use planning is an important part of social

policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and
population, as well as to protect the environment.
• Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes
1. Primary regulation (many developing countries have permissive regulations),

2. Expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm
equipment, and small gas powered equipment such as string trimmers, chainsaws,
and snowmobiles),
3. Increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles),
4. Conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bio ethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to

electric vehicles).
• Titanium dioxide has been researched for its ability to reduce air pollution.
• Ultraviolet light will release free electrons from material, thereby creating free
ww
radicals, which break up VOCs and NOx gases. One form is super hydrophilic.
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• In 2014, Prof. Tony Ryan and Prof. Simon Armitage of University of Sheffield
prepared a 10 meter by 20 meter-sized poster coated with microscopic, pollution eating
asy
nano particles of titanium dioxide.
En
• Placed on a building, this giant poster can absorb the toxic emission from around 20
cars each day.
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SOX Control :
eer
General Methods for Control Of So 2 Emissions
i ng.
 Change to Low Sulfur Fuel
Natural Gas net
Liquefied Natural Gas
Low Sulfur Oil
Low Sulfur Coal
 Use Desulfurized Coal and Oil Increase Effective Stack Height
Build Tall Stacks
Redistribution of Stack Gas Velocity Profile
Modification of Plume Buoyancy
Use Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems
Use Alternative Energy Sources, such as Hydro -Power or Nuclear-Power

Flue Gas Desulfurization
 Classification
SO2 scrubbing, or Flue Gas Desulfurization processes can be classified as: –
Throwaway or Regenerative, depending upon whether the recovered sulfur is

discarded or recycled.
Wet or Dry, depending upon whether the scrubber is a liquid or a solid.
 Flue Gas Desulfurization Processes
The major flue gas desulfurization ( FGD ), processes are :
ww Limestone Scrubbing
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Lime Scrubbing
Dual Alkali Processes
Lime Spray Drying
asy
Wellman-Lord Process
En
 Limestone Scrubbing
gin
Limestone slurry is sprayed on the incoming flue gas. The sulfur dioxide gets
eer
absorbed The limestone and the sulfur dioxide react as follows :
i
Ca. CO 3 + H 2 O + 2 SO 2 ----> Ca+2 + 2 HSO 3 -+ CO 2
Ca. CO 3 + 2 HSO 3 -+ Ca+2 ----> 2 Ca. SO 3 + CO 2 + H ng.
NOX Control :
net
Background on Nitrogen Oxides . There are seven known oxides of nitrogen :
NO · NO 2 · NO 3 · N 2 O · N 2 O 3 · N 2 O 4 · N 2 O 5
NO and NO 2 are the most common of the seven oxides listed above. NOx
released from stationary sources is of two types .NOx control can be achieved by:
Fuel Denitrogenation
Combustion Modification
Modification of operating conditions
Tail-end control equipment

Selective Catalytic Reduction

Selective Non - Catalytic Reduction
Electron Beam Radiation
Staged Combustion
i) Fuel Denitrogenation
 One approach of fuel denitrogenation is to remove a large part of the nitrogen

contained in the fuels.
 Nitrogen is removed from liquid fuels by mixing the fuels with hydrogen gas,
heating the mixture and using a catalyst to cause nitrogen in the fuel and gaseous
ww hydrogen to unite. This produces ammonia and cleaner fuel.
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 This technology can reduce the nitrogen contained in both naturally occurring
and synthetic fuels.
ii) Combustion Modification asy

En
Combustion control uses one of the following strategies: ·
gin
 Reduce peak temperatures of the flame zone. The methods are :
Increase the rate of flame cooling eer
Decrease the adiabatic flame temperature by dilution
i ng.
 Reduce residence time in the flame zone. For this we change the shape of the
flame zone net
 Reduce Oxygen concentration in the flame one. This can be accomplished by:
Decreasing the excess air
Controlled mixing of fuel and air
Using a fuel rich primary flame zone
iii) Modification of Operating Conditions
The operating conditions can be modified to achieve significant

reductions in the rate of thermal NOx production. the various methods are:
Low-excess firing

Off-stoichiometric combustion ( staged combustion )

Flue gas recirculation
Reduced air preheat
Reduced firing rates
Water Injection
Carbon Monoxide Control:
Formation Of Carbon Monoxide due to insufficient oxygen
 Factors affecting Carbon monoxide formation:
ww Fuel-air ratio
Degree of mixing
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Temperature
Control carbon monoxide formation.
asy
Note :
En
CO & NOx control strategies are in conflict
gin
1. Stationary Sources
eer
Proper Design
Installation i ng.
Operation
Maintenance
net
2. Process Industries
Burn in furnaces or waste heat boilers.
Carbon Dioxide Control:
1. Sources of Carbon Dioxide
(i) Human-Related Sources
Combustion of fossil fuels: Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas in power plants,
automobiles, and industrial facilities

Use of petroleum-based products

Industrial processes: Iron and steel production, cement, lime, and
aluminum manufactures
(ii)Natural Sources
Volcanic eruptions
Ocean-atmosphere exchange
Plant photosynthesis
2. Methods For Control of CO 2 Emissions
ww • Reducing energy consumption, increasing the efficiency of energy conversion

• Switching to less carbon intensive fuels
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• Increasing the use of renewable sources
asy
• Sequestering CO 2 through biological, chemical, or physical processes
Mercury Emissions
En
• Mercury exists in trace amounts
gin
Fossil fuels such as Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas
eer
Vegetation
Waste products
i ng.
• Mercury is released to the atmosphere through combustion or natural processes. net
It creates both human and environmental risks.
Fish consumption is the primary pathway for human and wildlife exposure.
United states is the first country in the world to regulate mercury emissions from
coal-fired power plants
Control Technologies for Mercury Emissions
Currently installed control devices for SO 2, NOX, and particulates, in a power

plant, remove some of the mercury before releasing from the stack.

1. Activated Carbon Injection:
Particles of activated carbon are injected into the exit gas flow, downstream of
the boiler. The mercury attaches to the carbon particles and is removed in a particle
control device
2. Thief process for the removal of mercury from flue gas:
It is a process which extracts partially burned coal from a pulverized coal-fired

combustor using a suction pipe, or "thief, " and injects the resulting sorbent into the flue
gas to capture the mercury.
ww
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asy
En
gin
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i ng.
net

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UNIT 5a syE
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nee
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et

5.1 SOURCES, TYPES AND CONTROL OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS
According to EPA, scientific evidence has indicated that the air within homes and
other buildings can be more seriously polluted than the outdoor air in even the largest
and most industrialized cities. Other research indicates that people spend approximately
90 percent of their time indoors. Thus, for many people, the risks to health may be
greater due to exposure to air pollution indoors than outdoors.
Effects may show up after a single exposure or repeated exposures. These

include irritation of the eyes, nose and throat, headaches, dizziness, and fatigue. Such
immediate effects are usually short-term and treatable. Sometimes the treatment is
ww
simply eliminating the person's exposure to the source of the pollution, if it can be
identified.
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 Other health effects may show up either years after exposure has occurred or only
asy
after long or repeated periods of exposure.
En
 These effects, which include some respiratory diseases, heart disease and cancer,
can be severely debilitating or fatal.
gin
 It is important to try to improve the indoor air quality in your home even if
symptoms are not noticeable. eer
1. Asbestos i ng.
Asbestos is a mineral fiber that occurs in rock and soil. Because of its fiber
strength and heat resistance it has been used in a variety of building construction
net
materials for insulation and as a fire-retardant. Asbestos has been used in a wide range
of manufactured goods, mostly in:
 Building materials
Roofing shingles
Ceiling and floor tiles
Paper products
Asbestos cement products
 Friction products

Automobile clutch
Automobile brake
Transmission parts
 Heat-resistant fabrics
 Packaging
 Gaskets
 Coatings
Elevated concentrations of airborne asbestos can occur after asbestos-containing

materials are disturbed by cutting, sanding or other remodeling activities. Improper
ww
attempts to remove these materials can release asbestos fibers into the air in homes,
increasing asbestos levels and endangering people living in those homes.
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2. Biological contaminants
asy
 Some biological contaminants trigger allergic reactions, including:
 Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis
En
 Allergic rhinitis
 Some types of asthma
gin
eer
 Infectious illnesses, such as influenza, measles and chicken pox are transmitted
i
through the air. Molds and mildews release disease-causing toxins.
ng.
 Symptoms of health problems caused by biological pollutants include:
 Sneezing
net
 Watery eyes
 Coughing
 Shortness of breath
 Dizziness
 Lethargy
 Fever
 Digestive problems
Allergic reactions occur only after repeated exposure to a specific biological

allergen. However, that reaction may occur immediately upon re-exposure or after

multiple exposures over time. As a result, people who have noticed only mild allergic
reactions, or no reactions at all, may suddenly find themselves very sensitive to
particular allergens.
Some diseases, like humidifier fever, are associated with exposure to toxins from
microorganisms that can grow in large building ventilation systems. However, these
diseases can also be traced to microorganisms that grow in home heating and cooling
systems and humidifiers.
Children, elderly people and people with breathing problems, allergies, and lung
diseases are particularly susceptible to disease-causing biological agents in the indoor
air.
ww
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Mold, dust mites, pet dander and pest droppings or body parts can trigger asthma.
Biological contaminants, including molds and pollens can cause allergic reactions for a
asy
significant portion of the population. Tuberculosis, measles, staphylococcus
En
infections, Legionella and influenza are known to be transmitted by air.
Reducing Exposure to Biological Contaminants:

gin
eer
General good housekeeping, and maintenance of heating and air conditioning
i ng.
equipment, are very important. Adequate ventilation and good air distribution also help.
The key to mold control is moisture control. If mold is a problem, clean up the mold
and get rid of excess water or moisture. Maintaining the relative humidity between 30%
- 60% will help control mold, dust mites and cockroaches. Employ integrated pest
net
management to control insect and animal allergens. Cooling tower treatment procedures
exist to reduce levels of Legionella and other organisms.
 Install and use exhaust fans that are vented to the outdoors in kitchens
and bathrooms and vent clothes dryers out doors.
These actions can eliminate much of the moisture that builds up from
everyday activities. There are exhaust fans on the market that produce little noise, an
important consideration for some people. Another benefit to using kitchen and
bathroom exhaust fans is that they can reduce levels of organic pollutants that
vaporize from hot water used in showers and dishwashers.
 Ventilate the attic and crawl spaces to prevent moisture build-up.

Keeping humidity levels in these areas below 50 percent can prevent water
condensation on building materials.
 If using cool mist or ultrasonic humidifiers, clean appliances according to
manufacturer's instructions and refill with fresh water daily.
Because these humidifiers can become breeding grounds for biological
contaminants, they have the potential for causing diseases such as hypersensitivity
pneumonitis and humidifier fever. Evaporation trays in air conditioners,
dehumidifiers and refrigerators should also be cleaned frequently.
 Thoroughly clean and dry water-damaged carpets and building materials
ww
(within 24 hours if possible) or consider removal and replacement.
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Water-damaged carpets and building materials can harbor mold and bacteria.
It is very difficult to completely rid such materials of biological contaminants.
asy
 Keep the house clean. House dust mites, pollens, animal dander and other
En
allergy-causing agents can be reduced, although not eliminated, through
regularcleaning. gin
eer
People who are allergic to these pollutants should use allergen-proof
i
mattress encasements, wash bedding in hot (130° F) water and avoid room
ng.
furnishings that accumulate dust, especially if they cannot be washed in hot water.
Allergic individuals should also leave the house while it is being vacuumed because
vacuuming can actually increase airborne levels of mite allergens and other
net
biological contaminants. Using central vacuum systems that are vented to the
outdoors or vacuums with high efficiency filters may also be of help.
 Take steps to minimize biological pollutants in basements.
Clean and disinfect the basement floor drain regularly. Do not finish a
basement below ground level unless all water leaks are patched and outdoor
ventilation and adequate heat to prevent condensation are provided. Operate a
dehumidifier in the basement if needed to keep relative humidity levels between 30 -
50 percent.

3. Carbon Monoxide
Sources of CO include:
Unvented kerosene and gas space heaters

Leaking chimneys and furnaces
Back-drafting from furnaces, gas water heaters, wood stoves and fireplaces
Gas stoves
Generators and other gasoline powered equipment
Automobile exhaust from attached garages
Tobacco smoke
ww Auto, truck, or bus exhaust from attached garages, nearby roads, or parking
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areas
Incomplete oxidation during combustion in gas ranges, and unvented gas
asy
or kerosene heaters
En
Worn or poorly adjusted and maintained combustion devices (e.g., boilers,
furnaces)
gin
If the flue is improperly sized, blocked or disconnected
If the flue is leaking
eer
Health Effects Associated with Carbon Monoxide : i ng.
 At low concentrations:
Fatigue in healthy people
net
Chest pain in people with heart disease
 At moderate concentrations:
Angina
Impaired vision
Reduced brain function
 At higher concentrations:
Impaired vision and coordination
Headaches
Dizziness

Confusion
Nausea
Flu-like symptoms that clear up after leaving home
Fatal at very high concentrations
Acute effects are due to the formation of carboxyhemoglobin in the blood, which
inhibits oxygen intake.
At low concentrations, fatigue in healthy people and chest pain in people with
heart disease. At higher concentrations, impaired vision and coordination; headaches;
dizziness; confusion; nausea. Can cause flu-like symptoms that clear up after leaving
ww
home. Fatal at very high concentrations. Acute effects are due to the formation of
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carboxyhemoglobin in the blood, which inhibits oxygen intake. At moderate
concentrations, angina, impaired vision, and reduced brain function may result. At
asy
higher concentrations, CO exposure can be fatal.
Steps to Reduce Exposure to Carbon Monoxide

En
gin
It is most important to be sure combustion equipment is maintained and properly
eer
adjusted. Vehicular use should be carefully managed adjacent to buildings and in
high levels of CO are expected for short periods of time. i

vocational programs. Additional ventilation can be used as a temporary measure when
ng.
Keep gas appliances properly adjusted.
Consider purchasing a vented space heater when replacing an unvented
net
one.
Use proper fuel in kerosene space heaters.
Install and use an exhaust fan vented to outdoors over gas stoves.
Open flues when fireplaces are in use.
Choose properly sized wood stoves that are certified to meet EPA emission
standards. Make certain that doors on all wood stoves fit tightly.
Have a trained professional inspect, clean and tune-up central heating
system (furnaces, flues and chimneys) annually.
Repair any leaks promptly.

Do not idle the car inside garage.
4. Lead
Lead has long been recognized as a harmful environmental pollutant. Lead is

particularly dangerous to children because their growing bodies absorb more lead than
adults do and their brains and nervous systems are more sensitive to the damaging
effects of lead. Babies and young children can also be more highly exposed to lead
because they often put their hands and other objects that can have lead from dust or soil
on them into their mouths. Children may also be exposed to lead by eating and drinking
food or water containing lead or from dishes or glasses that contain lead, inhaling lead
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dust from lead-based paint or lead-contaminated soil or from playing with toys with
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lead paint. Before it was known how harmful lead could be, it was used in paint,
gasoline, water pipes, and many other products.
asy
Old lead-based paint is the most significant source of lead exposure in the U.S.
En
today. Harmful exposures to lead can be created when lead-based paint is improperly
gin
removed from surfaces by dry scraping, sanding, or open-flame burning. High
eer
concentrations of airborne lead particles in homes can also result from lead dust from
outdoor sources, including contaminated soil tracked inside, and use of lead in certain
indoor activities such as soldering and stained-glass making. i ng.
5. Nitrogen Dioxide:
Sources of Nitrogen Dioxide

net
 The primary sources indoors are combustion processes, such as:
Unvented combustion appliances, e.g. gas stoves
Vented appliances with defective installations
Welding
Tobacco smoke
Kerosene heaters.

Health Effects Associated with Nitrogen Dioxide :
 NO2 acts mainly as an irritant affecting the mucosa of the eyes, nose, throat and
respiratory tract.
 Extremely high-dose exposure (as in a building fire) to NO2 may result in
pulmonary edema and diffuse lung injury.
 Continued exposure to high NO2 levels can contribute to the development of
acute or chronic bronchitis.
 Low level NO2 exposure may cause:
Increased bronchial reactivity in some asthmatics
ww Decreased lung function in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease
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Increased risk of respiratory infections, especially in young children
Steps to Reduce Exposure :

asy
En
Venting the NO2 sources to the outdoors, and assuring that combustion
gin
appliances are correctly installed, used and maintained are the most
effective measures to reduce exposures.
eer
(These are the same steps as those used to reduce exposure to carbon
monoxide). i ng.
Keep gas appliances properly adjusted.
Consider purchasing a vented space heater when replacing an un-vented net
one.
Use proper fuel in kerosene space heaters.
Install and use an exhaust fan vented to outdoors over gas stoves.
Open flues when fireplaces are in use.
Choose properly sized wood stoves that are certified to meet EPA emission
standards. Make certain that doors on all wood stoves fit tightly.
Have a trained professional inspect, clean and tune-up central heating
system (furnaces, flues and chimneys) annually. Repair any leaks
promptly.

Do not idle the car inside garage.
6. Pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals that are used to kill or control pests which include
bacteria, fungi and other organisms, in addition to insects and rodents. Pesticides are
inherently toxic.
According to a recent survey, 75 percent of U.S. households used at least one

pesticide product indoors during the past year. Products used most often are insecticides
and disinfectants. Another study suggests that 80 percent of most people's exposure to
ww
pesticides occurs indoors and that measurable levels of up to a dozen pesticides have
been found in the air inside homes.
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The amount of pesticides found in homes appears to be greater than can be
asy
explained by recent pesticide use in those households; other possible sources include:
En
 Contaminated soil or dust that floats or is tracked in from outside
 Stored pesticide containers
gin
 Household surfaces that collect and then release the pesticides
eer
 Pesticides used in and around the home include products to control:
Insects (insecticides)
Termites (termiticides)
i ng.
Rodents (rodenticides)
Fungi (fungicides)
net
Microbes (disinfectants)
They are sold as sprays, liquids, sticks, powders, crystals, balls and foggers.
Sources of Pesticides :
Products used to kill household pests (insecticides, termiticides and

disinfectants)
Products used on lawns and gardens that drift or are tracked inside the house
Pesticides are classed as semi-volatile organic compounds and include a
variety of chemicals in various forms.

Health Effects
 Exposure to pesticides may result in

Irritation to eye, nose and throat
Damage to central nervous system and kidney
Increased risk of cancer
 Symptoms may include
Headache
Dizziness
Muscular weakness
ww Nausea
 Chronic exposure to some pesticides can result in damage to the:
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Liver
Kidneys
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Endocrine and nervous systems
En
gin
Both the active and inert ingredients in pesticides can be organic compounds;
therefore, both could add to the levels of airborne organics inside homes. Both types of
eer
ingredients can cause the type of effects discussed in Household Chemicals/Products.
i ng.
However, as with other household products, there is insufficient understanding at
present about what pesticide concentrations are necessary to produce these effects.
Exposure to high levels of cyclodiene pesticides, commonly associated with net

misapplication, has produced various symptoms, including:
 Headaches
 Dizziness
 Muscle twitching
 Weakness
 Tingling sensations
 Nausea
In addition, EPA is concerned that cyclodienes might cause long-term damage to

the liver and the central nervous system, as well as an increased risk of cancer.

There is no further sale or commercial use permitted for the following cyclodiene
or related pesticides: chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin and heptachlor. The only exception is
the use of heptachlor by utility companies to control fire ants in underground cable
boxes.
Steps to Reduce Exposure :
 Use strictly according to manufacturer's directions.

 Mix or dilute outdoors.
 Apply only in recommended quantities.
 Increase ventilation when using indoors. Take plants or pets outdoors when
ww applying pesticides/flea and tick treatments.
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 Use non-chemical methods of pest control where possible.
 If you use a pest control company, select it carefully.
asy
 Do not store unneeded pesticides inside home; dispose of unwanted containers
safely.
En
 Store clothes with moth repellents in separately ventilated areas, if possible.
gin
 Keep indoor spaces clean, dry and well ventilated to avoid pest and odor
problems.
eer
(A)Ventilate the area well after pesticide use. i ng.
Mix or dilute pesticides outdoors or in a well-ventilated area and only in the
amounts that will be immediately needed. If possible, take plants and pets outside when
net
applying pesticides/flea and tick treatments.
(B)Use non-chemical methods of pest control when possible.
Since pesticides can be found far from the site of their original application, it is
prudent to reduce the use of chemical pesticides outdoors as well as indoors. Depending
on the site and pest to be controlled, one or more of the following steps can be effective:
 Use of biological pesticides, such as Bacillus thuringiensis, for the control of

gypsy moths
 Selection of disease-resistant plants

 Frequent washing of indoor plants and pets
Termite damage can be reduced or prevented by making certain that wooden

building materials do not come into direct contact with the soil and by storing firewood
away from the home. By appropriately fertilizing, watering and aerating lawns, the need
for chemical pesticide treatments of lawns can be dramatically reduced.
(C)If you decide to use a pest control company, choose one carefully.
Ask for an inspection of your home and get a written control program for
evaluation before you sign a contract. The control program should list specific names of
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pests to be controlled and chemicals to be used; it should also reflect any of your safety
concerns. Insist on a proven record of competence and customer satisfaction.
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(D)Dispose of unwanted pesticides safely.
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If you have unused or partially used pesticide containers you want to get rid of,
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dispose of them according to the directions on the label or on special household
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hazardous waste collection days. If there are no such collection days in your
community, work with others to organize them.
(E)Keep exposure to moth repellents to a minimum. eer

i ng.
One pesticide often found in the home is paradichlorobenzene, a commonly
used active ingredient in moth repellents. This chemical is known to cause cancer in
net
animals, but substantial scientific uncertainty exists over the effects, if any, of long-
term human exposure to paradichlorobenzene. EPA requires that products containing
paradichlorobenzene bear warnings such as "avoid breathing vapors" to warn users of
potential short-term toxic effects. Where possible, paradichlorobenzene and items to be
protected against moths, should be placed in trunks or other containers that can be
stored in areas that are separately ventilated from the home, such as attics and detached
garages. Paradichlorobenzene is also the key active ingredient in many air fresheners
(in fact, some labels for moth repellents recommend that these same products be used as
air fresheners or deodorants). Proper ventilation and basic household cleanliness will go
a long way toward preventing unpleasant odors.

7. Particulate matter
Particulate matter (also referred to as PM or particle pollution) is a complex

mixture of solid and/or liquid particles suspended in air. These particles can vary in
size, shape and composition. EPA is especially concerned about particles that are 10
micrometers in diameter or smaller because these particles are inhalable. Once inhaled,
particles can affect the heart and lungs and in some cases cause serious health effects.
The human health effects of outdoor PM are well-established and are used to set health-
based standards for outdoor air (National Ambient Air Quality Standards, NAAQS).
PM is also found in all indoor environments. Indoor PM levels have the potential to
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exceed outdoor PM levels and the NAAQS. However, less is known about the specific
impacts of indoor PM on health.
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Health Effects of Inhalable Particles:
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Exposure to inhalable particles can affect both your lungs and your heart.
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Many studies directly link the size of particles to their potential for causing health
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problems. Small particles (less than 10 micrometers in diameter) can get deep into your
lungs, and some may even get into your bloodstream. People with heart or lung diseases
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such as coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure, and asthma or chronic
i ng.
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), children and older adults may be at greater risk
from PM exposure. Scientific studies have linked PM exposure to a variety of health
impacts, including: net
 Eye, nose and throat irritation
 Aggravation of coronary and respiratory disease symptoms; and
 Premature death in people with heart or lung disease.
Indoor PM Sources :
PM found indoors will include particles of outdoor origin that migrate indoors
and particles that originate from indoor sources. Indoor PM can be generated through
cooking, combustion activities (including burning of candles, use of fireplaces, use of
unvented space heaters or kerosene heaters, cigarette smoking) and some hobbies.

Indoor PM can also be of biological origin. For more information on major indoor
combustion related sources see also:
 Stoves, Heaters, Fireplaces and Chimneys

 Environmental Tobacco Smoke
Steps to Reduce Exposure to Indoor PM :
Vent all fuel-fired combustion appliances to the outdoors (including stoves,

heaters and furnaces)
Install and use exhaust fans vented to the outside when cooking
ww Avoid the use of unvented stoves, fireplaces or space heaters indoors. If you
must use unvented appliances follow manufacturers’ instructions especially
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related to ventilation..
Choose properly sized woodstoves, certified to meet EPA emission standards;
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make certain that doors on all woodstoves fit tightly.
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Use appropriate wood in stoves and fireplaces. Check EPA’s BurnWise
program for Safe Wood-burning Practices
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Have a trained professional inspect, clean and tune-up central heating system
(furnace, flues and chimneys) annually. Repair any leaks properly.
i ng.
Change filters on central heating and cooling systems and air cleaners
according to manufacturer's directions.
8. Secondhand smoke
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Secondhand smoke is a mixture of the smoke given off by the burning of tobacco
products, such as cigarettes, cigars or pipes and the smoke exhaled by smokers.
Secondhand smoke is also called environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). Exposure to
secondhand smoke is sometimes called involuntary or passive smoking. Secondhand
smoke, classified by EPA as a Group A carcinogen, contains more than 7,000
substances. Secondhand smoke exposure commonly occurs indoors, particularly in
homes and cars. Secondhand smoke can move between rooms of a home and between
apartment units. Opening a window or increasing ventilation in a home or car is not
protective from secondhand smoke.

Health Effects of Secondhand Smoke:
The health effects of secondhand smoke on nonsmoking adults and children are
harmful and numerous. Secondhand smoke causes cardiovascular disease (heart disease
and stroke), lung cancer, sudden infant death syndrome, more frequent and severe
asthma attacks, and other serious health problems. Several landmark health assessments
regarding secondhand smoke have been conducted.
Secondhand smoke poses particular health risks to children with asthma.

Secondhand smoke is a universal asthma trigger and can elicit an asthma
ww attack or make asthma symptoms more severe.
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Asthma is a chronic disease that affects the airways of the lungs and can lead
to coughing, trouble breathing, wheezing and tightness in the chest.
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Asthma is the most common chronic childhood disease affecting, on average,
1 in 13 school aged children.
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Exposure to secondhand smoke may cause new cases of asthma in children
who have not previously shown symptoms.
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More than half of US children with asthma are exposed to secondhand smoke
(quinto, 2013). i ng.
Reduce Exposure to Secondhand Smoke:
Eliminating secondhand smoke in the indoor environment will reduce its

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harmful health effects, improve the indoor air quality and the comfort or health of
occupants. Secondhand smoke exposure can be reduced through mandated or voluntary
smoke-free policy implementation. Some workplaces and enclosed public spaces such
as bars and restaurants are smoke-free by law. People can establish and enforce smoke-
free rules in their own homes and cars. For multifamily housing, smoke-free policy
implementation could be mandatory or voluntary, depending on the type of property
and location (e.g., ownership and jurisdiction).

 The home is becoming the predominant location for the exposure of children and
adults to secondhand smoke. (Surgeon General’s Report, 2006)
 Households within buildings with smoke-free policies have lower PM2.5
compared to buildings without these policies. PM2.5 is a unit of measure for
small particles in the air and is used as one indication of air quality. High levels
of fine particles in the air can lead to negative health impacts. (Russo, 2014)
 Prohibiting smoking indoors is the only way to eliminate secondhand smoke
from the indoor environment. Ventilation and filtration techniques can reduce,
but not eliminate, secondhand smoke. (Bohoc, 2010)
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9.Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
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Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted as gases from certain solids or
liquids. VOCs include a variety of chemicals, some of which may have short and long-
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term adverse health effects. Concentrations of many VOCs are consistently higher
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indoors (up to ten times higher) than outdoors. VOCs are emitted by a wide array of
products numbering in the thousands.
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Organic chemicals are widely used as ingredients in household products. Paints,
varnishes and wax all contain organic solvents, as do many cleaning, disinfecting,
i ng.
cosmetic, degreasing and hobby products. Fuels are made up of organic chemicals. All
of these products can release organic compounds while you are using them, and, to
some degree, when they are stored. net
Sources of VOCs
Household products, including:
Paints, paint strippers and other solvents

Wood preservatives
Aerosol sprays
Cleansers and disinfectants
Moth repellents and air fresheners
Stored fuels and automotive products

Hobby supplies
Dry-cleaned clothing
Pesticide
Other products, including:
Building materials and furnishings

Office equipment such as copiers and printers, correction fluids and
carbonless copy paper
Graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent
markers and photographic solutions.
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Health Effects :
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Health effects may include:
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 Eye, nose and throat irritation
 Headaches
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 Loss of coordination and nausea
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 Damage to liver, kidney and central nervous system
 Some organics can cause cancer in animals eer
 Some are suspected or known to cause cancer in humans.
i ng.
The ability of organic chemicals to cause health effects varies greatly from those
that are highly toxic, to those with no known health effect.
net
As with other pollutants, the extent and nature of the health effect will depend on
many factors including level of exposure and length of time exposed. Among the
immediate symptoms that some people have experienced soon after exposure to some
organics include:
 Eye and respiratory tract irritation

 Headaches
 Dizziness
 Visual disorders and memory impairment

Steps to Reduce Exposure
 Increase ventilation when using products that emit VOCs.

 Meet or exceed any label precautions.
 Do not store opened containers of unused paints and similar materials within the
school.
 Formaldehyde, one of the best known VOCs, is one of the few indoor air
pollutants that can be readily measured.
 Identify, and if possible, remove the source.
 If not possible to remove, reduce exposure by using a sealant on all exposed
ww surfaces of paneling and other furnishings.

 Use integrated pest management techniques to reduce the need for pesticides.
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 Use household products according to manufacturer's directions.
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 Make sure you provide plenty of fresh air when using these products.
 Throw away unused or little-used containers safely; buy in quantities that you
will use soon. En
 Keep out of reach of children and pets.
gin
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 Never mix household care products unless directed on the label.
10.Wood Smoke
i ng.
Smoke is made up of a complex mixture of gases and fine, microscopic particles
produced when wood and other organic matter burn. The biggest health threat from net
wood smoke comes from fine particles (also called particulate matter). They are small
enough to enter the lungs where they can cause bronchitis, pneumonia, asthma, or other
serious respiratory diseases. Fine particles can also aggravate chronic heart and lung
diseases, and are linked to premature deaths in people with these chronic conditions.
Many old, pot-bellied wood stoves are still functioning to provide warmth and a
cooking fire in tribal communities; but they may also be releasing wood smoke that is
harmful to the health of everyone exposed to it, especially the young and the old. To
avoid these inevitable health risks and gain the greater efficiency and effectiveness of

new, cleaner burning technology wood stoves it is recommended that old stoves be
gradually replaced or “changed out.”
Changing out wood stoves requires a financial investment; however, there are
programs that provide financial assistance and manufacturers that provide discounts.
The results of replacement speak for themselves with improvements in the health of
children and community, home safety, visibility, and indoor air quality .
ww
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En
gin
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i ng.
net

5.2 SICK BUILDING SYNDROME AND BUILDING RELATED ILLNESS
The term "sick building syndrome" (SBS) is used to describe situations in

which building occupants experience acute health and comfort effects that appear to be
linked to time spent in a building, but no specific illness or cause can be identified.
The complaints may be localized in a particular room or zone, or may be

widespread throughout the building. In contrast, the term "building related illness"
(BRI) is used when symptoms of diagnosable illness are identified and can be attributed
directly to airborne building contaminants.
Indicators of Sick Building Syndrome

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 Building occupants complain of symptoms associated with acute discomfort, e.g.,
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headache, eye, nose, or throat irritation, dry cough, dry or itchy skin, dizziness
 asy
and nausea, difficulty in concentrating, fatigue, and sensitivity to odors.
The cause of the symptoms is not known.
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Most of the complainants report relief soon after leaving the building.
Indicators of Building Related Illness: gin

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• Building occupants complain of symptoms such as cough, chest tightness, fever,
chills, and muscle aches. i ng.
• The symptoms can be clinically defined and have clearly identifiable causes.
• Complainants may require prolonged recovery times after leaving the building.
net
It is important to note that complaints may result from other causes.
These may include an illness contracted outside the building, acute sensitivity
(e.g., allergies), job related stress or dissatisfaction, and other psychosocial factors.
Nevertheless, studies show that symptoms may be caused or exacerbated by indoor
air quality problems.
Causes of Building Syndrome:
The following have been cited causes of or contributing factors to sick building
syndrome:

1. Inadequate ventilation:
In the early and mid 1900's, building ventilation standards called for
approximately 15 cubic feet per minute (cfm) of outside air for each building occupant,
primarily to dilute and remove body odors. As a result of the 1973 oil embargo,
however, national energy conservation measures called for a reduction in the amount of
outdoor air provided for ventilation to 5 cfm per occupant. In many cases these reduced
outdoor air ventilation rates were found to be inadequate to maintain the health and
comfort of building occupants.
• Inadequate ventilation, which may also occur if heating, ventilating, and air
ww conditioning (HVAC) systems do not effectively distribute air to people in the
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building, is thought to be an important factor in SBS.
In an effort to achieve acceptable IAQ while minimizing energy
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consumption, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
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Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) recently revised its ventilation standard to
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provide a minimum of 15 cfm of outdoor air per person (20 cfm/person in
office spaces).
•
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Up to 60 cfm/person may be required in some spaces (such as smoking
i ng.
lounges) depending on the activities that normally occur in that space (see
ASHRAE Standard 62-1989).
2. Chemical contaminants from indoor sources: net

Most indoor air pollution comes from sources inside the building.
Example:
Adhesives, carpeting, upholstery, manufactured wood products, copy

machines, pesticides, and cleaning agents may emit volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), including formaldehyde.
Environmental tobacco smoke contributes high levels of VOCs, other toxic

compounds, and respirable particulate matter. Research shows that some VOCs can

cause chronic and acute health effects at high concentrations, and some are known
carcinogens.
Low to moderate levels of multiple VOCs may also produce acute reactions.
Combustion products such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, as well as
respirable particles, can come from unvented kerosene and gas space heaters,
woodstoves, fireplaces and gas stoves.
3. Chemical contaminants from outdoor sources:
The outdoor air that enters a building can be a source of indoor air pollution.
ww
Example:
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Pollutants from motor vehicle exhausts; plumbing vents, and building
exhausts (e.g., bathrooms and kitchens) can enter the building through poorly
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located air intake vents, windows, and other openings. In addition, combustion
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products can enter a building from a nearby garage.
4.Biological contaminants:
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• Bacteria, molds, pollen, and viruses are types of biological contaminants.
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• These contaminants may breed in stagnant water that has accumulated in
ng.
ducts, humidifiers and drain pans, or where water has collected on ceiling
tiles, carpeting, or insulation.
• Sometimes insects or bird droppings can be a source of biological
net
contaminants.
 Physical symptoms related to biological contamination include cough,
chest tightness, fever, chills, muscle aches
 Allergic responses such as mucous membrane irritation and upper
respiratory congestion.
 One indoor bacterium, Legionella, has caused both Legionnaire's
Disease and Pontiac Fever.
• These elements may act in combination, and may supplement other complaints
such as inadequate temperature, humidity, or lighting.

• After a building investigation, however, the specific causes of the complaints

may remain unknown.
Building Investigation Procedures
• The goal of a building investigation is to identify and solve indoor air quality
complaints in a way that prevents them from recurring and which avoids the
creation of other problems.
• To achieve this goal, it is necessary for the investigator(s) to discover whether a
complaint is actually related to indoor air quality, identify the cause of the
complaint, and determine the most appropriate corrective actions.
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• An indoor air quality investigation procedure is best characterized as a cycle of
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information gathering, hypothesis formation, and hypothesis testing.
• It generally begins with a walkthrough inspection of the problem area to provide
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information about the four basic factors that influence indoor air quality:
The occupants
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The HVAC system
Possible pollutant pathways gin
Possible contaminant sources. eer
Solutions to Sick Building Syndrome i ng.
Solutions to sick building syndrome usually include combinations of the following:
1. Pollutant source removal or modification:

net
Pollutant source removal or modification is an effective approach to resolving
an IAQ problem when sources are known and control is feasible.
Examples:
 Include routine maintenance of HVAC systems

 Periodic cleaning or replacement of filters
 Replacement of water-stained ceiling tile
 Carpeting
 Institution of smoking restrictions
 Venting contaminant source emissions to the outdoors

 Storage and use of paints
 Adhesives
 Solvents
 Pesticides in well ventilated areas
 Use of these pollutant sources during periods of non-occupancy
• Allowing time for building materials in new or remodeled areas to off-gas
pollutants before occupancy.
• Several of these options may be exercised at one time.
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2. Increasing ventilation rates
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• Increasing ventilation rates and air distribution often can be a cost effective
means of reducing indoor pollutant levels.
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• HVAC systems should be designed, at a minimum, to meet ventilation standards
in local building codes.
En
gin
• Many systems are not operated or maintained to ensure that these design
ventilation rates are provided.
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• In many buildings, IAQ can be improved by operating the HVAC system to at
i
least its design standard, and to ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 if possible.
ng.
• When there are strong pollutant sources, local exhaust ventilation may be
•
appropriate to exhaust contaminated air directly from the building.
Local exhaust ventilation is particularly recommended to remove pollutants that
net
accumulate in specific areas such as rest rooms, copy rooms, and printing
facilities.
3. Air cleaning
• Air cleaning can be a useful adjunct to source control and ventilation but has
certain limitations.
• Particle control devices such as :
 The typical furnace filter are inexpensive but do not effectively capture
small particles;
 High performance air filters capture the smaller,

 Respirable particles but are relatively expensive to install and operate.
 Mechanical filters do not remove gaseous pollutants.
Some specific gaseous pollutants may be removed by adsorbent beds, but these
devices can be expensive and require frequent replacement of the adsorbent material. In
sum, air cleaners can be useful, but have limited application.
4. Education and communication
• Education and communication are important elements in both remedial and
wwpreventive indoor air quality management programs.

• When building occupants, management, and maintenance personnel fully
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communicate and understand the causes and consequences of IAQ problems,
they can work more effectively together to prevent problems from occurring, or
to solve them if they do.asy
En
gin
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i ng.
net

5.3 NOISE POLLUTION
 Noise Pollution takes place when there is either an excessive amount of noise or
an unpleasant sound that causes a temporary disruption in the natural balance.
 This definition is usually applicable to sounds or noises that are unnatural in
either their volume or their production.
 Our environment is such that it has become difficult to escape the noise. Even
electrical appliances at home have a constant hum or beeping sound.
 By and large, lack of urban planning increases the exposure to unwanted sounds.
This is why understanding noise pollution is necessary to curb it in time.
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En
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i ng.
Figure 5.3.1Noise Pollution
[Source:http://cpcbenvis.nic.in/noisepollution/noise.png] net
Definition:
Noise pollution is generally defined as regular exposure to elevated sound

levels that may lead to adverse effects in humans or other living organisms.
According to the World Health Organization, sound levels less than 70 dB are
not damaging to living organisms, regardless of how long or consistent the exposure is.
 Exposure for more than 8 hours to constant noise beyond 85 dB may be

hazardous.

 If you work for 8 hours daily in close proximity to a busy road or highway, you
are very likely exposed to traffic noise pollution around 85dB
Types of Noise Pollution
There are two primary types of noise.
 Man-Made Noise :
This refers to the noise created due to man-made activities. It can be anything
from construction work, noise from the air, vehicular traffic, household noise, noise
from pubs and bars, to name a few. Ranging from 30 to a whopping 140 dB, this
ww
form of noise is extremely harmful to humans.
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 Environmental Noise :
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Environmental Noise refers to the kind of noise occurring from a range
of environmental activities. This can be anything from the mating call of animals to
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the sound of thunderstorms that often go up to 140 dB.
Source of Noise Pollution: gin

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Multiple causes may attribute to noise pollution. Some of the most popular
causes are listed below.
i ng.
1. Industrialization
 Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producing a large
net
amount of noise.
 Apart from that, various equipment like compressors, generators, exhaust fans,
grinding mills also participates in producing big noise.
 You’re probably familiar with the sight of workers in these factories and
industries wearing earplugs to minimize the effect of noise.
 However, even after taking precautionary measures like these, extensive
exposure to high levels of noise might damage their hearing abilities in the long
run.

2. Poor Urban Planning
 In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning also plays a vital role.
 Congested houses, large families sharing small space, fight over parking,
frequent fights over basic amenities lead to noise pollution, which may disrupt
the environment of society.
 Noise pollution in urban settings may also be caused when residential properties
and industrial buildings are in proximity. In situations like these, the noise from
the nearby industrial property might hinder the basic well-being of the
individuals living in residential properties.
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 It doesn’t just affect their sleep and hours of rest but also has an adverse effect on
the development and well-being of children.
3. Social Events
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asy
 Noise is at its peak in most of the social events.
En
 Whether it is marriage, parties, pub, disc or place of worship, people normally
gin
flout rules set by the local administration and create a nuisance in the area.
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 People play songs on full volume and dance till midnight, which makes the
condition of people living nearby pretty worse.
i ng.
 In markets, you can see people selling clothes via making a loud noise to attract
the attention of people.
 While this may not seem like much at the outset, over time, it affects the hearing
net
abilities of the individuals who are constantly exposed to these sounds.
4. Transportation
 A large number of vehicles on roads, airplanes flying over houses, underground

trains produce heavy noise, and people find it difficult to get accustomed to that.
 The high noise leads to a situation where in a normal person loses the ability to
hear properly.

5. Construction Activities
 Under construction activities like mining, construction of bridges, dams,

buildings, stations, roads, flyovers takes place in almost every part of the world.
 These construction activities take place every day as we need more buildings,
bridges to accommodate more people.
 However, while this does help us to some degree, in the long run, the noise from
construction activities hinders the hearing abilities of individuals exposed to this
sound.
 A part of it includes construction workers who participate in these activities,
ww while another part of it consists of people who encounter these noise either from
their homes or while traveling.
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6. Household Chores
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 People are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in our daily life.
En
 Gadgets like TV, mobile, mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum cleaners,
gin
washing machine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners are minor contributors to the
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amount of noise that is produced. Still, it affects the quality of life of your
neighborhood in a bad way.
i
 This form of pollution may seem harmless, it, in fact, has far-reachingng.
consequences.
 The adverse effects on the health of the environment are quite severe. Not only is
net
the local wildlife affected by pollution, but humans also face a number of
problems due to it.
7. Noise from Air Traffic
 While many find it difficult to believe, air traffic too contributes to significant
levels of noise pollution. Noise from a single aircraft may produce sounds of up
to 130 dB.
 Now, imagine the amount of noise produced by the numerous aircraft traveling
our airspace.

8. Catering and Nightlife
 When the weather is good, restaurants, bars, and terraces spill outside.
 Late night parties continue with loud music and unnecessary noise made by the
party mongers. These can produce more than 100 dB.
 The noise from pubs and clubs are also included.
9. Animals’ Sound
 The noise made by animals cannot go unnoticed, particularly a howling or

barking dog. These can produce noise around 60-80 dB.
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Effects of Noise Pollution on human health
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1. Hearing Problems
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 Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can cause
problems within the body. Our ears can take in a certain range of sounds without
getting damaged. En
gin
 Man-made noises such as jackhammers, horns, machinery, airplanes, and even
vehicles can be too loud for our hearing range.
eer
 Constant exposure to loud levels of noise can easily result in the damage of our
eardrums and loss of hearing, causing tinnitus or deafness. i ng.
 It also reduces our sensitivity to sounds that our ears pick up unconsciously to
regulate our body’s rhythm.
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2. Psychological Issues
 Excessive noise pollution in working areas such as offices, construction sites,

bars and even in our homes can influence psychological health.
 Studies show that the occurrence of aggressive behavior, disturbance of sleep,
constant stress, fatigue, depression, anxiety, hysteria and hypertension in humans
as well as animals can be linked to excessive noise levels.

 The level of irritation increases with increased noise, and people tend to become
less and less patient. These, in turn, can cause more severe and chronic health
issues later in life.
3. Physical Problems
 Noise pollution can cause headaches, high blood pressure, respiratory agitation,
racing pulse, and, in exposure to extremely loud, constant noise, gastritis, colitis
and even heart attacks may occur.
4. Cognitive Issues & Behavioral Changes
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 Noise affects brain responses and people’s ability to focus, which can lead to
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low-performance levels over time. Like other sound waves, too much noise when
it goes to the brain leads to lower response rates as well as making the mind dull.
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 It is also poor for memory, making it hard to study. The studies have shown that
En
school children living near railway stations or airports have problems in learning.
 Research has shown that people who live near airports or busy roads, usually
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have a higher incidence of headaches, take more sleeping pills and sedatives, are
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more prone to minor accidents, and are more likely to seek psychiatric treatment.
5. Sleeping Disorders i ng.

 While it may not seem like much at this point, excessively high levels of noise
are likely to hamper your sleeping pattern, thereby leading to irritation and
net
uncomfortable situations.
 Without a good night’s sleep, you might experience multiple problems related to
fatigue. This will affect your performance in the office as well as at home.
 It is therefore recommended to take a sound sleep to give your body proper rest.
 If a certain noise is disturbing your sleep, take an actionable measure to reduce it.
While in some instances, it is completely unavoidable; there are other instances
(like noise from TV or gadgets) that can be easily avoided by making good
lifestyle changes.

 Interestingly, our ears need rest for 16 hours and even more to make up for two
hours of exposure to 100 dB.
6. Cardiovascular Issues
 Blood pressure levels, cardiovascular disease, and stress-related heart problems

are on the rise.
 Studies suggest that high-intensity noise causes high blood pressure and increases
heartbeat rate as it disrupts the normal blood flow.
 Since bringing these rates to a manageable level depends on our understanding of
noise pollution, we need to be wary of the ill-effects and tackle these situations
ww mindfully.
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7. Trouble Communicating
asy
 High decibel noise can put trouble and affect free communication between
people.
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 This may lead to misunderstanding, and you may get difficult understanding the
other person. gin
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 Constant sharp noise can give you a severe headache and disturb your emotional
balance.
i ng.
Effects of noise pollution on Wildlife
 Wildlife faces far more problems than humans because of noise pollution since
net
they are more dependent on sound.
 Animals develop a better sense of hearing than us since their survival depends on
it.
 A recent study published in Biology Letters found that human-created noise

affects a wide range of animals.
 The ill-effects of excessive noise begin at home.
 Pets react more aggressively in households where there is constant noise.

 They become disoriented more easily and face many behavioral problems. In
nature, animals may suffer from hearing loss, which makes them easy prey and
leads to dwindling populations. Others become inefficient at hunting, disturbing
the balance of the eco-system.
 Other than marine life, land animals are also affected by noise pollution in the
form of traffic, firecrackers etc., and birds are especially affected by the increased
air traffic.
Effects of Noise Pollution on Marine Life
ww
 Our oceans are no longer quiet.
w.E
 Thousands of oil drills, sonars, seismic survey devices, coastal recreational
watercraft and shipping vessels are now populating our waters, and that is a
asy
serious cause of noise pollution for marine life.

En
Whales are among the most affected, as their hearing helps them orient
themselves, feed and communicate.
gin
eer
 Noise pollution thus interferes with cetaceans’ (whales and dolphins) feeding
i ng.
habits, reproductive patterns and migration routes, and can even cause
hemorrhage and death.
Solutions for Noise Pollution: net

 Planting bushes and trees in and around sound generating sources is an effective
solution for noise pollution.
 Regular servicing and tuning of automobiles can effectively reduce the noise
pollution.
 Buildings can be designed with suitable noise absorbing material for the walls,
windows, and ceilings.
 Workers should be provided with equipments such as ear plugs and earmuffs for
hearing protection. Solutions for Noise Pollution

 Similar to automobiles, lubrication of the machinery and servicing should be

done to minimize noise generation
 Soundproof doors and windows can be installed to block unwanted noise from
outside.
 Regulations should be imposed to restrict the usage of play loudspeakers in

crowded areas and public places.
 Factories and industries should be located far from the residential areas.
Solutions for Noise Pollution
ww
 Community development or urban management should be done with long- term

w.E
planning, along with an aim to reduce noise pollution.
asy
Social awareness programs should be taken up to educate the public about the
causes and effects of noise pollution.
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

5.4 MEASUREMENT OF NOISE POLLUTION
Noise assessment is an examination of the nature and characteristics of a

noise. It may involve verifying aural factors such as:
 The location of the noise source

 Its audibility at certain locations
 The time of the noise is made and its duration
 Its characteristics
 The reported effect it has on people A.
ww
Duration of noise test for intruder alarms:
 It does not matter whether the alarm sounds continuously or intermittently.
Example:
w.E
asy
A car alarm that sounds for 30 seconds , stops for 1 minute and then sounds again
En
for another 30 seconds is taken to sound for 60 seconds, which is more than the 45
gin
seconds prescribed for a vehicle alarm manufactured on or after 1 September 1997.
eer
 For building intruder alarms, the assessment needs to be made inside a habitable
i ng.
room in a neighbor’s residence. For vehicle intruder alarms the assessment can be
made anywhere.
 The times of use or duration of the noise automatically make the noise offensive
 In other cases, it will be necessary to consider a range of factors to determine
net
whether the noise is offensive, including the following:
o The loudness of the noise, especially compared with other noise in the area
o The character of the noise
o The time and duration of the noise
o Whether the noise is typical for the area
o How often the noise occurs
o The number of people affected by the noise

Assessing noise with a sound level meter

 A sound level meter should be used to measure noise levels when:
 Determining an acceptable noise level for inclusion in a planning approval or
a Noise Control Notice or Prevention Notice
 Testing whether a particular noise complies with a level prescribed in a
planning approval or notice
 Gathering evidence to support an offensive noise test, such as :
 Quantifying how loud the noise
 Assessing how loud it is relative to the background noise
 Determining the presence of annoying characteristics such as tones supporting
ww a prosecution or disputed Penalty Notice.
w.E
1. Intrusive noise
 Noise is identified as ‘intrusive’ if it is noticeably louder than the background
asy
noise and considered likely to disturb or interfere with those who can hear it.
En
 Councils may have local policies about what they consider constitutes intrusive
gin
noise from specified activities in particular situations or locations.
 In these circumstances, it may be council policy that a particular intrusive noise
is treated as offensive. eer
i ng.
 It is into account the factors in the offensive noise checklist when setting local
intrusive noise levels and descriptors.
 In the absence of a council policy, intrusive noise would not automatically be net
considered offensive.
2. Measuring noise
Noise measurements should be undertaken by officers properly trained to use
noise equipment.
 If you are inexperienced with noise measurements, it is desirable that you get to
know what typical decibel levels sound like.
 Become familiar with the sound level meter and its controls.
 Decide when the noise is representative of the worst case level of noise from the
source or activity being investigated and take measurements at this time.

 Avoid taking measurements when it is raining or the average wind speed exceeds
5 metres per second at microphone height.
 Calibrate the sound level meter before and after each set of noise measurements
 Ensure the sound level meter is in the correct position.
 Measure the noise under investigation for long enough to establish that the
measured value is representative of the subject noise.
 Measure the noise at the location where the impact occurs.
 When the noise under investigation is affected by extraneous noise be sure that
the subject noise is what you are measuring.
 Use correction factors.
ww
Sequence of steps for measuring noise
w.E
 Before going out to take a measurement, check that the sound level meter has a
current calibration certificate issued by an accredited laboratory (for example,
NATA). asy
En
 Familiarise yourself with the meter and its settings.
gin
 Select a representative location and time of day to take measurements,
eer
taking into account information about the subject noise and any complaints
received.
i ng.
 Set the microphone at 1.2 to 1.5 metres above the ground and, where
feasible, avoid measurements within 3 metres of any walls, buildings and
other reflecting surfaces. net
 Ensure weather conditions are suitable: no rain and a wind speed of less
than 5 m/s and note these prevailing conditions in a log book.
 Do a field calibration of the sound level meter .
 Measure the subject noise for a pre-determined period (such as 15 minutes)
and check that the selected descriptor (for example LAeq) is suitable.
 If there is variation in the source noise level during the set period of
measurement, increase your confidence in the value being representative of
the worst case by taking a second and perhaps a third reading for the same
period of time.

 If necessary, measure the LA90 background noise level for the same set period in
the absence of the subject noise.
 Where noise other than that under consideration occurs during measurement, take
another reading to avoid the readings being contaminated.
 At the end of the measurements do another field calibration of the sound level
meter.
 If there is more than a 1 decibel variation between the calibrated level
and the first calibrated level, the measurements may be invalid, in
which case the measurement procedure will need to be repeated.
 Document observations of weather and noise that were heard during the
ww measurements, including the time of specific events that may affect readings,
w.E
such as a frog croaking or a dog barking.
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

5.5 STANDARDS OF NOISE POLLUTION
Ambient Noise Pollution Standards:
Whereas the increasing ambient noise levels in public places from various
sources, inter-alia,
 Industrial activity
 Construction activity
 Fire crackers
 Sound producing instruments
 Generator sets
ww  Loud speakers
w.E
 Public address systems
 Music systems
 Vehicular horns asy
En
 Other mechanical devices have deleterious effects on human health and the
psychological well being of the people.
gin
eer
Area Code
Category of Area /
Zone
i
Limits in dB(A) Leq*
ng.
Day Time Night Time net
(A) Industrial area 75 70
(B) Commercial area 65 55
(C) Residential area 55 45
(D) Silence Zone 50 40
Table 5.5.1 Ambient Air Quality Standards in respect of Noise

 Day time shall mean from 6.00 a.m. to 10.00 p.m.
 Night time shall mean from 10.00 p.m. to 6.00 a.m.

 dB(A) Leq denotes the time weighted average of the level of sound in decibels on
scale A which is relatable to human hearing.
 A “decibel” is a unit in which noise is measured.
 “A”, in dB(A) Leq, denotes the frequency weighting in the measurement of noise
and corresponds to frequency response characteristics of the human ear.
Leq: It is an energy mean of the noise level over a specified period.
Responsibility as to enforcement of noise pollution control measures.-

 The noise levels in any area / zone shall not exceed the ambient air quality
standards in respect of noise as specified in the Schedule.
ww
 The authority shall be responsible for the enforcement of noise pollution control
w.E
measures and the due compliance of the ambient air quality standards in respect
of noise.
asy
 The respective State Pollution Control Boards or Pollution Control Committees
En
in consultation with the Central Pollution Control Board shall collect, compile
and publish technical and statistical data relating to noise pollution and measures
gin
devised for its effective prevention, control and abatement.
eer
Restrictions on the use of loud speakers / public address system and sound
producing instruments.- i ng.
 A loud speaker or a public address system shall not be used except after
obtaining written permission from the authority. net
 A loud speaker or a public address system or any sound producing instrument or
a musical instrument or a sound amplifier shall not be used at night time except
in closed premises for communication within, like auditoria, conference rooms,
community halls, banquet halls or during a public emergency.
 Not with standing anything contained in sub-rule (2), the State Government may
subject to such terms and conditions as are necessary to reduce noise pollution,
permit use of loud speakers or public address system and the like during night
hours (between 10.00 p.m. to 12.00 midnight) on or during any cultural or
religious festive occasion of a limited duration not exceeding fifteen days in all

during a calendar year. The concerned State Government shall generally specify
in advance, the number and particulars of the days on which such exemption
would be operative.
 The noise level at the boundary of the public place, where loudspeaker or public
address system or any other noise source is being used shall not exceed 10 dB
(A) above the ambient noise standards for the area or 75 dB (A) whichever is
lower;
 The peripheral noise level of a privately owned sound system or a sound
producing instrument shall not, at the boundary of the private place, exceed by
ww more than 5 dB (A) the ambient noise standards specified for the area in which it
is used.
w.E
Restrictions on the use of horns , sound emitting construction equipments and
bursting of fire crackers:-
asy
 No horn shall be used in silence zones or during night time in residential areas
except during a public emergency.
En
gin
 Sound emitting fire crackers shall not be burst in silence zone or during night
time.
eer
 Sound emitting construction equipments shall not be used or operated during
night time in residential areas and silence zones. i ng.
Consequences of any violation in silence zone / area.-
In any place covered under the silence zone / area commits any of the following
net
offence, he shall be liable for penalty under the provisions of the Act:-
 Whoever, plays any music or uses any sound amplifiers,
 Whoever, beats a drum or tom-tom or blows a horn either musical or pressure, or
trumpet or beats or sounds any instrument, or
 Whoever exhibits any mimetic, musical or other performances of a nature to
attract crowds.
 Whoever, bursts sound emitting fire crackers; or
 Whoever, uses a loud speaker or a public address system.

Noise limits for vehicles applicable at manufacturing stage:
Noise Limits
S.No. Type of vehicle from1st January, Date of implementation
2003, dB(A)
(1) (2) (3) (4)

1. Two wheeler Ist January,2003
 Displacement upto 80 cm3 75
 Displacement more than 80 77
cm3 but upto 175 cm3
ww  Displacement more than 80
2.
w.E 175 cm3
Three wheeler Ist January,2003
asy
 Displacement upto 175 cm3 77
 Displacement more
En than 80
175 cm3
gin
3.
4.
Passenger car
Passenger or commercial eer
75 Ist January,2003
Ist July,2003
vehicle i ng.
 Gross vehicle weight upto 4
tonne
80
net
 Gross vehicle weight more 83
than 4 tonne but upto 12
tonne
 Gross vehicle weight more 85
than 12 tonne
Table 5.5.2 Noise limits for vehicles

5.6 CONTROL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES OF NOISE POLLUTION
CONTROL METHODS OF NOISE POLLUTION
The noise pollution is controlled at source, transmission path and using protection
equipments.
1. Control at Source
 Reducing the noise levels from domestic sectors: –

The domestic noise coming from radio, tape recorders, television sets,
mixers, washing machines, cooking operations can be minimized by their
ww selective and judicious operation. By usage of carpets or any absorbing material,

the noise generated from felling of items in house can be minimized.
w.E
 Maintenance of automobiles: –
asy
Regular servicing and tuning of vehicles will reduce the noise levels. Fixing
of silencers to automobiles, two wheelers etc., will reduce the noise levels.
 Control over vibrations: – En
gin
The vibrations of materials may be controlled using proper foundations,
eer
rubber padding etc. to reduce the noise levels caused by vibrations.
 Low voice speaking: –
i ng.
Speaking at low voices enough for communication reduces the excess
noise levels.
 Prohibition on usage of loud speakers: –
net
By not permitting the usage of loudspeakers in the habitant zones except
for important meetings / functions. Now-a-days, the urban Administration of the
metro cities in India, is becoming stringent on usage of loudspeakers.
 Selection of machinery: –
Optimum selection of machinery tools or equipment reduces excess noise
levels. For example selection of chairs, or selection of certain
machinery/equipment which generate less noise (Sound) due to its superior
technology etc. is also an important factor in noise minimization strategy.

 Maintenance of machines: –
Proper lubrication and maintenance of machines, vehicles etc. will
reduce noise levels. For example, it is a common experience that, many parts of a
vehicle will become loose while on a rugged path of journey. If these loose parts
are not properly fitted, they will generate noise and cause annoyance to the
driver/passenger. Similarly is the case of machines. Proper handling and regular
maintenance is essential not only for noise control but also to improve the life of
machine.
2. Control in the transmission path
ww
 Installation of barriers: –
w.E
Installation of barriers between noise source and receiver can attenuate the
noise levels.
asy
 Installation of panels or enclosures: –
En
A sound source may be enclosed within a paneled structure such as room as
gin
a means of reducing the noise levels at the receiver. The actual difference
between the sound pressure levels inside and outside an enclosure depends not
eer
only on the transmission loss of the enclosure panels but also on the acoustic
i ng.
absorption within the enclosure and the details of the panel penetrations which
may include windows or doors. The product of frequency of interest and surface
weight of the absorbing material is the key parameter in noise reduction through
transmission loss.
net
 Green belt development: –
Green belt development can attenuate the sound levels. The degree of
attenuation varies with species of greenbelt. The statutory regulations direct the
industry to develop greenbelt four times the built-up area for attenuation of
various atmospheric pollutants, including noise.
 Using protection equipment:-
The following are noise control techniques that have wide applications
across the whole of industry. In many cases, they will produce substantial noise

reductions quickly and cheaply –with little or no effect on normal operation or

use.
DAMPING
Normally required on steel sheeting that will ‘ring’ when struck with a hard
solid object. This is because the sheeting vibrates and resonates generating and adding
to any existing noise already in evidence. This is more usually a problem with steel
guards surrounding machinery and if left untreated, can considerably add to any
existing noise problems.
ww
1.Typical applications
 Chutes
 Hoppers
w.E
 Machine guards asy
 Panels
En
 Conveyors
 Tanks
gin
eer
2.Technique
i ng.
There are 2 basic techniques:-
 The unconstrained layer damping where a layer of bitumastic (or similar) high
net
damping material is stuck to the surface.
 The constrained layer damping where a laminate is constructed.

Figure 5.6.1 Damping
ww [Source: http://www.soundservice.co.uk/images/clip_image002_018.jpg]
w.E
Constrained layer damping is more rugged and generally more effective.
asy
Either remanufactured steel (or aluminium) guards, panels or other components from
commercially available sound deadened steel or buy self adhesive steel sheet. The latter
En
can simply be stuck on to existing components (inside or outside) covering about 80%
gin
of the flat surface area to give a 5 – 25dB reduction in the noise radiated (use a
eer
thickness that is 40% to 100% of the thickness of the panel to be treated).
3.Limitations :
i ng.
The efficiency falls off for thicker sheets. Above about 3mm sheet thickness it
becomes increasingly difficult to achieve a substantial noise reduction. net
FAN INSTALLATIONS
Fan noise is a common problem and can vary from small fans used to ventilate
areas to much larger air movement fans often used for cooling equipment such as air
conditioning plants. This article will deal with fans that rely on ducting that is more
easily soundproofed.
1. Typical applications
Axial flow or centrifugal fans.

2. Technique
 Maximum fan efficiency coincides precisely with minimum noise. Any fan
installation feature that tends to reduce fan efficiency is therefore likely to
increase noise.
 Two of the most common examples are bends close to the fan (intake side in
particular) and dampers (close to the fan intake or exhaust).
 For maximum fan efficiency and minimum noise, make sure there is at least 2 –
3 duct diameters of straight duct between any feature that may disturb the flow
and the fan itself.
ww
 Noise reductions of 3 – 12dB are often then possible
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net
Figure 5.6.2 Fan Installation

[Source:http://www.soundservice.co.uk/images/clip_image004_001.jpg]
DUCTWORK

A lot of noise can break out through the walls of any uninsulated ducting as
well as from any vents they may serve. Large air conditioning ducts are the main culprit
and due to their thin steel walls can resonate and transmit noise along its length.
 Extraction
 Ventilation
 Cooling
 Openings in walls and enclosures.
ww
2. Technique
w.E
 Instead of fitting silencers, it is often possible to achieve a 10 – 20dB reduction in
asy
airborne noise from a duct or opening by lining the last bend in the ductwork
with non-flammable FR type acoustic absorbent foam.
En
 Construct a simple absorbent lined right-angled bend to fit on the opening.
gin
 Ideally, either side of the bend should be lined along a length equivalent to twice
the duct diameter.
eer
 Where flow velocities are high (> 3m/s)
i ng.
 Consider using a film faced acoustic foam. Duct vibration can usually be
treated by damping (as above). net
 To stop noise being transmitted along the steel sections of ducting,
acoustic resilient duct connectors can be fitted instead of the usual rigid
fixing method.
FAN SPEED
Axial or centrifugal flow fans.
2. Technique

Fan noise is roughly proportional to the 5th power of fan speed. So in many
cases it is possible to achieve a large noise reduction from a small drop in fan speed by
changing control systems or pulley sizes and re-setting dampers.
The following table provides a guide to the trade-off that can be expected.
FAN SPEED REDUCTION NOISE REDUCTION
10% 2dB
ww 20% 5dB
w.E 30% 8dB
asy
40% En 11dB
gin
50% eer 15dB
i ng.
Table 5.6.1 Fan Speed Reduction & Noise Reduction net
PNEUMATIC EXHAUSTS
 A well designed silencer will not increase system back pressure.
 Almost invariably it is possible to reduce pneumatic exhaust noise

permanently by 10 – 30dB by fitting effective silencers.
 The following are the practical points that can make the difference between
success and failure.
 Back pressure : Fit a larger coupling and silencer

1.Clogging:
Fit a straight-through silencer that cannot clog (and has no back pressure)
2. Multiple exhausts :
 Manifold them into a single, larger diameter pipe fitted with the rear silencer
from virtually any make of car (from your local tyre and exhaust fitter).
 Typically 25dB reduction.
PNEUMATIC NOZZLES
ww
 Cooling w.E
 Drying
 Blowing
asy
En
2. Technique
gin
eer
 In most cases, it is possible to replace existing nozzles (usually simple copper
pipe outlets) for quiet, high efficiency units.
i ng.
 These not only reduce noise levels by up to 10dB, but also use less compressed
air.
 The types of nozzle to look out for are entraining units (schematic below) from
net
various manufacturers and in a variety of sizes.
Figure 5.6.3 Pneumatic Nozzle

[Source:http://www.soundservice.co.uk/images/clip_image008.jpg]
VIBRATION ISOLATION PADS
Machine feet, pumps and mezzanine installations .
2. Technique
ww Mounting motors, pumps, gearboxes and other items of plant on rubber

bonded cork or rubber Anti-vibration pads can be a very effective way of reducing
w.E
transmission of vibration and therefore noise radiated by the rest of the structure.
asy
This is particularly the case where vibrating units are bolted to steel supports
En
or floors. However, a common error with the use of these pads is for the bolt to ”short-
circuit” the pad, resulting in no isolation.
gin
eer
 Additional resilient pads must be fitted under the bolt heads as shown below to
stop any fixing bolts from bridging any other form of isolation.
i
 There are many types of off-the-shelf anti-vibration mounts available, for ng.
instance rubber/neoprene or spring types.
 The type of isolator that is most appropriate will depend on, among other factors,
net
the mass of the plant and the frequency of vibration to be isolated.
 Any supplier of anti-vibration mounts will be able to advise you on this.

Figure 5.6.4 Vibration isolation pads
[Source:http://www.soundservice.co.uk/images/clip_image010.jpg]
EXISTING MACHINE GUARDS
1.Technique
The existing guards on many machines can often be improved to provide a

significant noise reduction. The two principles involved, which must be used in
combination, are:-
ww
(i)Minimize gaps
w.E
Reducing by half the “gap” open area in a set of guards can reduce the noise by
asy
3dB. If you can reduce the openings (flexible seals, additional close fitting panels etc)
by 90%, then a 10dB noise reduction is possible.
En
(ii)Acoustic absorbent
gin
eer
Lining a significant proportion of the inside of the guards with sound absorbing
foam will reduce the noise “trapped” by the guards. Consequently, less noise will
i ng.
escape through any gaps. Failure to line the inside of the guards could result in an
increase in noise at the operator’s position if the gaps have been minimised as in (i)
above.
net
(iii)Eliminate rattles
It is important that any guards or screening of machinery is tight and does not
rattle because if left untreated can substantially add to the levels of noise pollution an
operator and nearby personnel can be subjected to. Large thin panels may also resonate
(vibrate) and this will also contribute to noise pollution. Panels such as this can be
stiffened as described in the first chapter at the start of this document.

In the first two cases, both sets of modifications can be tested in mock-up form
using cardboard (and wide tape) to extend the guarding and temporarily fitting areas of
acoustic foam inside. Not only does this process help with the practical aspects (access,
visibility etc), but it usually also provides a very good indication of the noise reduction
that can be expected. Very “Blue Peter” but very effective. Guard vibration radiated as
noise can also be treated via damping (as detailed at the beginning)
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
 Construction of soundproof rooms for noisy machines in industrial and

manufacturing installations must be encouraged.
ww
 This is also important for residential building noisy machines should be installed
w.E
far from sleeping and living rooms, like in a basement or garage.
 Use of horns with jarring sounds, motorbikes with damaged exhaust pipes, noisy
trucks to be banned. asy
En
 Noise producing industries, airports, bus and transport terminals and railway
gin
stations to sighted far from where living places.
 Community law enforcers should check the misuse of loudspeakers, worshipers,
eer
outdoor parties and discos, as well as public announcements systems.
i ng.
 Community laws must silence zones near schools / colleges, hospitals etc.
 Vegetation (trees) along roads and in residential areas is a good way to reduce
noise pollution as they absorb sound.
net

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Air Pollution

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1.1 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE

The Earth is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases extending several

Significance of the Atmosphere:

• All life forms owe their existence to the atmosphere

Structure of the Atmosphere:

CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

The layers in the Atmosphere shown in the fig1.1.2

CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

ww Figure 1.1.2 vertical structure of the atmosphere

Figure1.1.3 Pressure and Density of Atmosphere

CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us

CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

extinguishers have reduced the amount of ozone in the stratosphere, particularly at

 Water vapour accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass.

 The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from

The gases in the atmosphere are composed of neutral, uncharged particles.

CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

Major constituents of dry air, by volume

Name Formula in ppm in %

Oxygen w.E O2 209,460 20.946

Methane CH4 1.87 0.000187

Krypton Kr 1.14 0.000114

Not included in above dry atmosphere:

Water vapor(D) H2O 0–30,000(D) 0–3%(E)

CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

1.2 AIR POLLUTION

Definition of Air Pollution:

An average human being requires 12KG of air /

This is equal to 15 times greater than food /

w.E This is equal to 15 times greater than food /

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Environmental Protection Agency and an effective public policy toward the

iii. Macro scale.

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1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

ww Primary Air pollutant

CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

anthropogenic aerosols those made by human activities currently account for

2.Secondary pollutants include:

 Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in

CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

ww brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a

According to State of Matter

Classification according to the states of matter:

CE8005 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

1.4 SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Cutting down on the volume of pollutants produced is a crucial step in

Sources: Most commonly, Carbon Monoxide is produced by combustion engines

Effects: Carbon Monoxide can have a profound effect on the environment as it is

Lead has long been known to be a dangerous substance. Once common

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4.Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

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6.Particulate Matter (PM)

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Sources: Particle matter is produced by nearly every single process involving

Effects: Particle Matter ranges from annoying to extremely dangerous, often