Woolfolk & Margetts K 2016

KAY MARGETTS | ANITA WOOLFOLK
EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
5TH EDITION
vi
CONTENTS
Prefacexiii Divorce 28
Guided tour xiv Parenting style 29
Educator resources xvii Attachment relationship 30
About the authors xviii Domestic and family violence 30
Acknowledgementsxix How can teachers help? 30
Australian Professional Standards for Teachers xx Economic and social class differences 31
SES and achievement 31
Ethnic and racial differences 33
1 Teachers, teaching and
educational psychology 1
Changing demographics: Cultural differences
Ethnic and racial differences in school achievement
33
35
The legacy of discrimination 37
Teachers’ casebook: What would you do? 1
Stereotype threat 39
Chapter outline 2
Gender differences in the classroom 40
Do teachers make a difference? 2
Gender, identity and subjectivity 40
Stories of learning/Tributes to teaching 3
Gender differences in cognitive abilities 44
Teacher–student relationships 3
Point/Counterpoint: Do boys and girls learn
Teacher quality 3
differently? 45
What is good teaching? 4
Language differences in the classroom 48
Inside four classrooms 4
Dialects 48
Expert teachers 5
Bilingualism 50
Beginning teachers 6
Reaching every student: Recognising
Point/Counterpoint: What is good teaching? 7 giftedness in bilingual students 54
Reaching every student: Encouragement for a Creating culturally inclusive classrooms 55
beginning teacher 8
Sociolinguistics 55
The goal of teaching: Lifelong expert learning 8
Culturally inclusive pedagogy 56
Knowledge 9
Bringing it all together: Teaching every student 57
Motivation 9
Know your students 57
Self-discipline 9
Respect your students 57
The role of educational psychology 9
Teach your students 57
Is it just common sense? 10
Summary 59
Using research to understand and
Key terms 62
improve teaching 11
Useful websites 62
Becoming a good beginning teacher 14
Related topics 63
Understandings about education, learning and
teaching 15 Teachers’ casebook: What would they do? 64
How this book can help you learn 16 Guidelines:
Structure and content supports learning 16 Helping children of divorce 29
Summary 18 Family and community partnerships 36
Key terms 19 Avoiding gender bias in teaching 47
Useful websites 19 Dialects in the classroom 50
Related topics 19 Culturally inclusive teaching 58
Teachers’ casebook: What would they do? 20
3 Physical and cognitive

2 Culture and community 21 development 65
Teachers’ casebook: What would you do? 21 Teachers’ casebook: What would you do? 65
Chapter outline 22 Chapter outline 66
The importance of context 22 Defining development 66
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model Three questions about development 67
of development 23 General principles of development 68
Today’s multicultural classrooms 24 The developing brain 68
Individuals, groups and society 25 Levels of functioning 68
Australia—a land of cultural diversity 27 Neurons 70
The family context 28 Neuroscience, learning and teaching 72
Contents vii
Point/Counterpoint: Brain-based education 73 Emotional development 121

Physical development 74 Emotions 121
Growth 74 Temperament 122
Motor development 76 Emotional competence and school 123
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development 78 Social development 124
Influences on development 78 Social competence 124
Basic tendencies in thinking 79 Peer relationships and peer cultures 125
Stages of cognitive development 80 Reaching every student: Learning to listen 126
Stories of learning/Tributes to teaching 87 Moral development 130
Implications of Piaget’s theory for teachers 88 Kohlberg’s stages of moral development 131
Understanding and building on students’ thinking 88 Alternatives to Kohlberg’s theory 131
Activity and constructing knowledge 88 Diversity in moral reasoning 133
Some limitations of Piaget’s theory 89 Values education 133
Neo-Piagetian views of cognitive development 90 Reaching every student: The Values
Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective 91 Education Good Practice Schools Project 135
Social sources of individual thinking 91 Community outside the classroom:
Cultural tools and cognitive development 92 Community service 135
The role of language and private speech 93 Moral behaviour: Aggression, bullying
The zone of proximal development 94 and cheating 137
Implications of Vygotsky’s theory for teachers 95 Aggression 137
Assisted learning 95 Students who bully 139
Reaching every student: Scaffolding learning 95 Media use and cyberbullying 142
Some limitations of Vygotsky’s theory 96 Reaching every student: Student guide
to safety on the internet 144
Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s views compared 97
Cheating 144
The development of language 98
Challenges and risks for students 145
When and how language develops 98
Navigating transitions 145
Diversity in language: Dual-language development 99
Children and youth at risk 147
Language development in the school years 100
Resilience and coping 155
Summary 104
Teaching young people to cope 156
Key terms 106
Diversity and coping 156
Useful websites 107
Stories of learning/Tributes to teaching 157
Related topics 107
Summary 159
Key terms 162
Guidelines:
Useful websites 162
Teaching the preoperational child 83
Related topics 163
Teaching the concrete operational child 85
Helping students to use formal operations 87
Guidelines:
Applying Vygotsky’s ideas in teaching 96
Encouraging initiative in preschool children 112
Family and community partnerships 103
Encouraging industry 113
Supporting identity formation 115
4 Personal, emotional, social
and moral development 109
Encouraging emotional competence
Supporting personal development
124
136
Dealing with aggression and encouraging
Teachers’ casebook: What would you do? 109 cooperation 142
Chapter outline 110 Developing effective transition programs 148
The work of Erikson 110
The preschool years: Trust, autonomy and initiative 111
Primary and middle school years: Industry versus
inferiority 112 5 Learner differences and
learner needs 165
Adolescence: The search for identity 112
Beyond the school years 114 Teachers’ casebook: What would you do? 165
Understanding ourselves and others 115 Chapter outline 166
Self-concept 115 Learner differences and labelling 166
Self-esteem 117 Person-first language 167
Point/Counterpoint: What should schools do to Impairments, disabilities and handicaps 167
encourage students’ self-esteem? 118 Individual differences in intelligence 168
Gender, ethnicity, self-concept and self-esteem 119 What does intelligence mean? 168
The self and others 120 Intelligence as a process 171
viii EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
How is intelligence measured? 172 Learning is not always what it seems 215
Creativity 175 Early explanations of learning: Contiguity
Defining creativity 175 and classical conditioning 216
Assessing creativity 176 Pavlov’s dilemma and discovery: Classical
What are the sources of creativity? 176 conditioning 216
Creativity in the classroom 177 Generalisation, discrimination and extinction 217
Ability differences and differentiated teaching 179 Operant conditioning: Trying new responses 218
Ability grouping 179 Types of consequences 219
Point/Counterpoint: Is streaming an effective Reinforcement schedules 220
strategy? 180 Antecedents and behaviour change 222
Cognitive styles and learning preferences 181 Applied behaviour analysis and support 224
Cognitive styles 182 Methods for encouraging behaviours: Positive
Learning preferences 184 behaviour support 224
Integration and inclusion 185 Stories of learning/Tributes to teaching 227
Least restrictive environment 186 Responding to undesirable behaviour 228
Individual education plans 186 Behavioural approaches to teaching and
The rights of students and families 187 classroom management 230
Prevalent problems and disabilities 188 Group consequences 230
Students with learning disabilities 188 Token reinforcement systems 231
Reaching every student: Higher-order Reaching every student: Students with
comprehension and severe learning challenging behaviours 232
disabilities 191 Contingency contracts 232
Students with intellectual disabilities 191 Behaviour self-management and
Students with communication impairments 193 self-regulation 233
Students with sensory impairments 193 Criticisms and challenges 236
Students with emotional or behaviour disorders 195 Criticisms of behavioural methods 236
Students with hyperactivity and attention Ethical issues 236
disorders 197 Point/Counterpoint: Should students be
Students with autism spectrum disorders 199 rewarded for learning? 237
Stories of learning/Tributes to teaching 199 Summary 239
Students with physical and health impairments 200 Key terms 240
Making a referral 201 Useful websites 241
Students who are gifted and talented 202 Related topics 241
Who are these students? 202 Teachers’ casebook: What would they do? 242
Identifying students who are gifted and talented 203 Guidelines:
Summary 208 Applying classical conditioning 218
Key terms 210 Encouraging positive behaviours 225
Useful websites 211 Using praise appropriately 226
Related topics 211 Responding to undesirable behaviour 229
Teachers’ casebook: What would they do? 212 Family and community partnerships 235
Guidelines:
Interpreting IQ scores 174
Encouraging creativity
Flexible grouping
178
181
7 Cognitive views
of learning 243
Teaching students with mild intellectual
disabilities 192 Chapter outline 244
Disciplining students with emotional and Elements of the cognitive perspective 244
behaviour difficulties 196 Comparing cognitive and behavioural views 244
The brain and learning 245
The importance of knowledge in learning 245
6 Behavioural views
of learning 213
Cognitive views of memory
Sensory memory
247
248
Working memory 251
Teachers’ casebook: What would you do? 213 Long-term memory 256
Chapter outline 214 Capacity, duration and contents of long-term
Understanding learning 214 memory 256
Learning: A definition 214 Explicit memories: Semantic and episodic 256
Neuroscience of behavioural learning 215 Implicit memories 259
Contents ix
Storing and retrieving information in long-term Teaching for transfer 301

memory 259 Teaching for positive transfer 301
Reaching every student: Building Stories of learning/Tributes to teaching 303
memory skills 261 Diversity 304
Developmental and individual differences Summary 306
and memory 263 Key terms 307
Developmental differences and working Useful websites 308
memory 264
Related topics 308
Individual differences in working memory 264
Individual differences in long-term memory 264
Guidelines:
Becoming knowledgeable: Some basic
principles 265 Applying Bruner’s ideas 284
Development of declarative knowledge 265 Applying Ausubel’s ideas 286
Development of procedural knowledge 267 Problem solving 294
Point/Counterpoint: What’s wrong with Family and community partnerships 304
memorising? 268
Metacognition and theory of mind
Metacognitive knowledge and regulation
270
270 9 Social cognitive and
constructivist views of
Individual differences in metacognition 271
Theory of mind 271 learning 310
Connecting with families 273
Summary 274
Chapter outline 311
Key terms 276
Social cognitive theory 311
Useful websites 277
Beyond behavioural explanations of learning 311
Related topics 277
Triadic reciprocal causation 312
Learning by observing others 314
Guidelines:
Elements of observational learning 314
Gaining and maintaining attention 251
Factors that influence observational learning 315
Using information processing ideas in the
Observational learning in teaching 315
classroom 262
Constructivism and situated learning 317
Constructivist views of learning 318
How is knowledge constructed? 320
8 Complex cognitive
processes 279
Knowledge: Situated or general?
Common elements of constructivist perspectives
320
321
Applying constructivist perspectives 322
Teachers’ casebook: What would you do? 279 Inquiry and problem-based learning 322
Chapter outline 280 Reaching every student: Problem-based
Learning and teaching about concepts 280 learning 326
Views of concept learning 280 Point/Counterpoint: Are inquiry and
Strategies for teaching concepts 282 problem-based learning effective
Teaching concepts through discovery 283 teaching approaches? 327
Teaching concepts through exposition 284 Dialogue and instructional conversations 328
Problem solving 286 Cognitive apprenticeships and reciprocal
Problem solving: General or domain-specific? 287 teaching 329
General problem-solving strategies: IDEAL 287 Reaching every student: Lunch learning 329
Identifying problems and opportunities 287 Cognitive apprenticeships in thinking 331
Defining goals and representing the problem 287 Play as a context for learning 332
Exploring possible solution strategies 290 An integrated constructivist approach: Fostering
Anticipating, acting and looking back 291 communities of learners 333
Factors that hinder problem solving 292 Group work, cooperation and collaborative
learning 334
Expert knowledge and problem solving 293
Making group learning work 335
Expert learning strategies and study skills 295
Strategies for cooperation and collaboration 337
Learning strategies and tactics 296
Working with families 338
Reading strategies 298
Looking back at learning 340
Applying learning strategies 299
Summary 342
Reaching every student: Teaching them
how to learn 299 Key terms 344
Point/Counterpoint: Should schools teach Useful websites 344
problem solving and higher-order thinking? 300 Related topics 344
x EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Teachers’ casebook: What would they do? 345 Do I want to do it? Seeing the value of learning 384
Guidelines: What do I need to do to succeed? Staying
Using observational learning 317 focused on the task 385
Using cooperative and collaborative learning 339 Summary 387
Key terms 390
Useful websites 391
10 Motivation in learning
and teaching 346
Related topics
Teachers’ casebook: What would they do?
391
392
Guidelines:
Teachers’ casebook: What would you do? 346 Supporting self-determination and autonomy 355
Chapter outline 347 Encouraging self-efficacy and self-worth 366
What is motivation? 347 Building on students’ interests 368
Meeting some students 348 Coping with anxiety 373
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation 349 Family and community partnerships 385
Five general approaches to motivation 350
Behavioural approaches to motivation 350
Humanist approaches to motivation
Cognitive approaches to motivation
350
351 11 Creating learning
environments 393
Social cognitive approaches to motivation 351
Sociocultural conceptions of motivation 351 Teachers’ casebook: What would you do? 393
Needs 352 Chapter outline 394
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 352 The need for organisation 394
Self-determination: Need for competence, The basic task: Gain student cooperation 395
autonomy and relatedness 354 The goals of classroom management 395
Needs and teaching 355 Creating a positive learning environment 397
Goal orientations 356 Some research results 397
Types of goals and goal orientations 356 Procedures and rules 397
Stories of learning/Tributes to teaching 357 Planning spaces for learning 401
Four achievement goal orientations in school 357 Getting started: The first weeks of class 404
Goals and teaching 358 Maintaining a good environment
Beliefs and self-perceptions 360 for learning 405
Beliefs about knowing: Epistemological beliefs 360 Encouraging engagement 405
Beliefs about ability 360 Prevention is the best medicine 406
Beliefs about causes and control: Attribution Responding to inappropriate or disruptive
theory 361 behaviour 407
Beliefs about self-efficacy 363 Special problems with secondary school
Beliefs about self-worth 365 students 408
Interests, curiosity and emotions 367 Student conflicts and confrontations 409
Tapping interests 367 Stories of learning/Tributes to teaching 410
Point/Counterpoint: Does making learning Creating a caring community 411
fun make for good learning? 369 Point/Counterpoint: Is zero tolerance a
Curiosity: Novelty and complexity 369 good idea? 412
Emotions and anxiety 370 The teacher as model 412
Interests, curiosity, emotions The need for communication 414
and teaching 372 Message sent—Message received 414
Self-regulation and human agency 374 Diagnosis: Whose problem is it? 414
Models of self-regulated learning and agency 374 Counselling: The student’s problem 415
Student motivation and engagement to learn 375 Confrontation and assertive responses 416
Motivation and teaching 378 Mediation and behaviour support 417
On TARGET for learning 378 Conflict resolution and peer mediation 417
Tasks for learning 378 A restorative approach to behaviour
Supporting autonomy and recognising management 418
accomplishment 380 Communicating with families about classroom
Grouping, evaluation and time 381 management 420
Bringing it all together: Strategies to encourage Summary 421
motivation and thoughtful learning 383 Key terms 423
Can I do it? Building confidence and positive Useful websites 423
expectations 383 Related topics 423
Contents xi

Guidelines:
Establishing class procedures 398
13 Standardised testing 467
Designing learning spaces 402 Chapter outline 468
Keeping students engaged 406 Assessment, measurement and
Imposing penalties 408 evaluation 468
Handling potentially explosive situations 411 Norm-referenced tests 469
Family and community partnerships 420 Criterion-referenced tests 469
What do test scores mean? 470
Basic concepts 471
12 Teaching for learning 425 Types of scores
Interpreting test scores
473
475
Types of standardised tests 479
Chapter outline 426
Achievement tests: What has the student
Understanding teaching 426 learned? 480
Characteristics of effective teachers 427 Diagnostic tests: What are the student’s
The first step: Planning 428 strengths and weaknesses? 481
Objectives for learning 430 Aptitude tests: How well will the student do
Using taxonomies and questions for planning 431 in the future? 482
Planning from a constructivist perspective 435 Issues in standardised testing 483
Teaching approaches 437 How widespread is standardised testing? 483
Direct instruction and explanation 437 Accountability and high-stakes testing 484
Independent classroom work 440 Point/Counterpoint: Should tests be used
Point/Counterpoint: Is homework a valuable to hold teachers accountable? 485
use of time? 441 Preparing for tests 486
Questioning 443 Accommodating diversity in testing 486
Group discussion 446 Stories of learning/Tributes to teaching 487
Digital technologies 447 Alternatives in testing and assessment 489
Teacher expectations 450 Alternative assessment 489
Expectation effects 450 Standards-based assessment 490
Sources of expectations 451 Summary 491
Do teachers’ expectations really affect students’ Key terms 492
achievement? 451 Useful websites 493
Teacher behaviour and student reaction 452 Related topics 493
Student-centred teaching 454 Teachers’ casebook: What would they do? 494
Stories of learning/Tributes to teaching 456 Guidelines:
The e5 instructional model 456 Increasing reliability and validity 478
Differentiated teaching 458 Preparing for tests or examinations: Advice
Differentiated teaching in inclusive for students 479
classrooms 458 Family and community partnerships 483
Technology and differentiated teaching 459 Accommodations in testing 488
Reaching every student: Resource rooms,
collaborative consultation and
cooperative teaching 460
Beyond the debates to outstanding teaching
Summary
461
462 14 Assessment
reporting
and
495
Key terms 464
Useful websites 464 Teachers’ casebook: What would you do? 495
Related topics 465 Chapter outline 496
Teachers’ casebook: What would they do? 466 Formative and summative assessment 496
Guidelines: Assessment 496
Teaching effectively 428 Functions of assessment 497
Using learning/instructional objectives 434 Getting the most from traditional assessment
Family and community partnerships 442 approaches 499
Productive group discussions 448 Evaluating ready-made tests 499
Avoiding the negative effects of teacher Objective testing 500
expectations 453 Essay testing 502
Teaching for conceptual change 457 Alternatives to traditional assessment 504
xii EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Point/Counterpoint: Which is better— Beyond grading: Communicating with

traditional tests or authentic families 524
assessments? 505 Summary 527
Stories of learning/Tributes to teaching 506 Key terms 528
Authentic classroom assessment 506 Useful websites 529
Assessment of student performance in context 507 Related topics 529
Evaluating student performance 510 Teachers’ casebook: What would they do? 530
Effects of grades and grading on students 514 Guidelines:
Effects of failure 514 Writing objective test items 501
Effects of feedback 515 Creating portfolios 513
Reaching every student: Beyond grading 517 Developing a rubric 514
Grades and motivation 517 Minimising the detrimental effects of grades 518
Grading and reporting: Nuts and bolts 519 Family and community partnerships 525
Norm-referenced versus criterion-referenced
grading 519 References531
The point system and percentage grading 521 Names index 578
Grading effort and improvement 522 Subject index 589
Cautions: Being fair 523
Diversity and grading 523
xiii
PREFACE
Welcome to the fifth Australian edition of Educational Psychology. This revised edition ref lects exciting developments
in the field and includes many new and updated references to the work of Australasian and international researchers.
With increasing relevance to the Australasian context, this edition also addresses universal issues facing teachers
wherever they are in the world. There is a strong nexus between theory and practice, with emphasis on educational
implications and applications of research on human development, cognitive science, learning, motivation, teaching,
and assessment—showing how information and ideas drawn from educational psychology research can be applied to
solve everyday problems of teaching. Numerous examples, case studies, guidelines, and practical tips from
experienced teachers are used to explore connections between knowledge, understanding, and practice. The text is
clear, relevant, and interesting, and is as free of technical language and jargon as possible.
The plan of the book

The introductory chapter begins with you, the prospective teacher, educational psychologist or sociologist, and the
questions you may be asking yourself about teaching and learning. What is good teaching, and what does it take to
become an excellent teacher? What is the relationship between educational psychology and learning and teaching?
Chapters 2 to 5 focus on learners. What is the inf luence of social and cultural contexts? What does it mean to
create a culturally inclusive classroom, one that makes learning accessible to all students? What are the implications
of neuroscience and brain development for learning? How do students develop physically, cognitively, emotionally,
and socially, and how do all these aspects fit together? What contributes to individual differences, and what do they
mean for learners and teachers?
Chapters 6 to 10 consider learning and motivation from five general conceptualisations—behavioural, cognitive,
constructivist, social cognitive, and sociocultural. Learning theories have important implications for teaching and
instruction at every level. Cognitive research is particularly vital and promises to be a wellspring of ideas for teaching
in the immediate future.
Chapters 11 and 12 focus on the teaching process, including how to create and maintain positive learning
environments and, then, how to teach, both for academic and personal learning. The material in these chapters is
based on recent research in real-life classrooms.
The final two chapters (13 and 14) explore how to assess what students know and what they have learned and
understand. These chapters examine different types of testing and grading as well as authentic classroom assessment
and reporting, and provide a sound basis for determining student learning and understanding.
xiv
GUIDED TOUR 110 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER 4
Key features throughout the book help with locating relevant topics and focusing your attention as you engage with
Personal, emotional, CHAPTER OUTLINE
each chapter.
social and moral
development CHAPTER 4 PERSONAL, EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 131
As children interact with others; develop perspective Thetaking, emotional competence, and social CONNECT AND EXTEND
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK
competence; and observe that different people have different The
work of Erikson
rules,
110
◀ Teachers’
there is a gradual shift to a morality
preschool years: Trust, autonomy and casebook/What would
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
WHAT WOULD YOU DO?
that people make rules and you peopledo?
initiative
of cooperation Youorhavemoral relativism.
seen it before, but this yearChildren come
the situation in your to understand
middle years
Primary and middle school years: Industry
versus inferiority helps
Moral sethave
issues can thean scene for each chapter.
can change them.classroom
When rules are broken, both the damage Adolescence:
seems especially vicious. A clique of popular girls has made
done The search for identity
andyearsthe intention of the offender important impact on the
are about
life miserable for several of their former friends—now rejected. The old Beyond the school
Think theIdentify
classroom. scenarios
major as you read through
issues
taken into account. These developmental changes, and otherSelf-concept
friends have committed the social sin of not fitting in—they wear the
cognitive and social changes, are ref lected
Understanding ourselves and others 115
ideasandof moral realism. the chapter and you may come up with ideas
wrong clothes or aren’t pretty enough or aren’t interested in boys yet. related to moral development
in Kohlberg’s theory
To keepof moral
the status development,
distinctions based
clear between themselves in part onSelf-esteem
and ‘the Piaget’s
Gender, ethnicity, self-concept
and explain what a teacher can
others’, the popular girls spread gossip about their former friends, often self-esteem
disclosing the intimate secrets revealed when the ‘out’ girls and the ‘in’
girls were best friends, only a few months ago. Today, you discover that
The self and others about how
do toto solve the
appropriately problem described.
address
Kohlberg’s stages
Stephanie, one ofof moral girls, wrote adevelopment
Emotional development 121
the rejected long, heart-baring email to Emotions these issues.
her former best friend, Alison, asking why Alison is ‘acting so mean’. The Temperament
Emotional competence and school
now-popular Alison forwarded the email to the entire school and
stop think write Stephanie is humiliated. She has been absent for three days since the
incident.
Social development
Social competence
124
Peer relationships and peer cultures
A man’s wife is dying. There is one drug that could save her, but it is very expensive, and the Moral development 130
◀it.Chapter contents list the topic headings

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
chemist who invented it will not sell it at a price low enough for the man to be able to buy Alternatives to Kohlberg’s theory
Diversity in moral reasoning
Critical thinking
Finally, the man becomes desperate and considers stealing the drug for his wife. What should
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Values education
to help you navigate your way through the
How would you respond to each of the girls? Would you say anything to
Community outside the classroom:
Community service
he do, and why? your other students? If so, what? In your teaching, are there ways you
chapter.
Moral behaviour: Aggression, bullying
can address the issues raised by this situation? Reflecting on your years
in school, were your experiences more like those of Alison or Stephanie?
and cheating
Aggression
137
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
Students who bully
Lawrence Kohlberg (1963; 1975; 1981) evaluated the moral reasoning of both children and adults by
Collaboration Media use and cyberbullying
Cheating LO 4.1
presenting 110them with moral dilemmas or hypothetical situations (such as the one in the 115
EDUCATIONAL
With three orPSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER
four colleagues, role-play a talk with Stephanie,4Alison,
PERSONAL,
their families. Take turns playing the different roles in your group.
or EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL
Challenges and risks AND MORAL
for students
Navigating transitions
145DEVELOPMENT stop think
write feature above) in which people must make difficult decisions and give their reasons. Based on Children and youth at risk
Resilience and coping 155
LO 4.2
their reasoning,
GUIDELINES Kohlberg proposed a detailed sequence of six stages of moral reasoning, or judgements Teaching young people to cope
appropriate self-esteem in your students.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
about right and wrong. He divided moral development into three levels: (1) preconventional, where
Diversity and coping
Supporting identity formation LO 4.3

◀ Chapter outline
Students’ personal characteristics and their social experiences, especially within their families, with peers, and with teachers, combine
judgement is based solely
to influence on a person’s
their identity—their own
beliefs and behaviours, their needs
wellbeing, andand perceptions;
their participation in and contribution (2) conventional, where
to society. the provides a brief
expectations Giveof society
students many and
As you models
remember
law
foryour
are taken
yearschoices
career in school,and
into
whatother
account;
stands out—memories
and
aboutof
Be tolerant (3)
academic
postconventional,
teenage knowledge
fads as or memories
long as they don’twhere
offend judgements are
of feelings,
these skills.
adult roles.friendships, and fears? Although the most important task of theothers
based on abstract, aremore
problemspersonal principles
with social and emotional development, that are
and also
teacherorisinterfere
withnot
physical
education,with
necessarily
student learning suffers when there
learning.
defined
development as identified in Chapter by3. In society’s
this laws. summary
Look at of key content and the structure of
LO 4.4
EXAMPLES chapter, we examine personal, emotional, social, and moral development.
M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd 109 EXAMPLES 29/06/18 1:29 PM
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made how shaped?
a little-known then explore
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impose strict dress or andhair
consider
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EXAMPLES ref lects
contexts
cooperation,
of the
empathy,
family, child’s
honesty,
basic
peer relationships, egocentrism. The your students.
school, and community. We conclude the chapter by considering how schools can support student wellbeing and resilience.
2. Invite guest speakers to describe how and why they chose
reasoning might be:
their professions.
‘What would
MakeOUTCOMES
happen
sure as wide a range as possible of
to me if I stole something? I might
1. When students misbehave or perform poorly, make sure
they understand the consequences of their behaviour—
get caught and punished.’ LO 4.6
LEARNING
At Level kinds 2 (the of workconventional level), a person isthe able tothemselves
look beyond and others. the immediate personal
Learning outcomes
and workers are represented. effects on
consequences Help and LO

students
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
consider
4.1 Describethe
find resources for views,
working
Erikson’s
out and especially
personal
stages of psychosocial
2. Give students model answers or show them other
development, and the approval,
explain any implications ofofothers.
his theory Laws—religious
forcan
teachers.
◀
or civil— identify the keycan respond to each problem.
and how teachers
problems. students’ completed projects so they compare their
are very important
EXAMPLES
LO and appropriate
4.2 are regarded
Explain the difference as being absolute and unalterable. One answer stressing adherence
between self-concept
self-esteem in your students.
and work
self-esteem, to
and good
describeexamples.
how to foster genuine and
3. Since students are ‘trying on’ roles, keep the roles separate
concepts and knowledge LO 4.7you will gain.
to rules is, 1.‘ItEncourage
is wrong students totosteal because
talk to school it is against the
counsellors.
LO 4.3 Identify skills that comprise emotional competence and explain from law.’
the
howperson.
Another
teachersYou
can can
answer,
criticise
support behaviourplacing
the development without
of
a high value on
2. Discuss potentialthese outside services.
loyalty to family and loved ones but still respecting the law, is, ‘It’s right to steal because the man means
skills. criticising the student. LO 4.8
LO 4.4 Explain the roles of social competence, peers, peer cultures, and friendships in students’ lives.
well—he’s trying to help his wife. But he will still have to pay the chemist when he can or accept the resilience and coping skills.
LO 4.5 Differentiate between morality and moral reasoning, and explain approaches for fostering moral reasoning in CONNECT AND EXTEND
penalty for breaking theyourlaw.’ students. TO PRACTICE
identity precedes intimacy, because their research indicates that, for women, identity achievement is
At Level
fused3with(theachieving
LOpostconventional
4.6 Explain what encourages
intimacy (Miller, 2016). level), an answer might be, ‘It is not wrong to steal because human
aggression, bullying, and cheating in schools, the consequences of these behaviours,
and how teachers can respond to each problem. In a classroom discussion about
life must be preserved.
With
aspects of personal LO 4.7 The
Erikson’s theory
and
ofworth
Identify and
psychosocial of ofadevelopment
explain some
social development
human
the
that challenges andlife risksisfacing
are issues throughout
greater
as a framework, we can
students todaythan
childhood and
nowthe examineworth
and how teachers
adolescence.
several of property.’ This response
can respond. stealing, the teacher finds that
considers the underlying LO 4.8 Describe values personal that might
characteristics be involved
of resilient people and important in the decision.
features of programs designedAbstract to foster concepts are no longer many students express the
resilience and coping skills.
rigid, and, as the name ▶ofWhy this level implies, principles can be separated from conventional values. opinion that it is all right to steal
▶ THE WORK OF ERIKSON ◀ Margin learning
is Erikson’s theory considered to be a psychosocial perspective?
A person reasoning on this level areunderstands
Erikson’s stages ofthat what is considered right by the majority may not be if you don’t get caught. How
▶ What psychosocial development? LO 4.1
should a teacher respond?
outcomes are located in
▶ How can the use of communication technologies impact on personal development?
considered right by an individual in a particular situation. Rational, personal choice is stressed.
LO 4.1 ▶ THE WORK OF ERIKSON Describe
Would Erikson’s
the ethnicity, stages
culture,
Moral reasoning is related to cognitive, social, and emotional development. As we have seen, gender, or socioeconomic
of psychosocial
Like
Describe Erikson’s stages
Like Piaget, Erik Erikson did not start out as a psychologist. He spent his early adult years studying art
the margin at the start of
abstract thinking Check becomes yourself increasingly important in the higher stages of moral development, as
of psychosocial
▲
▶any UNDERSTANDING
development, and explain and travelling
Freud to study OURSELVES
around
are self-check
Europe.
psychoanalysis.
A
AND
meeting
Erikson
with
OTHERS
Sigmund
then emigrated features
to America to practisethat
Freud in Vienna led to an
appear
invitation
his profession
from
and to at status of the student
development, and influence
explain
children move
implications of his
theory forfrom
teachers. decisions escape the based
threat of on Hitler.absolute
The work of Freud rules to those
and Erikson has helped based on abstract
us to understand the role of principles, such as the teacher’s response?
any implications of his the sections to which they
justice andthe
What is
mercy.end
self-concept?
of right The
of each How do we
others and
ability section
come to understand
of experiences in
doto see and help
other
relation to
another’s
people you
and
our identity
perspective, review
ourselves? How
and personality—the
to judge
do and
we develop
particular apply
characteristics
intentions, LO 4.2 and to imagine
a sense
personality The enduring
and wrong—and such as cognitive these beliefs
ability, affecttemperament,
emotions, our personality beliefs,andand behaviour?
habits—that You will
together see to our
contribute
Explain the difference
theory for teachers. relate.
alternativeknowledge
bases for laws about
that these
behavioural aspects
characteristics
an individual that together
follow
of
and rulestopics
individuality
patterns also enters
or uniqueness.
similar to those
that
Jamesforinto
Baldwin
have
cognitive judgements been atcovered the higherinstages.
noted:development noted in Chapter 3.
that between self-concept and moral realism Stage of
Children’s understandings of The
themselves areof concrete
development at first, and
the child’s personality couldthen
not gobecome more the
on at all without abstract.
constantEarly
moderation self-esteem, and describe
contribute to their uniqueness. development in which children
section.
These include patterns of of his sense
views of self and friends are based
someone
beliefs, feeling, and actions.
others share their feelings and
on of himself by suggestions
immediate
else, even inTheir
perceptions.
behaviours
his own
fromand
others.
thought of about
thinking
So he himself,Children
appearances.
himself.themselves
at every stage,
(Baldwin, 1902,
andp. 23)
is reallythat
assume
others is simple,
in part how to foster genuine and
appropriate self-esteem in perceive rules as being
personality The enduring
Alternatives
segmented, to Kohlberg’s
and rule-bound, not f lexible theory
or integrated into organised systems. In time, children are your students. absolute. individuality or uniqueness. James Baldwin noted:
CHAPTER 4intentions,
able to think abstractly about internal processes—beliefs, PERSONAL, EMOTIONAL,
values, SOCIAL AND
and motivations. MORAL DEVELOPMENT
With 119 behavioural characteristics of
Even though there is evidence
these developments that the
in abstract thinking, then,different
our knowledge levels ofothers,
of self, reasoning identified
and situations can by Kohlberg form a an individual
morality that together
of cooperation ◀ Margin key terms
hierarchy,Gender,
with each
incorporate stagequalities
more abstract representing an 2016;
(Berk & Meyers,
ethnicity, self-concept and self-esteem
advancement
Harter, 2006). in reasoning over the one before (Boom,
contribute to their uniqueness.
Stage of development in which
M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd 110
Brugman Self-concept
& van der Heijden, 2001), the stage theory has been criticised.
29/06/18 1:30 PM
children
These realise patterns
include that people
of
appear in boldface type in
First, in reality,
Here, we focusthe stages
on one part do
Asaspect ofofthenot seemprocess
interview to be
self—self-concept, forseparate,
a job inby
considered sequenced,
primary
many school, and
you are
psychologists beconsistent.
to asked People often give
thethe following: make rules
beliefs, and people
feeling, can
and actions. the text, and are
reasons for moral choices ‘What
foundation of both social would youdevelopment.
and emotional
that do to help all your students feel good about themselves?’
ref lect several different stages simultaneously. Or a person’s choices in one change them.
instance may
When you encountered Stephanie’s situation at the beginning of this chapter, was the idea of self-
fitpart
concept one stage,
of your andThehis
analysis? or‘self-concept’
term her decisions in aused
is frequently different
in everydaysituation
conversations.mayWe ref lect another stage.
accompanied by a brief
moral dilemmas Situations in
Second, talk about children
people who
in everyday have
life, a have
‘low’ self-concept
tomaking moralandorchoices
individuals views
whose of
involves self-concept is not ‘strong’, as if
more than reasoning. Emotions, competing definition in the margin.
What would you Marsh say?
Younger tend positive optimistic
▲themselves.
goals, relationships,
However,
and
work by Herbert
practical
segments
and his colleagues
considerations
(Ellis, pose questions that which no choice is clearly and
Marsh & Craven, 2000; Marsh & Ayotte, 2003) indicateall affect
that, by choices. People may be able to reason at indisputably right.
A list of key terms, with
teachers might
preschool age, young childrenbe asked able
are cognitively during job
and possess the interviews, and provide
language skills to discuss their sense of self-worth more accurately and their page numbers, is
opportunities
M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd 115
for
precisely than previously believed. applying
As they mature, knowledge
students become and understanding 29/06/18 1:30 PM
more realistic, but many are not accurate judges of their own abilities M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd 110 included at the end of
to practical situations. Reading
(Paris & Cunningham, 1996). Many of us suffer from ‘illusions of
the sections that follow
incompetence’—we seriously underestimate our own competence
each chapter.
these
(Phillips
M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd
questions should help you come up with some
131 & Zimmerman, 1990). Gender and ethnic stereotypes can play
roles here.
29/06/18 1:30 PM
informed responses.
Diversity, self-concept and self-esteem A study followed 761
middle-class, primarily European American students from Year 1
through secondary school ( Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles & Wigfield,
2002). It is difficult to obtain longitudinal data, so this is a valuable study.
In Year 1, girls and boys had comparable perceptions of their own abilities Studies indicate that self-esteem decreases slightly for both boys and
girls in the transition to middle school. However, during the upper
in language arts, but boys felt significantly more competent in maths and secondary school years, boys’ self-esteem increases dramatically,
sport. Competence beliefs declined for both boys and girls across the year whereas girls’ self-esteem stays about the same.
levels, but boys’ beliefs fell faster in maths so that, by around Year 10,
mathematics competence beliefs were about the same for boys and girls. In language arts, boys’
competence ratings fell more sharply than those of girls after Year 1, but both levelled off during
secondary school, with the ratings for boys rising a little from Year 10. In sport, the competence ratings
of both boys and girls dropped, but boys remained significantly more confident in their competence in
GUIDED TOUR xv
CHAPTER 4 PERSONAL, EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 115
GUIDELINES
Guidelines ▶ provide teaching tips Supporting identity formation
and practical suggestions based on

Give students many models for career choices and other Be tolerant of teenage fads as long as they don’t offend
adult roles. others or interfere with learning.
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
theory and research. They illustrate 1. Point out models from literature and history. Have a
calendar with the birthdays of eminent women, minority
1. Discuss the fads of earlier eras (neon hair, powdered wigs,
love beads).
implications and applications of theory leaders, or people who made a little-known contribution
to the subject you are teaching. Briefly discuss the
2. Don’t impose strict dress or hair codes.
Give students realistic feedback about themselves.
person’s accomplishments on the anniversary of his or her
and research, and facilitate learning birthday.
2. Invite guest speakers to describe how and why they chose
EXAMPLES
1. When students misbehave or perform poorly, make sure
and engagement. their professions. Make sure as wide a range as possible of

kinds of work and workers are represented.
they understand the consequences of their behaviour—
the effects on themselves and others.
Help students find resources for working out personal 2. Give students model answers or show them other
problems. students’ completed projects so they can compare their
work to good examples.
EXAMPLES
3. Since students are ‘trying on’ roles, keep the roles separate
1. Encourage students to talk to school counsellors. from the person. You can criticise behaviour without
2. Discuss potential outside services. criticising the student.
CHAPTER 3 Physical and cognitive develoPment 103

identity precedes intimacy, because their research indicates that, for women, identity achievement is
fused with achieving intimacy (Miller, 2016).
With Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development as a framework, we can now examine several
Guidelines: Family and GUIDELINES
aspects of personal and social development that are issues throughout childhood and adolescence.
community partnerships ▶ Family and community partnerships

▶ Why is Erikson’s theory considered to be a psychosocial perspective?
CHAPTER 4 PERSONAL, EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL

Promoting
DEVELOPMENTliteracy 131 ▶ What are Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development?
provide strategies for involving family ▶ How can the use of communication technologies impact on personal development?
Communicate with parents about the goals and activities of 2. Invite parents to come to class to read to students, take
in the children’s learning. your program. dictation of stories, tell stories, record or bind books, and
demonstrate skills. EXAMPLES
As children interact with others; develop perspective taking, emotional competence, and social ▶1.UNDERSTANDING
CONNECT AND
At the beginning EXTEND
of school, OURSELVES
send home ANDProvide
a description of the OTHERShome activities to be shared with family members.
competence; and observe that different people have different rules, there is a gradual shift to a morality MORAL
goals to beDEVELOPMENT
Whatclear
achieved in your class—make sure it is in a
is self-concept? EXAMPLES
and readableHow do we come to understand other people
format. and ourselves? How do we develop
LO 4.2
a sense of right and wrong—and do these beliefs affect our personality 1. Encourage family members
and behaviour? to work
You will see with children to read
of cooperation 118
moral relativism.
or EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Children come to understand that people make rules and people 2. As you start each unit, send home a newsletter describing
thatMoral issueswill
thesestudents
what aspects can
follow have ansimilar
patterns
be studying—give for cognitive and
to those for
suggestions
follow simple
development recipes,
noted play language
in Chapter 3. Explain the
games, difference
keep
are concrete at first, and diaries or journals forabstract.
the family, and visitbetween self-concept and
the library.
can change them. When rules are broken, both the damage done and the intention of the offender are important
Children’s
home activitiesimpact
understandings on
that support the
of themselves
the learning. then become more
Get feedback Children
from families
Early
or students self-esteem,
about the and describe
views of self and friends are based on immediate behaviours and appearances. assume that how to foster genuine and
taken into account. These developmental changes, and other classroom. theirinIdentify major issues Their thinking aboutactivities.
DOcognitive and social changes, are ref lected Involve
others families
share decisionsand
feelings about curriculum.
perceptions. themselves and others is simple, appropriate self-esteem in
POINT COUNTERPOINT
WHAT SHOULD SCHOOLS TO ENCOURAGE relatedand

EXAMPLES
segmented, to rule-bound,
moral development 2. Give systems.
not f lexible or integrated into organised families feedback
In time,sheets andare
children ask themyour
to help
students.
in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, based in part
STUDENTS’ on Piaget’s ideas of moral realism.
SELF-ESTEEM? able
1. to
and think
Have abstractly
explain
planning
what aboutatinternal
workshops
a teacher processes—beliefs,
can
times family
evaluate the child’s schoolwork.
members can intentions, values, and motivations. With
theseattend—provide
developments child in abstract
care forthinking, then, our
younger siblings, knowledge
but let 3. of
Provide
self, lists of good
others, and children’s
situationsliterature
can available
More than 2000 books about how to increase self-esteem have been published. Schools and mental health facilities continue to do to appropriately
children
incorporate and families
more abstractwork address
together
qualities on &
(Berk projects. locally—work with libraries, clubs, and churches to
Meyers, 2016; Harter, 2006).
develop self-esteem programs (Slater, 2002). The attempts to improve students’ self-esteem have taken three main forms: identify sources.
Kohlberg’s stages
personalof moral
development development
activities, such as sensitivity training; self-esteem programs where the curriculum focuses directly on these issues.
improving self-esteem; and structural changes in schools that place greater emphasis on cooperation, student participation,
community involvement, and ethnic pride. Are these efforts valuable?
◀ Point/Counterpoint
Self-concept
1997 by Pearson Education. sections
SOURCE: L. Morrow (1997). Literacy development in the early years: Helping children read and write (3rd ed.) (pp. 68–70). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Copyright ©
Here, we focus on one aspect of self—self-concept, considered by many psychologists to be the

stop think write are included in most Stephanie’schapters, andof this chapter, was the idea of self-
foundation of both social and emotional development.
When you encountered situation at the beginning
POINT COUNTERPOINT
concept part of your analysis? The term ‘self-concept’ is frequently used in everyday conversations. We
A man’s wife is dying.
THEThere is one drug that could save her, butMOVEMENT
it is veryHAS
expensive, and the
SELF-ESTEEM MOVEMENT HAS PROBLEMS THE SELF-ESTEEM PROMISE
present
talk abouttwo contrasting
people who have a ‘low’ self-conceptperspectives
everyone watches, and encourage literacy-related play such as setting up a pretend school or writing
or individuals whose self-concept is not ‘strong’, as if
‘letters’ (Hulit & Howard, 2006; Pressley, 1996; Sylva, Melhuish, Sammons, Siraj-Blatchford, Taggart
chemist who invented it will not sell it at a price low enough for the man to be able to buy it.
Some people have accused schools of developing programs Erik Erikson (1980, p. 95) warned years ago: ‘Children cannot be
& Elliot, 2003). Of course, not all homes provide this literacy-rich environment, but teachers can help,
Finally, the man becomes desperate and considers stealing the drug for his wife. What shouldon an important question or feature above.
where the main objective is ‘to dole out huge heapings of fooled by empty praise and condescending encouragement.
praise, regardless of actual accomplishments’ (Slater, 2002, as you can see in the Family and Community Partnerships
They may have to accept artificial bolstering of their self-esteem
p. 45). in lieu of something better.’ Erikson went on to explain that a
he do, and why? controversy related to research or
Frank Pajares and Dale Schunk (2002) point to another
problem. ‘[W]hen what is communicated to children from an
strong and positive identity comes only from ‘wholehearted and
consistent recognition of real accomplishment, that is,
M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd 115 29/06/18 1:30 PM
▶ how are humans predisposed to develop language? What role does learning play?
practice in education.
early age is that nothing matters quite as much as how they
feel or how confident they should be, one can rest assured
achievement that has meaning in their culture’ (p. 95).
▶ What is meant by the terms pragmatics and metalinguistic awareness?
Beyond the ‘feel-good psychology’ of some aspects of the
that the world will sooner or later teach a lesson in humility self-esteem movement is a basic truth: self-esteem is a
that may not easily be learned. An obsession with one’s sense universal human right. When self-esteem increases, we
presenting them with moral dilemmas or hypothetical situations (such as the one in the stop think
of self is responsible for an alarming increase in depression generally feel happier whereas lower self-esteem makes us feel
write feature above) in which people must make difficult decisions and give their reasons. Based on
and other mental difficulties’ (p. 16).
Sensitivity training and self-esteem courses assume
unhappy. Higher self-esteem is associated with increased
initiating, better coping with stress and trauma, and
their reasoning, Kohlberg proposed a detailed sequence of six stages of moral reasoning, or judgements
that we encourage self-esteem by changing the individual’s maintaining a more stable mood (Baumeister, 2005). We
beliefs, making the young person work harder against the deserve to respect ourselves, and neither society nor schools
about right and 506
wrong. He divided moral development into three levels: (1) preconventional, where
odds. But what if the student’s environment is truly unsafe,
debilitating, and unsupportive? Some people have
should undermine that respect. If we view self-esteem
accurately as a product of our thinking and our actions—our
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
judgement is based solely on a person’s own needs and perceptions; (2) conventional, where the
overcome tremendous problems, but to expect everyone to values, ideas, and beliefs as well as our interactions with
do so disregards the fact that the living conditions of many others—then we see a significant role for the school. Practices
expectations of society and law are taken into account; and (3) postconventional, where judgements are
young people make having positive self-esteem almost that allow authentic participation, cooperation, problem
STORIES
impossible. OF LEARNING solving, and accomplishment should replace policies that
based on abstract, more personal principles that are not necessarily defined by society’s laws. Look◀atStories of learning/Tributes to
Some psychologists contend that low self-esteem is not damage self-esteem, such as tracking and competitive grading.
tributes to teaching
a problem, whereas high self-esteem may be. In a large
Table 4.7 to see how each of these three levels is then subdivided into stages. Can you find your own
study of adolescents, global self-esteem did not correlate
level of reasoning for your answer to the stop think write question above?
withAnita
When any ofWoolfolk
the ninewas academic outcomes
in graduate measured
school in Texas,(Marsh &
the standard
BEYOND EITHER/OR
doctoral candidacy examination was three days’ worth teaching give examples of how
of Craven, 2006). And,
closed-book, when people
handwritten, set self-esteem answers
blue-book-filled The greatest
as a main to questions. increases inwere
Candidates self-esteem
examinedcome inwhen students
three areas of
At Level 1 (preconventional), the answer to the stop think write dilemma above might be, ‘Itteachers
goal, they may
educational pursue that
psychology: goal in ways that arelearning/cognition,
social/developmental, harmful
over the long run. They may avoid constructive criticisms or
experience increased competence
and statistics/research in areas they
methodology. value,
This
including social areas. A teacher’s greatest challenge is
was a ‘high- is have made a difference in
stakes’, make-or-break three days that determined whether students had to leave school with a ‘terminal Master’s’ (sounds
wrong to steal because you might get caught’. This answer ref lects the child’s basic egocentrism. The therefore to help students achieve understanding and skills
the lives of students.
challenging tasks (Crocker & Park, 2004). In her article, ‘The
deadly, doesn’t it!), instead of being allowed to go on to doctoral research. By the time students took
trouble with self-esteem’, Lauren Slater (2002) suggests that (Osborne & Jones, 2011). Another possibility is to refocus on
the exam, they had
reasoning might be: ‘What would happen to me if I stole something? I might get caught and punished.’
completed
we rethink
upappraisal
their
an independent
coursework
self-esteem andand
moveinternships. All that
towards honest remained to
self- earnspecific
more the PhD was to design,
self-concepts, complete,
because analyse,
self-concepts inand write
specific
that will research project—the
lead to self-control. Shedissertation. This is aareas,
suggests: ‘Maybe complexsuchbit of workare
as maths, that takestomany
related students
learning in that months
area—in or
At Level 2 (the conventional level), a person is able to look beyond the immediate personal
even years to finish
self-control shouldsuccessfully.
replace self-esteem as a primary peg to this case, maths (O’Mara, Marsh, Craven & Debus, 2006).
This was
reach for’ (p. 1970s. It was a time when students were moreBecause
the47). active inself-concept and achievement
asserting their probably
rights. And Anita wasaffect
part each
of that
consequences and consider the views, and especially the approval, of others. Laws—religious or civil—
spirit. She was certain that the three-day test was not a good assessment other, the researchers
of learning.concluded:
She asked the faculty, ‘When will we
are very important and have to are regarded
sit down asandbeing
for three days absolutequestions,
answer multiple-choice and Inunalterable.
write essays
summary, without
whereas One answer
any resources,
the optimal way or solve
to improve stressing
statistics
self- adherence
problems that are not related to our research questions?’ She concept wantedover a more ‘authentic’
the short-term is to assessment—something
focus interventions directly M03_MARG5924_05_SE_C03.indd 103 28/06/18 9:31 AM
to rules is, ‘It is wrong to steal
connected because
to students’ learning andit their
is against
future. Anitathetalkedlaw.’
toonother Another
students,
self-concept wroteanswer,
enhancement, position placing
papers,
interventions thatand a high value on
lobbied
combine
direct self-concept enhancement in concert with performance
loyalty to family andlecturers. loved Finally, she was asked to speak at a faculty meeting about the situation.
ones but still respecting the law,option
To her amazement and gratitude, the faculty voted to allow anenhancement,
is, ‘It’s right
to thecoupled withto
three-day
stealfeedback
appropriate
test. Candidates
because and write
could
the
praise,
a
man means
well—he’s trying to research help his wife.
proposal But he
that examined will still
a significant researchhave toare
question
CHAPTER pay
fromlikelythe
the
to be
chemist
advantageousofwhen
perspectives
4 PERSONAL,
intervention are to improve EMOTIONAL, whenandSOCIAL he can
the goals of the
social/developmental
both self-concept
learning/cognition in educational psychology. In addition, they were required to design a study that used appropriate
and
AND orMORAL
acceptDEVELOPMENT
the 131
CONNECT AND EXTEND ◀ Connect and extend
penalty for breaking methodology the law.’and statistics. Anita chose this option (after making allperformance. (O’Mara, Marsh, Craven & Debus, 2006, p. 198)
TO PRACTICE
At Level 3 (the As postconventional level), andevelop
answer might be,
that fuss, she almost had to). Some of Anita’s friends
‘Itto is not wrong to stealyear because
features, located in the margin,
social human
said that she was crazy because she spent months preparing her proposal while they crammed a few weeks for their
childrenexam. interact with
Anita others; perspective taking, emotional competence,
and finished aand CONNECT AND EXTEND
traditional But then used her proposal, with some improvements, do her dissertation In a classroom discussion about
life must be preserved.
competence;
ahead The
of and worth
them. She got aof
observe thata different
grant human
to do it, based life
on theis
people havegreater
different
thinking and writingthan thatthe
rules, thereworth
went is completing
into a gradual of property.’
shift
the to aofmorality
option
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
that This response
stealing, the teacher finds that
link content to key topics
of cooperation or moral
‘authentic’ assessment relativism.
project. Children
At her graduate school,come to understand
the alternative candidacy exam thatis people
still in placemaketoday,rules
thanksand to thepeople Moral issues can have an
considers the underlying
can changewillingnessvalues
them.of a goodthat
When
M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd 118
facultymight
to entertainbe
rules
involved
student
are broken, suggestionsin
both more
the damage
thethan decision.
40 years ago. Abstract concepts are no longer
done and the intention of the offender are important impact on many
29/06/18 1:30 PM the students express the addressed in the text as well as
rigid, and, as the taken name of thisThese
into account. level implies, principles
developmental changes, and other can cognitivebe separated and socialfrom changes, conventional
are ref lected values.
classroom. Identifyopinion that it is all right to steal
major issues
A person reasoning on thistheory

in Kohlberg’s level ofunderstands
moral development,
Authentic classroom thatassessment
whatinispart
based considered
on Piaget’s ideas right by the
of moral majority may not
realism.
related to moral development
if you
be what a teacher can
and explain
don’t get caught. How To Practice, To Teaching, To the
to appropriatelyshould
address a teacher respond?
considered right by an individual in a particular situation. Rational, personal choice is stressed. do
Kohlberg’s stages of moral
Research and To Other Chapters
for a development Would the ethnicity, culture,
these issues.
in your interview job at a primary school known for innovation, one of the teachers
Moral reasoning is related to cognitive, social, and emotional development. As we have seen,
abstract thinking stop think write
becomes
asks, ‘What do you know about using portfolios, performances, projects, and rubrics to
increasingly
assess learning?’important in the higher stages of moral development, as
gender, or socioeconomic in the book. These features are
status of the student influence
children move from
A man’s
CONNECT decisions
AND EXTENDwife is dying. based
Authentic on
Thereassessmentabsolute
is one drug thatrules
asks students could to
to apply save those
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but
abilities it they
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would abstract
expensive,
in real-life. For principles,
and the
example, such as the teacher’s response? particularly valuable for
chemistTESTS who invented
toit will not sell ittoat a price lowrecipes.
enough for the man to be able to buy it.
AUTHENTIC
justice and mercy. The ability they might
seeuse
Grant Wiggins
another’s
fractions
made this
enlarge
perspective,
or reduce
argument:
to judge intentions, and to imagine investigating and extending
Finally,
The emphasis the man becomes
on student-centred desperate and considers stealing the drug for his wife. What should
alternative bases fordo,laws and rulesIf tests
learning has been accompanied
also enters what into
teachers judgements atstudents
the higher stages. moral realism Stage of
by anhe onand
authenticwhy?
emphasis
tests. What are the purpose, value,
determine actually teach and what will study for—and they do—then
the road to reform is a straight but steep one: test those capabilities and habits we think are essential, development in which children ideas and concepts in more
and advantages of these forms of and test them in context. Make [tests] replicate, within reason, the challenges at the heart of each
perceive rules as being
Alternativespresenting
assessment? Describe their
to Kohlberg’s moraltheory
academic discipline. Let them be—authentic. (Wiggins, 1989, p. 41)
characteristics and the potential
the stop absolute.
detail through undertaking
them with Wiggins on to say thator
dilemmas
problems with their use. For more
goes hypothetical
if our situations
instructional goals (such
for students as the
include theabilities
one in to write, speak,think
Even though ▲ there stop/think/write
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inthat
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reasons.
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Kohlberg
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ask on form a
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exercises, referring to particular
hierarchy, withtheir each reasoning, Kohlberg
stage
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representing proposed
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a detailed
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we look to the arts and in sportsreasoning
moral reasoning,
over the Ifor
one judgements
before (Boom, articles, books or other sections
provide
Brugman & vanjudgement
about right opportunities
(2005). Portfolios for a purpose. In
der Heijden,
and wrong. He divided for
suggest
moral linking
development personal
into three experiences
for analogies to solve
levels: (1)
this problem.
preconventional,
the ‘test’ as being the recital, exhibition, game, mock court trial, or other performance, then teaching to the with
we think of
where Stage of development in which
is based2001), theAll
a stage
coaches, theory has and been criticised.
J. Moss & T. Hay (Eds.), Portfolios,
performance and authenticity (pp. solely
test on
is just fine. person’s ownandneeds
artists, musicians perceptions;
gladly ‘teach’ to these (2)
‘tests’conventional,
because performingwhere
well on the children realise that people
key
First, in reality, topics.
1–24). Sydney, NSW: Pearson.
the stages
expectations do
thesenot
of society and seem
tests islaw
the whole to
pointbe
are taken ofinto separate,
instruction.
account; sequenced,
Authentic
and assessment and toconsistent.
asks students
(3) postconventional, perform.
where Peopleareoften give
Thejudgements
performances make rules and people can of this book, and helping you
may be thinking performances, physical performances, creative performances, or other forms.
based on abstract, more personal principles that are not necessarily defined byparallels.
society’s laws. Look at change them.
reasons for moral
authentic
choices
assessment
Tableof4.7
Measurement
that refeach lect ofseveral
to see howis risky,
important
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because
odd
these
to different
talk of
threeproblems
real-life
thinking stages
as
levels isarethen
a simultaneously.
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subdividedOften,
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there are many
into stages.
the outcomes
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ourfind
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instance may fit one ofstage,
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andforpublic—others
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herevaluate
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we lect another stage.
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level
simulate reasoning
the application of these
life,
abilities to real-life problems.
At Level
your to theour stop
ideas.think dancerquestion
auditioning above?
for a Broadway must cope
the consequences of being evaluated. Like a sculptor looking at a lump of clay, a student facing a difficult
making moralthe
1 (preconventional), choices
answerinvolves to the stopmore thandilemma
think write reasoning. above Emotions,
with
might be, ‘It competing
is
moral dilemmas Situations in understanding.
which no choice is clearly and
wrong to steal because you might get caught’. This answer ref lects the child’s basic egocentrism. The
goals, relationships, and practical considerations all affect choices. People may be able to reason at indisputably right.
reasoning might be: ‘What would happen to me if I stole something? I might get caught and punished.’
M14_MARG5924_05_SE_C14.indd 506 28/06/18 12:13 PM
At Level 2 (the conventional level), a person is able to look beyond the immediate personal
consequences and consider the views, and especially the approval, of others. Laws—religious or civil—
are very important and are regarded as being absolute and unalterable. One answer stressing adherence
to rules is, ‘It is wrong to steal because it is against the law.’ Another answer, placing a high value on
loyalty to family and loved ones but still respecting the law, is, ‘It’s right to steal because the man means
29/06/18 1:30 PM
xvi EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
REACHING EVERY STUDENT

The Values Education Good Practice Schools Project
Reaching every student ▶ provides ideas In the second stage of the Australian Government’s Values Education program <www.curriculum.edu.au/values>, 25 school
clusters were funded to engage in locally developed projects to explore and implement values education, with the
for assessing, teaching, and motivating assistance of university mentors. For example, the Melbourne Multicultural and Interfaith Cluster included two Catholic
secondary schools, a government school, a Jewish independent school, and an Islamic independent school. During the
students. Some of these stories describe 18-month collaboration, which included six interschool gatherings, Year 10 students from different faiths and cultural
backgrounds engaged in Socratic Circle discussion, and used art, music, drama, and poetry to explore issues related to
teaching strategies to reach students with national identity, community engagement, and social cohesion. The project culminated in a ‘Day of Understanding’ in
February 2008, in which 800 students and staff from across Victoria participated to celebrate cultural diversity and
learning problems; others present creative community engagement.

Gemma, 16, was a member of the student executive for the project:
ways to teach complex concepts. Nearly a year and a half ago I was a very different person with a much narrower view of the world. Although I lived
in multicultural Melbourne, unbeknown to me, I lived a very sheltered life … This program has helped me to break
down stereotypes I didn’t know existed, opened my eyes when I thought they were already open and build
friendships I never realised were possible. (© State of Victoria. This information originally appeared on Youth
Central <www.youthcentral.vic.gov.au>.)
The outcomes of each of the three stages in the government’s Values Education program, and further resources to
support effective values education practice, have been compiled and disseminated to the wider education community
(Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, 2010).
school environment need to also support these values and their implementation if they are to become
SUMMARY ◀ Summary
realised presents
in students’ lives and applied the
more broadly, rather main ideas,
than dealt with organised
superficially.
If young people are consistently exposed to caring, generous adults who are concerned with the
The work of Erikson (pp. 110–115) (LO 4.1) according

explanations they canto topics
understand when and
they are addressing
corrected—particularly keyreasons concepts
rights and feelings of others, are encouraged to think deeply about moral issues, and are given
that highlight the
Why is Erikson’s theory considered to be a psychosocial perspective? Erikson was interested in the ways effects of their actions on others—they are more likely to internalise or adopt the external standards
that individuals developed psychologically to become active and contributing members of society. He believed that
all humans have the same basic needs and that each society must accommodate those needs. Erikson’s emphasis on 162
for
(moral each
values andof
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
the aschapter’s
principles) their own (Cook & Check
Cook, 2005;yourself
Hoffman, 2000). They learn to
behave morally even when ‘no one is watching’ (Berk, 2005; Hoffman, 2000):
the relationship between society and the individual represents a psychosocial theory of development—a theory that
connects personal development (psycho) to the social environment (social). questions. It is an excellent resource for guiding
The tendency for a person to behave morally is largely dependent on the extent to which moral
What are Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development? Erikson believed that people go through eight life
stages between infancy and old age, each of which involves a central crisis. Adequate resolution of each crisis leads yourmoral study,
beliefs have onand
our lives,also
therefore,for revision
is contingent and
on the personal checking
beliefs and values are integrated in the personality, and in one’s sense of self. The inf luence our
importance that we as
to greater personal and social competence and a stronger foundation for solving future crises. In the first two individuals attach to them—we must identify and respect them as our own. (Arnold, 2000, p. 372)
stages, an infant must develop a sense of trust over mistrust and a sense of autonomy over shame and doubt. In
early childhood, the focus of the third stage is on developing initiative and avoiding feelings of guilt. In the
KEY you
what TERMS understand and what requires
child’s primary-school years, the fourth stage involves achieving a sense of industry and avoiding feelings of
Community outside the classroom: Community service
inferiority. In the fifth stage, identity versus role confusion, adolescents consciously attempt to solidify their
identity. According to Marcia, who expanded Erikson’s theory, these efforts may lead to identity achievement,
revisiting.
anorexia 151 ethnic pride 120 non-productive coping
Service learning or community service is another approach to combining academic learning with
155
autonomy 111 exploration 113 overt aggression 137
foreclosure, diffusion, or moratorium. Erikson’s three stages of adulthood involve struggles to achieve intimacy, personal and social development (Woolfolk Hoy, Demerath & Pape, 2002). The Alliance for Service
generativity, and integrity.
basic emotions 122 generativity 114 peer culture 127
Learning in Education Reform (1993; 2006) lists several characteristics of service learning. The
bulimia 151 hostile aggression 137 personality 110
How can the use of communication technologies impact on personal development? Opportunities to activities:
162 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
bullying 139 identity achievement 113 perspective taking 121
solve problems, experience autonomy, and handle situations independently are the basis for achieving identity and
cliques
▶ are organised and meet actual 128 community identity
needsdiffusion 114 proactive aggression 137
mature judgement. However, opportunities for navigating new or difficult social and physical situations are limited
for many young people whose parents and friends are always a speed dial away. Social networks, such as life simulation collective self-esteem
▶ are integrated 119 curriculum
into the student’s identity foreclosure 114 productive coping 155
sites, enable individuals to create whole new identities and keep multiple personalities. For some adolescents, the commitment
▶ provide time to reflect and 113write aboutidentity
the service experience 112 psychosocial 111
boundaries between online life and reality may be unclear and easily crossed. With personal lives so easily made community service
▶ provide opportunities to 135 indirectacademic
apply newly learned bullying skills and knowledge
140 reactive aggression 137
internalise Adopt external
KEY TERMS
public, young people can agonise over how they present themselves and there are risks that they will be overly
critical of themselves.
coping
▶ enhance both academic learning 155 and aindustry
sense of caring for others. 112 reference to others standards
155 as our own.
◀ Key terms addressed in the chapter are

coping strategies 155 initiative 111 relational aggression 137
Community service involves community service
Understanding
anorexia ourselves
151and others
ethnic(pp.
pride 115–121) (LO
1204.2) non-productive coping 155 crowds 128 practicalinstrumental
responses toaggression
local, national,
137or international issues that help
resilience 155
An approach to combining
autonomy 111and self-esteem.
exploration 113self-esteemovert aggression 137 others, such as
cyber aggression social justice, peace
137 and security,
integrityhealth, and environmental
114 issues. Community
secondary service
emotions 122 learning with
academic
Distinguish
bulimia
But this
between self-concept
basic isemotions
Self-concept our attempt to build122
151
model is not permanent. Self-perceptions hostile
Both self-concept and
a scheme thatgenerativity
organises our impressions,114
vary aggression 137 and from
from situation to situation
are beliefs
feelings, andpeer culture
attitudes
personality
about the self.
about ourselves.
one phase of our lives to
127
110
listed, along with their page numbers.
activities may involve direct143
cyberbullying
indirect servicecrisis
developmental
service (tutoring,
(collecting food
111 for shelters,
serving meals at homeless
internalise 135shelters, conservation
raising money), or advocacy
intimacy 114 (designing
self-conceptprojects),
and distributing
self-esteem
116 and social
personal
development.
117
bullying
another. Self-esteem is an evaluation139 of who we identity achievement
are. If people 113 positively,
evaluate themselves perspective taking
we say they have high 121
cliquesSelf-concept and self-esteem 128 identity
direct bullying 139 mood 121 social competence 124
self-esteem. are often used diffusion 114though they
interchangeably, even proactive aggression
have distinct meanings. 137
distributive justice 130 moral dilemmas 131 social development 124
collective
Self-concept is a self-esteem
cognitive structure 119and self-esteem
identity
is anforeclosure 114
affective evaluation. productive coping 155
commitment 113 identity 112 psychosocial 111 emotion 121 moral realism 131 social skills 125
How community
do self-concept serviceand self-esteem
135 indirect
change overbullying 140 (definition
time? Self-concept reactive
of selfaggression
) and self-esteem 137 emotional competence 122 moral reasoning 130 temperament 122
coping
(valuing of self ) become increasingly 155 complex, industry
differentiated, and abstract 112as we mature.
reference to others evolves
Self-concept 155 M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd 135 29/06/18 1:30 PM
emotional development 121 morality 130 wellbeing 145
throughcoping
constantstrategies 155 interaction,
self-ref lection, social initiative
and experiences in and111 relational
out of school. Studentsaggression
develop a self- 137
emotional intelligence (EI) 121 morality of cooperation 131
conceptcrowds
by comparing themselves 128 instrumental
to personal (internal) aggression
standards and social137 resilienceThe self-esteem of
(external) standards. 155
upper cyber
primary aggression
and early secondary137 integrity
school students 114 appearance
becomes more tied to physical secondary emotions
and social acceptance. 122 empathy 122 moratorium 114
cyberbullying
High self-esteem is related to better143overall school
internalise 135
experience, both academically self-concept
and socially. Gender and ethnic 116
developmental
stereotypes are significantcrisis factors as111
well. intimacy 114 self-esteem 117
direct bullying 139 mood 121 social competence 124
How distributive
do perspective-taking
children
justice
mature, but aggressive students
emotion
skills
130 change moral
121 often have
as students
dilemmas
trouble
moral
mature? An understanding
131
understanding the131
realism
of intentions
social
intentions ofsocial
development
others.skills
develops as
Social perspective-
124
125 USEFUL WEBSITES
takingemotional
also changes as we mature. 122
competence Young children believe
moral that everyone has130
reasoning the same thoughts and feelings they do.
temperament 122
Later, emotional
they learn development
that others have separate
121 identities and therefore separate feelings
morality 130 and perspectives
wellbeing on events. 145
emotional intelligence (EI) 121 morality of cooperation 131 Mental health Eating Disorders Victoria: An eating disorders resource
Emotional
empathy development (pp. 121–124) (LO 4.3)
Useful websites ▶ are provided for
122 moratorium 114 for schools
What are the key attributes of emotional competence? Emotionally competent individuals are aware of their Australian Government: National Suicide Prevention
Strategy (NSPS) www.eatingdisorders.org.au
own emotions and the feelings and intentions of others, and realise that inner emotions can differ from outward
those interested in following up

USEFUL WEBSITES
http://suicidepreventionaust.org
beyondblue: The National Depression Initiative
MindMatters: National Mental Health Initiative for
Secondary Schools
www.mindmatters.edu.au
Mental health particular issues raised in the chapter. Eating Disorders Victoria: An eating disorders resource
www.beyondblue.org.au
Transitions Youth at risk and drug education
Response Ability: Mental health resources for tertiary
M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd 159 for schools 29/06/18 1:30 PM Living Is Forin
Transitions Everyone (LIFE): National Suicide
early childhood Australian Drug Information Network (ADIN):
Australian Government: National Suicide Prevention
Prevention Strategy project managed by Crisis Support education
Strategy (NSPS) www.eatingdisorders.org.au http://extranet.edfac.unimelb.edu.au/LED/tec Information for schools
Services on behalf of the Department of Health and Ageing www.responseability.org
http://suicidepreventionaust.org MindMatters: National Mental Health Initiative for www.adin.com.au
beyondblue: The National Depression Initiative Secondary Schools Values education
www.livingisforeveryone.com.au/Home.html
Mental health services
www.beyondblue.org.au www.mindmatters.edu.au
National Safe Schools
Values education Framework
for Australian (NSSF)
schooling
Response Ability: Mental health resources for tertiary Hunter Institute of Mental Health
Living Is For Everyone (LIFE): National Suicide http://education.gov.au/national-safe-schools-
www.curriculum.edu.au/values
Prevention Strategy project managed by Crisis Support education www.himh.org.au
www.responseability.org framework-0
Services on behalf of the Department of Health and Ageing KidsMatter: An Australian mental health and wellbeing
www.livingisforeveryone.com.au/Home.html Safe and Supportive School Communities Working
Mental health services initiative set in early childhood education and care
National Safe Schools Framework (NSSF)
Related topics ▶ provides a quick
http://education.gov.au/national-safe-schools-
Hunter Institute of Mental Health
www.himh.org.au
RELATED TOPICS
Group
www.bullyingnoway.gov.au
services, and primary schools
https://www.kidsmatter.edu.au
framework-0
KidsMatter: An Australian mental health and wellbeing
Mental health resources
(Chapterfor
Group reference for links to other chapters.
Safe and Supportive School Communities Working
initiative set in early childhood education and care
services, and primary schools
▶ Teaching
teachers
every student 2)
▶ Classroom management techniques (Chapters 6, 11)
MoodGym: Interactive cognitive behaviour therapy
self-help site, Australian National University
www.bullyingnoway.gov.au
https://www.kidsmatter.edu.au http://moodgym.com.au
▶ Promotingfor
Collaborative cooperation
Academic,among
Social,students (Chapters 9, 11)
and Emotional
Mental health resources for MoodGym: Interactive cognitive behaviour therapy Learning
▶ Student(CASEL)
motivation to learn (Chapter 10) Reach Out: A web-based service for young people
teachers self-help site, Australian National University www.casel.org http://au.reachout.com
http://moodgym.com.au
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning (CASEL) Reach Out: A web-based service for young people
www.casel.org http://au.reachout.com
M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd 162 29/06/18 1:30 PM
M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd 162 29/06/18 1:30 PM
Teachers’ casebook/What would 164 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
they do? ▶ presents responses from

experienced teachers to the Teachers’ TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK WHAT WOULD THEY DO?
casebook/What would you do? scenario at Here is how some practising teachers responded to the situation presented at the beginning of this
chapter about cliques in middle school, and the difficulties some students face with ‘fitting in’.
the start of the chapter. Their ideas show

educational psychology at work in a Jacalyn D. Walker
YEAR 8 SCIENCE TEACHER
or seating to move the girls away from each other or to
foster other friendships for Stephanie. We could also make
arrangements for an older, respected student to talk to
range of everyday situations. You can Never work in a vacuum. This is especially important in upper
primary or early secondary school. Work with your school
Stephanie. Since almost everyone has stories about
unfaithful friends, Stephanie might benefit from talking
compare these solutions to the ones you counsellor, other year level teachers, and parents. If you are
doing this, you will have several options for dealing with this
with an older student about that person’s experiences and
how they made new friends. Finally, I would try to arrange a
problem. You cannot fake caring about 12-, 13-, and 14-year- brief and supervised meeting between Stephanie and
come up with. olds. They can spot a fake. You must be working with this
age group because you truly like them as people. You
Alison. Allowing an encounter to happen in a controlled
environment would provide Stephanie an outlet to voice her
appreciate their humour and their abilities. With a caring, hurt, without her having to resort to inappropriate actions.
trusting, and respectful relationship, students will be open Whether this happens before she comes back to school, on
to your help and guidance. Parents are often not involved in her first day back to school, or a few days after her return
the classroom at these grade levels, but there are great would depend on the volatility of the situation.
programs available to get parents involved. During all of this, I would want to make sure that
someone was also working with Alison, to prevent the
Nancy Schaefer escalation of events. This may be an administrator
YEARS 9–12 TEACHER responsible for discipline, if school rules were violated, or
the school counsellor, or another teacher with a good
I would first make a phone call to Stephanie’s home. Under
relationship with Alison. I would encourage the
the guise of calling about assignments because of the days
involvement of Alison’s parents, especially if this was not
she has missed, I would talk to one of her parents or
the first vicious episode.
guardians. My first goal would be to find out if the parents
are aware of the situation. The parents might know that
something is wrong, but not the details. I would try to find Marie C. Enright
xvii
EDUCATOR RESOURCES
A suite of resources is provided to assist with delivery of the content, as well as to support learning and teaching.
Instructor’s Resource Manual is a highly valued teaching resource that includes many practical ideas and activities
developed by the authors to help prospective teachers, and others working with children and adolescents, apply
theory and research to practice. For each chapter, the Manual provides a teaching outline, learning objectives,
learning activities and handouts (including activities for field experiences), discussion questions, and video/internet
resources.
Instructor’s Test Bank contains hundreds of challenging questions in multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, true/
false, short-answer, and case study formats, along with a detailed answer key. Questions are linked to Australian
Professional Standards for Teachers. The Test Bank is available in Microsoft Word, and also in Blackboard, Canvas and
Moodle compatible formats.
Digital Image PowerPoint Slides include all the diagrams and tables from the course content for lecturer use.
xviii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Kay Margetts
Associate Professor Kay Margetts is an Honorary Principal Fellow in the Melbourne
Graduate School of Education at the University of Melbourne. An educator with more
than 40 years’ experience, Kay was an early years teacher for many years before entering
academia. She has coordinated and taught in Bachelor and Master of Early Childhood,
Primary, and International Baccalaureate teacher education courses, specialising in
human development, curriculum and pedagogy, and professional practice. She has
written and produced children’s television programs, and is the recipient of a number of
awards for excellence in tertiary teaching. Kay has published widely and her research
interests have a particular focus on children’s transition, social, behavioural and
academic adjustment, and progress in primary school, teachers’ views about learning,
and early years curricula. She continues to undertake research, supervise higher-degree
research students, and consult locally and internationally.
Anita Woolfolk Hoy

Anita Woolfolk Hoy is a Texas Longhorn—all her degrees are from the University of
Texas, Austin, the last one a PhD. After graduating, she was a psychologist working with
children in elementary and secondary schools in 15 counties of central Texas. She began
her career in higher education as a professor of educational psychology at Rutgers
University, and then moved to The Ohio State University in 1994 where she has been
Professor Emeritus since 2013. Anita’s research focuses on motivation and cognition,
specifically, students’ and teachers’ sense of efficacy and teachers’ beliefs about education.
For many years she was the editor of Theory Into Practice, a journal that brings the best
ideas from research to practising educators. With students and colleagues, she has
published over 150 books, book chapters, and research articles. Anita has served as Vice-
President for Division K (Teaching & Teacher Education) of the American Educational
Research Association, and as President of Division 15 (Educational Psychology) of the
American Psychological Association. Before completing the 14th (US) edition of
Educational Psychology, she collaborated with Nancy Perry, University of British
Columbia, to write the second edition of Child Development (Pearson, 2015), a book for
all those who work with and love children.
xix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
As with previous editions, many people have contributed to making this book relevant to the Australasian context:
colleagues, friends, teachers, students, my children and their families, and the passionate team at Pearson Australia.
The expertise, writing, enthusiasm, and support of the following academics who have been colleagues from the
Melbourne Graduate School of Education at the University of Melbourne is gratefully acknowledged—for their
contributions particularly to previous editions of the book, which have been retained and updated: Sally Godinho,
Erica Frydenberg, Joseph Lo Bianco, Elizabeth (Liz) Freeman, John Munro, Robyn English, and John Whitehouse.
In addition, thanks to the following people who have helped to make the book visually appealing: Keith Pigdon
for his wonderful photography, and Collingwood Community College and Thomas Mitchell Primary school
students, staff, and other members of the school communities for providing the context for most of the photographs
used in this edition.
Reviewers
The publisher and authors would also like to thank the following reviewers for their thoughtful comments, which
helped bring this book into being:
▶▶ Dr Jennifer Archer, University of Newcastle
▶▶ Dr David Armstrong, Flinders University
▶▶ Dr Katrina Barker, Western Sydney University
▶▶ Maria Bennet, Charles Sturt University
▶▶ Dr Jeanette Berman, University of Melbourne
▶▶ Kimberley Cunial, CQUniversity
▶▶ Dr Lesley-Anne Ey, University of South Australia
▶▶ Nicole Hayes, La Trobe University
▶▶ Dr Monika Krajcovicova, Griffith University
▶▶ Dr Jason Lodge, University of Melbourne
▶▶ Dr Lisa McKay-Brown, University of Melbourne
▶▶ Dr Bettina Stevanovic, Western Sydney University
▶▶ Dr Natasha Ziebell, University of Melbourne
For this edition, I was privileged to work with a wonderful editorial group at Pearson Education Australia: Stephen
Heasley, Senior Portfolio Manager; Simone Bella, Sponsoring Editor; Judith Bamber, Development Editor; Bernadette
Chang, Editorial & Design Production Manager; Helen Eastwood, Lead Editor/Copy Editor; and Eva Birch, Rights
and Permissions Editor.
Their support, sound judgement, style, and commitment to quality can be seen on every page of this book. It has
been a pleasure to work with them.
Thank you to my family and friends for their support during the long days and nights that I worked on this book,
and also to students and colleagues over the years who have in many ways ‘trialled’ the content.
Finally, I would like to challenge you to ref lect thoughtfully on your interactions with students, and with
colleagues, families, and community members, and to consider the ways in which these interactions can support and
foster deep and meaningful engagement and learning for each person.
I hope this book becomes a well-travelled companion with you on your professional journey.
Kay Margetts
xx
AUSTRALIAN PROFESSIONAL
STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS
This book is designed to assist readers as they work towards achieving the Australian Professional Standards for
Teachers (Graduate Teacher Level) developed by the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership
(AITSL) (2011a).
The following standards mapping grid links the Standards with the content of particular chapters and with
particular learning outcomes (LOs) within chapters.
LEARNING
AUSTRALIAN PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS: GRADUATE LEVEL CHAPTERS OUTCOMES
Standard 1: Know students and how they learn
1.1 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of physical, social and intellectual 2 All
development and characteristics of students and how these may affect learning. 3 All
4 All
5 All
7 7.1, 7.4, 7.6
1.2 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of research into how students learn and 1 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
the implications for teaching. 2 2.1, 2.3, 2.4
5 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6
6 All
7 All
8 All
9 All
10 All
11 11.1
12 12.7
14 14.4
1.3 Demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies that are responsive to the learning 1 1.1, 1.2
strengths and needs of students from diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and 2 All
socioeconomic backgrounds. 3 3.8
4 4.2
8 8.4
1.4 Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of the impact of culture, cultural 2 2.5
identity and linguistic background on the education of students from Aboriginal and 5 5.5
Torres Strait Islander backgrounds.
1.5 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of strategies for differentiating teaching 5 All
to meet the specific learning needs of students across the full range of abilities. 12 12.6
1.6 Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of legislative requirements and 5 All
teaching strategies that support participation and learning of students with disability.
Standard 2: Know the content and how to teach it

2.1 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the concepts, substance and structure 8 8.1, 8.2
of the content and teaching strategies of the teaching area. 9 9.2
12 12.2, 12.4
2.2 Organise content into an effective learning and teaching sequence. 8 8.4
9 9.4
2.3 Use curriculum, assessment and reporting knowledge to design learning sequences 10 10.4
and lesson plans. 14 14.1, 14.4
2.4 Demonstrate broad knowledge of, understanding of and respect for Aboriginal and 2 2.5
Torres Strait Islander histories, cultures and languages. 5 5.5
Australian Professional Standards for Teachers xxi
LEARNING
2.5 Know and understand literacy and numeracy teaching strategies and their application 2 2.7
in teaching areas. 3 3.8
8 8.3
2.6 Implement teaching strategies for using ICT to expand curriculum learning 12 12.3, 12.6
opportunities for students.
Standard 3: Plan for and implement effective teaching and learning
3.1 Set learning goals that provide achievable challenges for students of varying abilities 5 5.7, 5.8
and characteristics. 6 6.5
12 12.2, 12.3
3.2 Plan lesson sequences using knowledge of student learning, content and effective 8 8.4
teaching strategies. 9 9.3
3.3 Include a range of teaching strategies. 6 All

7 7.2, 7.5
8 All
9 9.4, 9.5
10 10.10
12 All
3.4 Demonstrate knowledge of a range of resources, including ICT, that engage students 12 12.3
in their learning.
3.5 Demonstrate a range of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies to support 1 1.2
student engagement. 9 9.4
11 11.6
12 12.3
3.6 Demonstrate broad knowledge of strategies that can be used to evaluate teaching 12 12.3
programs to improve student learning.
3.7 Describe a broad range of strategies for involving parents/carers in the educative 2 2.5
process. 3 3.8
5 5.6
6 6.5
7 7.7
8 8.4
9 9.5
10 10.10
11 11.6
12 12.3
13 13.3
Standard 4: Create and maintain supportive and safe learning environments
4.1 Identify strategies to support inclusive student participation and engagement in 1 1.1, 1.2
classroom activities. 2 2.5, 2.6, 2.8, 2.9
4 4.7
5 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8
6 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6
10 10.3, 10.6
12 12.4, 12.6
4.2 Demonstrate the capacity to organise classroom activities and provide clear 11 11.1, 11.2, 11.3
directions.
4.3 Demonstrate knowledge of practical approaches to manage challenging behaviour. 4 4.6, 4.7
6 6.4, 6.5, 6.6
11 All
4.4 Describe strategies that support students’ wellbeing and safety working within school 4 4.6, 4.7, 4.8
and/or system, curriculum and legislative requirements. 5 5.6
6 6.4
10 10.5
11 All
(Continued)
xxii EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
LEARNING
4.5 Demonstrate an understanding of the relevant issues and the strategies available to 4 4.6
support the safe, responsible and ethical use of ICT in learning and teaching.
Standard 5: Assess, provide feedback and report on student learning
5.1 Demonstrate understanding of assessment strategies, including informal and formal, 12 12.2, 12.6
diagnostic, formative and summative approaches to assess student learning. 13 All
14 14.1, 14.2, 14.3,
14.4, 14.5
5.2 Demonstrate an understanding of the purpose of providing timely and appropriate 6 6.4, 6.5
feedback to students about their learning. 7 7.5
10 10.4
14 14.3, 14.4, 14.5
5.3 Demonstrate understanding of assessment moderation and its application to support 13 13.1, 13.2
consistent and comparable judgements of student learning. 14 14.3, 14.6
5.4 Demonstrate the capacity to interpret student assessment data to evaluate student 13 13.1, 13.2, 13.3
learning and modify teaching practice.
5.5 Demonstrate understanding of a range of strategies for reporting to students and 13 13.3
parents/carers and the purpose of keeping accurate and reliable records of student 14 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, 14.6
achievement.
Standard 6: Engage in professional learning
6.1 Demonstrate an understanding of the role of the Australian Professional Standards 1 1.4, 1.5
for Teachers in identifying professional learning needs. 13 13.5
6.2 Understand the relevant and appropriate sources of professional learning for 1 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
teachers.
6.3 Seek and apply constructive feedback from supervisors and teachers to improve 1 1.3
teaching practices.
6.4 Demonstrate an understanding of the rationale for continued professional learning 1 1.2, 1.3
and the implications for improved student learning. 13 13.5
Standard 7: Engage professionally with colleagues, parents/carers and the community
7.1 Understand and apply the key principles described in codes of ethics and conduct for 4 4.7
the teaching profession. 5 5.6
7.2 Understand the relevant legislative, administrative and organisational policies and 13 13.5
processes required for teachers according to school stage. 14 14.5
7.3 Understand strategies for working effectively, sensitively and confidentially with 14 14.6
parents/carers.
7.4 Understand the role of external professionals and community representatives in 1 1.5
broadening teachers’ professional knowledge and practice. 5 5.7

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KAY MARGETTS | ANITA WOOLFOLK

3 Physical and cognitive

Point/Counterpoint: Brain-based education 73 Emotional development 121

Storing and retrieving information in long-term Teaching for transfer 301

Teachers’ casebook: What would they do? 424

Point/Counterpoint: Which is better— Beyond grading: Communicating with

The plan of the book

GUIDED TOUR 110 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Peer relationships and peer cultures

◀it.Chapter contents list the topic headings

Supporting identity formation LO 4.3

Table 4.7 to1. seePoint how

consequences Help and LO

CHAPTER 4 PERSONAL, EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 115

and practical suggestions based on

and engagement. their professions. Make sure as wide a range as possible of

CHAPTER 3 Physical and cognitive develoPment 103

community partnerships ▶ Family and community partnerships

CHAPTER 4 PERSONAL, EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL

WHAT SHOULD SCHOOLS TO ENCOURAGE relatedand

Here, we focus on one aspect of self—self-concept, considered by many psychologists to be the

A person reasoning on thistheory

CHAPTER 4 PERSONAL, EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 135

REACHING EVERY STUDENT

learning problems; others present creative community engagement.

The work of Erikson (pp. 110–115) (LO 4.1) according

◀ Key terms addressed in the chapter are

those interested in following up

M04_MARG5924_05_SE_C04.indd 162 29/06/18 1:30 PM

Teachers’ casebook/What would 164 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

they do? ▶ presents responses from

the start of the chapter. Their ideas show

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Anita Woolfolk Hoy

Standard 2: Know the content and how to teach it

3.3 Include a range of teaching strategies. 6 All

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Woolfolk & Margetts K 2016

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