Downloaded from SAE International by Yuping He, Tuesday, March 07, 2017

Effects of Active Aerodynamic Wings on Handling 2017-01-1592

Performance of High-Speed Vehicles Published 03/28/2017

Jingdong Cai, Saurabh Kapoor, Tushita Sikder, and Yuping He

Univ. of Ontario Institute of Technology

CITATION: Cai, J., Kapoor, S., Sikder, T., and He, Y., "Effects of Active Aerodynamic Wings on Handling Performance of High-Speed
Vehicles," SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-1592, 2017, doi:10.4271/2017-01-1592.

Copyright © 2017 SAE International

Abstract operating conditions in order to achieve desired performance. For

example, active aerodynamics employs self-adjusting front and rear
In this research, active aerodynamic wings are investigated using
wings or spoilers, opens and shuts vents, and manipulates ride height
numerical simulation in order to improve vehicle handling
to keep the vehicle firmly contacted with on the road surface while
performance under emergency scenarios, such as tight cornering
achieving the optimal performance in terms of speed, downforce and
maneuvers at high speeds. Air foils are selected and analyzed to
fuel consumption [4].
determine the basic geometric features of aerodynamic wings. Built
upon the airfoil analysis, the 3-D aerodynamic wing model is
Some aerodynamic devices, such as gap fairings and trailer side skirts
developed. Then, the virtual aerodynamic wings are assembled with
designed for articulated heavy vehicles, are mainly used to reduce
the 3-D vehicle model. The resulting 3-D geometry model is used for
drag and power consumption. The aerodynamics of heavy vehicles is
aerodynamic analysis based on numerical simulation using a
mainly characterized by flow separation and the development of low
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software package. The
pressure turbulence wakes [5]. The viscous pressure drag or base drag
CFD-based simulation data and the vehicle dynamic model generated
contributes to the majority of drag to trailers, which is generated due
are combined to study the effects of active aerodynamic wings on
to the low pressure. This can be reduced using active flow control
handling performance of high-speed vehicles. The systematic
systems [6]. As for passenger and sport cars, the lateral stability under
numerical simulation method and achieved results may provide
high-speed situations is very important. In order to improve the
design guidance for the development of active aerodynamic wings for
high-speed handling performance, aerodynamic wings are introduced.
high-speed road vehicles.
According to the Bernoulli’s effect, the downforce will be generated
when air flows through the aerodynamic wings [7]. The generated
Introduction downforce will be delivered via vehicle body, suspension and chassis
to the tyres, leading to additional vertical force of tires on the ground.
To date, vehicle dynamics control (VDC) systems are rendered as
With the aerodynamic wings, certain amount of downforce will be
viable solutions to improve handling, comfort, energy efficiency, and
generated even as much as two or three times of the weight of a car
safety [1]. Some VDS systems have become standard components of
[8]. Because of the additional tire vertical forces, tires can generate
vehicles, such as ABS (anti-lock braking systems) and ESC
more traction and the vehicle dynamic capabilities can be enhanced
(electronic stability control). These systems enhance dynamic
in the longitudinal direction [9]. Another important fact which should
performance of vehicles by using embedded electronic control units
be noticed is that the lateral dynamic performance will be improved
(ECUs), sensor network, various actuators, etc. [2–3]. With the
with the increasing of tire vertical forces, allowing the vehicle to
advance of vehicle aerodynamic technologies in, it is impetrative to
generate as much as 4g’s of the cornering acceleration [10–11].
incorporate these technologies to improve performance and safety of
road vehicles. Fixed spoilers have frequently been used for enhancing
In this research, active aerodynamic wings are investigated using
vehicle dynamics. However, fixed spoilers can only provide limited
numerical simulation in order to improve vehicle handling
advantageous under specific conditions. For instance, under regular
performance under scenarios, such as tight cornering maneuvers at
operating conditions, a fixed spoiler may effectively reduce
high speeds. Air foils are selected and analyzed to determine the basic
aerodynamic drag on high-speed vehicles, while the fixed spoiler may
geometric features of aerodynamic wings. Built upon the airfoil
not provide the required downside forces (negative lift) needed to
analysis, the 3-D aerodynamic wing model is developed using a
ensure the lateral stability under high-speed cornering maneuvers.
commercial software package, Siemens NX®. Then, the virtual
Active aerodynamic control systems can adaptively adjust the
aerodynamic wings are assembled with the 3-D vehicle model
relevant aerodynamic characteristics of the vehicle under varied
designed also using Siemens NX®. The resulting 3-D geometry
 Downloaded from SAE International by Yuping He, Tuesday, March 07, 2017

model is used for aerodynamic analysis based on numerical Table 1. Coefficients of wings.
simulation using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software
package, ANSYS FLUENT®. The CFD-based simulation data and
the non-linear vehicle model generated using CarSim® are combined
to study the effects of active aerodynamic wings on handling
performance of high-speed vehicles. The systematic numerical
simulation method and achieved results are presented and analyzed.
Aerodynamic Wing Geometry Design
Aerodynamic Vehicle Model Design The proposed aerodynamic control system consists of four
independent wings, and each wing will have the same geometrical
The primary motivation for this research is to study the downside
design. Thus, only one geometrical model needs to be made. By
forces produced by a vehicle travelling at high-speed and manipulate
using software Aerofoil Generator, the coordinate data file of airfoil
such forces to achieve superior handling performance.
S1223 can be generated. Then, the corresponding “data.txt” file is
exported to Siemens NX, the resulting sketch of aerodynamic wing
Vehicle model selected for the CFD and CarSim® simulation is a
can be produced as illustrated in Figure 1. With this sketch, the 3-D
high-speed car, originally designed for NASCAR racing. In this
geometry model for a rear wing as shown in Figure 2 can be
research, four independent aerodynamic wings will be designed and
generated. For the front wings, they will take a small scaled version
mounted on the four corners of the vehicle. The selection of the
of the 3-D geometry model illustrated in Figure 2.
shapes of aerodynamic wings will follow the airfoil standards, and
the front wings will be the scaled model of the rear wings.

Aerodynamic Wing Design

The car’s aerodynamic wings design emulates an airfoil shape. An
aerodynamic wing is usually installed at the rear end of the vehicle or
just mounted on the top of the car’s trunk [12]. Rear wings are widely
used in racing cars, high performance sports cars and even passenger
cars. However, front wings are not commonly used in passenger cars,
as their main objective is not only to generate downforce like the rear
wings, but also to direct a smooth airflow to the rest of the car, as it
precedes the cars body. Hence, front wings are mainly used in race
cars for high aerodynamic performance. The main function of the
aerodynamic wings is to generate downforce, increase the amount of
turbulence, smoothen the air flow around the car body, and provide a
cushion for the laminar boundary layer [13]. When air flows over a Figure 1. Sketch of airfoil S1223.
wing, due to its shape, the air flowing below the bottom surface
moves faster in compassion to the top surface. According to the
Bernoulli’s principle, an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid’s
potential energy. It means that under the incompressible condition,
the air flowing with a high speed will have a lower pressure. Thus, it
makes a lower pressure area on the bottom surface of the wing
compared to the top surface, thereby creating a downforce.

In this research, the design of aerodynamic wing will be based on the

NACA airfoils and Selig airfoils. NACA 2412 and S1223 will be the
two preselected wing shapes. As shown in Table 1, between the two
airfoils, NACA 2412 has the lower coefficient of drag, while it has
lower coefficient of lift and moment. This suggests that it will be
more stable as there is less force about the point, at which the airfoil
is mounted. However, airfoil S1223 has higher coefficient of lift,
which implies that it may generate larger downforce when it is used
as vehicle aerodynamic wing, although it possesses a slightly higher
coefficient of drag and moment. Considering the design purpose of
vehicle aerodynamic wing, airfoil S1223 is more suitable for the base
design model.
Figure 2. Rear wing 3-D model.
Vehicle Model Design
The vehicle model without aerodynamic wing is shown in Figure 3. A
car is chosen as it effectively replicates the design of a high speed
NASCAR. It is also preferred for the convenience and simplicity,
with which it would be easier to compare the car model against the
built-in vehicle model in CarSim®. The relevant parameters for the
vehicle model are listed as follows: length: 4.85m, height (from
ground surface to top):1.47m, distance between ground surface and
under body: 0.25m, width: 1.85m, length of engine hood: 1.05m,
 Downloaded from SAE International by Yuping He, Tuesday, March 07, 2017

wheelbase: 2.8m, width of tires: 0.25m, inclination of hood α: 10.22°, Table 2. Meshing setting.
inclination of windscreen δ: 61.23°, inclination of notchback γ:
59.77°, length of notchback x: 0.88m, and height of notchback z:
0.78m.

Figure 3. Vehicle model without aerodynamic wing.

The rear aerodynamic wings will be mounted at the rear end of the
notchback area of the vehicle model shown in Figure 3. The resulting
model of the vehicle with rear wings is shown in Figure 4.

Figures 5 and 6 illustrate a sample mesh generation and inflation

layer, respectively.

Figure 4. Vehicle model with rear aerodynamic wings.

Figure 5. Mesh generation.

CFD Simulation
From Figure 5, it can be seen that the mesh quality of car body is
CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamic) simulation for the aerodynamic
fine, because we mainly focus on the stream flow above car body.
vehicle model is conducted using ANSYS FLUENT software
package. The CFD simulation is performed with the rear wings at
different positions and at different vehicle forward speeds. The
simulation results will be used as an aerodynamic database for
vehicle dynamic analysis.

Setting of ANSYS FLUENT Software

Meshing Sizing and Inflation
For all simulation cases, the same mesh sizing and inflation setting Figure 6. Inflation layer.
will be used. The parameter setting is introduced as follows.

1. Global Setting
Solver Setup
The CFD numerical simulation requires the solver to be set
The global setting is offered in Table 2.
appropriately before starting calculation. The solver settings and
2. Face Sizing
boundary conditions for all cases are the same as shown in Table 3.
All the car body surfaces should do the face sizing and the
element size is 0.05m.
3. Body Sizing

The “car-box” should do the body sizing and the element size is
0.1m.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Yuping He, Tuesday, March 07, 2017
Table 3. Solver Setting.
Simulation Results
Comparison of the Results for Vehicle with and without
Rear Wings
The simulation results for all the cases are obtained using the same
meshing setting, the same k − ε turbulence model, and the same
boundary conditions. In the simulations performed, the velocity of
free stream is set as 33.33 m/s. In the case of vehicle with rear wings,
the angle of attack of both independent rear wings is 0 degree.
For both cases, i.e. car with rear wings and the car without rear
wings, sufficient convergence is achieved after 1000 iterations. The
coefficient of drag (CD) for the case without and with rear wings is
0.3842 and 0.3888 respectively. Note that the change in coefficient of
drag for the two cases is only 0.004. The small difference can be
explained by analysing the projected area of the vehicle for the two
cases. The change of the projected area is negligible and there is a
minute increase in CD, when the angle of attack of the rear wing is 0
degree. Moreover, by analysing the data for the coefficient of lift
(CL) for the two cases, it is indicated that the coefficient of lift for the
case without rear wings is 0.3475. Due to the effect of rear wings, the
resulting coefficient of lift drops to 0.1572, decreasing 54.75% from
the baseline value of 0.3475. Hence, the negative lift force
(downforce) increases for the vehicle with rear wings. For the two
cases, the downforces are 210N and 464N, respectively.
Figures 7 and 8 show the contours of airflow velocity around the
vehicle at the symmetry plane for the case without and with the rear
wings, respectively. It can be seen that the car with rear wings has
larger air swirls at the rear end than that of the case without rear
wings. An air recirculation zone can be found at the rear end of the
vehicle with rear wings, which is larger than that for the case without
rear wings.
Figure 7. Airflow velocity contour around the vehicle without rear wings (max
wind velocity is 60.6832 m/s).
Figure 8. Airflow velocity contour around the vehicle with rear wings (max
wind velocity is 63.20815 m/s).
Simulation Results for Vehicle with Different Angle of
Attack
In the CFD simulation, the angle of attack of the two independent
rear wings varies from 0 to 20 degrees (with the increment of 5
degrees). For the purpose of simplicity, only one rear wing is
simulated. It can only provide approximate results. The forward
vehicle speed varies from 60 km/h to 300 km/h (with the increment
of 40 km/h). The simulation results in terms of downforce and power
consumed are presented in Figure 9 and 10, respectively.
From Figure 9, it can be seen that the rear wing can generate the peak
downforce when the angle of attack of wing is around 16 to 17
degree, and the downforce increases with the increase of vehicle
forward speed. However, with the nonlinear increase in aerodynamic
drag, the engine horsepower consumed will also increase with the
increase of both the angle of attack and the vehicle forward speed (as
shown in Figure 10). Thus, identifying an appropriate angle of attack
is important to manipulate the trade-off between downforce and
power consumed, i.e., lateral stability and fuel economy.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Yuping He, Tuesday, March 07, 2017

Figure 9. Downforce versus angle of attack of rear wing at various forward

speeds.
Figure 11. CarSim vehicle model setting.

Figure 12. Vehicle dimensions.

Figure 10. Horsepower consumed versus angle of attack of rear wing at

various forward speeds

Vehicle Dynamic Simulation

The simulation results based on ANSYS FLUENT will be used as a
database, which is combined with the vehicle model developed in
CarSim for dynamic simulation to evaluate the handling performance
of the vehicle under high-speed cornering maneuvers. The combined
dynamic simulation is conducted in order to examine the effects of
the aerodynamic wing system on the handling performance of the
vehicle

CarSim Model
CarSim is a commercial software used to model and simulate the
dynamic behaviour of passenger cars. This package employs a
nonlinear vehicle model coupled with experimental data to run
dynamic simulations. It is frequently used to predict the performance
of a vehicle in response to the driver inputs, such as steering, throttle,
brakes, clutch and shifting, under various testing maneuvers. The
specifications of a testing maneuver include vehicle forward speed,
road geometry, friction coefficients of road surface, speed of winds,
payload of testing vehicle, etc.
In the dynamic simulation, a front wheel drive D-Class sedan is
modelled in CarSim. This sedan model is used as it successfully
emulates the NASCAR design selected. The setting used for the
CarSim model is shown in Figure11. Figure 12 shows the vehicle
dimensions.
Figure 13. Forces acting on tires during cornering.
In order to facilitate the combined simulation, the aerodynamic
downforce is directly added on the tires. Figure 13 demonstrates the
longitudinal, lateral and vertical forces acting on the tires when the
vehicle negotiates a high-speed cornering maneuver. For the
aerodynamic wing system, the front wings are the small scaled model
of the rear wings. It is assumed that the front wings can generate one
third downforce and drag of the rear wings. During the simulation,
only the inside wings will change the angle of attack, the outside
wings will keep the angles of attack taking the value of 0 degree.
When the vehicle turns right, due to the load transfer, the outside tires
will have larger normal force than the inside tires. With the
 Downloaded from SAE International by Yuping He, Tuesday, March 07, 2017

independent aerodynamic wing system, the normal forces of inside
tires will be increased by adjusting the angles of attack of the inside
wings. Due to the different drags of inside and outside aerodynamic
wings, an additional yaw moment will be generated, which may be
compensated by the increased downforces.
Simulation Procedure
To understand the effect of aerodynamic wing system on the lateral
dynamics of the vehicle, the obtained data from FLUENT software
was used for further analysis using the CarSim Software Package.
The test maneuver executed was a constant radius left-handed turn
where the vehicle is travelling forward at a steady speed of 220 km/h.
The test track was a circular track with the radius of 1000m as shown
in Figure 14. Under the simulated maneuver, the angle of attack
retained 15 deg. The test maneuver selected was comparable to the
NASCAR race track. This would enable us to depict the scenarios of
high-speed maneuvers with and without aerodynamic wings.
Simulation Results
Figures 16 to 21 show the simulation results based on the CarSim
vehicle model with and without the aerodynamic wings.
Figure 16 shows the time-history of the Lateral acceleration at CG
(center of gravity) of the baseline vehicle and vehicle equipped with
aerodynamic wing system (VAWS). It can be seen that the VAWS
exhibits a lower peak lateral acceleration. However, there is a
negligible difference in lateral acceleration after the vehicle reaches
the steady state phase. Figure 17 shows similar characteristics
pertaining to the yaw Rate of VAWS and baseline vehicle. Hence, it
may be expected that the VAWS can negotiate corners at higher
forward speeds in comparison with the baseline case.
Figure 18 illustrates the time-history of the roll angle of the baseline
vehicle and the VAWS. It can be seen that the VAWS exhibits a lower
roll angle compared to the baseline vehicle. When a vehicle enters a
corner the vertical load transfers from the inner tires to the outer tires
(lateral-load transfer), this induces a roll moment in the vehicle.
However, when the aerodynamic downforce is applied to inner tires
of the vehicle during the corner, it counter-balances the inertial roll
moment, which leads to the improved roll dynamics and increased
traction.

Figure 14. Circular test-track with a radius of 1000m.

Figure 15 shows the time history of the steering input of the vehicle.
The plot exhibits the steering response of the vehicle as it negotiates
the beginning of the turn which is followed by steady-state behavior.

Figure 16. Time-history of lateral acceleration of vehicle model with and

without the aerodynamic wings.

Figure 15. Time-history of steering wheel angle of vehicle model.

Figure 17. Time-history of yaw rate of the vehicle with and without the
aerodynamic wings.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Yuping He, Tuesday, March 07, 2017

As analyzed in this section, the active aerodynamic wing system can

improve the vehicle handling performance. It can reduce the transient
peak lateral acceleration, yaw rate and roll angle during a cornering
maneuver. This provides the vehicle with the superior lateral
dynamics.

Figure 18. Time-history of roll angle of the vehicle with and without the
aerodynamic wings.

Figures 19 reveals the pitch behavior of the baseline vehicle and the
VAWS. As shown in the figure, the steady state pitch angle for the
baseline vehicle is close to “Zero”, whereas for the VAWS, there is
negative pitch throughout the maneuver. This occurs due to the fact Figure 20. Time-history of tire lateral force for inner (left) side of the baseline
that the aerodynamic downforce applied to the vehicle causes the vehicle and the VAWS.
suspension deflection and the consequent steady state pitch motion.

Figure 21. Time-history of tire lateral force for outer (right) side of the
baseline vehicle and the VAWS.
Figure 19. Time-history of pitch angle of the vehicle with and without the
aerodynamic wings.
Conclusions
Figures 20 and 21 show the lateral forces produced by the tires over
The paper proposes an active aerodynamic control system with four
the simulated maneuver. During the cornering, due to the lateral load
independent wings for improving the lateral stability of high-speed
transfer, the outer wheels produce larger lateral forces in comparison
vehicles. The appropriate wing shapes are selected. Built upon the
with the inner tires. Thus, to improve the cornering capability of the
airfoil analysis, the 3-D aerodynamic wing model is developed using
vehicle, the lateral-load transfer due to the inertial forces must be
a commercial software package, Siemens NX®. Then, the virtual
compensated using the aerodynamic wings such that the inner wheels
aerodynamic wings are assembled with the 3-D vehicle model
can also produce sufficient lateral forces required for high-speed
designed also using Siemens NX®. The aerodynamic characteristics
corners. In the VAWS, this has been achieved by using the
of the 3-D vehicle model with and without rear wings are analysed
aerodynamic downforces generated by the front and rear wings. In
using ANSYS FLUENT® software package. With the CFD-based
the VAWS, the lateral forces generated by the left (inner) tires are
numerical simulation, the downforces and drags at various forward
larger than those of the baseline vehicle. However, as shown in
speeds and angles of attack are obtained. The data of the downforces
Figure 21, this effect is counteracted by a reduction in lateral force
and drags are combined with the vehicle model developed in
exerted on the right (outer) wheels. It should be noted that the total
CarSim® in order to evaluate the active aerodynamic wings. The
lateral force produced by the vehicle remains approximately constant,
effects of the active aerodynamic wings on the handling performance
as both the baseline vehicle and the VAWS have an approximately
of the vehicle under a high-speed cornering maneuver are examined.
same steady state lateral acceleration.
Simulation results reveal that the active aerodynamic wings permit
 Downloaded from SAE International by Yuping He, Tuesday, March 07, 2017
the vehicle operates at higher lateral acceleration under high-speed
cornering maneuvers and the active aerodynamic control system is
featured with the following features:
1. Increasing tire capability to produce larger cornering force
2. Stabilizing vehicle at high speeds
3. Improving braking performance
4. Increasing traction
The systematic numerical simulation method and achieved results
may provide design guidance for the development of active
aerodynamic wings for high-speed road vehicles.
In this paper, only numerical simulation of the active aerodynamic
wings is conducted without actually considering any control scheme
implementation. In order to fabricate real physical prototypes of the
system in the future, the following recommendations are provided:
1. Using wind tunnel tests to get the accurate downforce and drags
of the aerodynamic wings and comparing the testing results with
the CFD-based simulation results achieved in the research; and
2. Generating effective vehicle models for controller design and
high fidelity numerical simulation.
References
1. Li, C., Li, H., Chen, Y., Dong, Honglei., Zhao, Xun. & Xiao,
Lingyun. (2016, March). Model-based sensor fault detection and
isolation method for a vehicle dynamic control system. Journal
of Automobile Engineering. 1–14.
2. Savaresi, S., Poussot-Vassal, C., Spelta, C., Sename, O., &
Dugare, L. (2010). Semi-active Suspensions of Control Design
for Vehicles. Elsevier, Oxford, UK
3. Todeschini, F., Corno, M., Panzani, G., & Savaresi, S.M. (2014)
Adaptive position-pressure control of a brake by wire actuator
for sport motorcycles. European Journal of Control, 20(2),
79–86.
The Engineering Meetings Board has approved this paper for publication. It has successfully completed SAE’s peer review process under the supervision of the session organizer. The process
requires a minimum of three (3) reviews by industry experts.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE International.
Positions and opinions advanced in this paper are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of SAE International. The author is solely responsible for the content of the paper.
ISSN 0148-7191
http://papers.sae.org/2017-01-1592
4. Neiger, C. (2014, November 13). Active aerodynamics, a
slippery obsession. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/autos/
story/20140819-carmakers-slippery-new-buzzword
5. Manosalvas, D.E., Economon, T.D., Jameson, A. & Palacios,
F.D., (2015, June). Techniques for the Design of Active Flow
Control Systems in Heavy Vehicle. 33ed AIAA Applied
Aerodynamics Conference. Dallas, TX
6. Englar, R., “Development of Pneumatic Aerodynamic Devices
to Improve the Performance, Economics, and Safety of
Heavy Vehicles,” SAE Technical Paper 2000-01-2208, 2000,
doi:10.4271/2000-01-2208.
7. Barnard, R. H.(2001). Road Vehicle Aerodynamic Design: An
Introduction. (2nd ed.). England. Mechaero Publishing.
8. Zhang, X., Toet, W., & Zerihan, J. (2006, January). Ground
Effect Aerodynamics of Race Cars. Applied Mechanics
Reviews, 59(1), 33–49.
9. Katz, J., (1996). Race Car Aerodynamics: Designing for Speed.
(2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA, USA. Bentley Publishers.
10. Katz, J., (2006) Aerodynamics of Race Cars. Annual Review of
Fluid Mechanics. 38, 27–63
11. Mastinu, G., Babbel, E., Lugner, P., Margolis, D., Mittermayr, P.
and Richter, B., Integrated controls of lateral vehicle dynamics.
(1995). 13th IAVSD symposium on the dynamics of vehicles on
road and on tracks, Supplement to Vehicle System Dynamics.
25, 99–123.
12. Xu, X.H. (2011). A Numerical Study on Rear-Spoiler of
Passenger Vehicle. International Journal of Mechanical,
Aerospace, Industrial, Mechatronic and Manufacturing
Engineering. 5(09), 1800–1805.Sine with Dwell Test in CarSim,
http://www.carsim.com/downloads/pdf/sine_w_dwell.pdf,
accessed on October, 20, 2013.
13. Chodagudai, K. (2012). Analysis of NACA 2412 for Automobile
Rear Spoiler Using Composite Material. International Journal of
Engineering Research & Technology. 1(07), 1–5