Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.

102 (2000) 521–528 521

Carmen Dobarganes, Interactions between fat and food

Gloria Márquez-Ruiz,
Joaquín Velasco during deep-frying
In deep-fat frying the food is completely surrounded by the frying fat or oil and different
Instituto de la Grasa (CSIC), events occur within a few minutes: dehydration of food surface, absorption of fat, for-
Sevilla, Spain mation of flavour compounds, development of surface colour, etc. Due to the drastic
conditions applied during deep-frying, the frying fat also undergoes degradation. Al-
though much work has been done on modifications of used frying fats and oils under
different conditions, changes in the fried substrate have been much less studied. Par-
ticularly, there is minimal information on some physical and chemical aspects of the in-
teractions between frying fats and fried foods. In this paper the main changes in the fry-
ing fat due to the nature of the food fried in it as well as modifications in the food as a
consequence of the fat or oil used as heat transfer medium are reviewed. Fat absorp-
tion and lipid exchanges are the main physical changes involved. Chemical reactions
include interaction between food constituents and oxidised lipids as well as hydrolysis
of frying fats due to food moisture.

Keywords: Chemical reactions, deep-frying, frying fat, food, physical interaction.

1 Introduction Modification in food nutrients at the high temperatures

Fried foods have become more and more popular in spite
of the present guidelines which recommend to decrease
the level of fat in the diet. The main reason for this is that
frying is a fast and convenient technique for production of
foods with unique sensory properties of colour, flavour,
texture, and palatability, highly appreciated by con-
sumers. These positive changes are accompanied by
some undesirable modifications of the frying medium. It is
very well known that, during deep-frying, thermal, oxida-
tive, and hydrolytic reactions take place and, thus, physi-
of the frying process have been recently reviewed by
Pokorný [1]. In the present paper the main changes in the
frying fat or oil due to the food fried in it as well as the
changes in the food subjected to frying due to the fat or oil
used as heat transfer medium will be considered, while
those attributed to the conditions of the frying process
have been excluded. Main aspects commented on in-
clude physical interactions such as the influence of the
food structure and composition on fat absorption and wa-
ter loss, the migration of minor lipid compounds from the

cal and chemical changes in the oil or fat are expected to
occur as a consequence of the formation of new com-
pounds. The fried food absorbs this fat or oil of variable
degradation, which contributes considerably to the quality
of the dietary fat.
A high number of studies on the modifications of fats and
oils during heating and frying under very different condi-
tions has been carried out on the assumption that accept-
ability of fried foods depends on the quality of the used
frying oil or fat. However, information on the changes in
the foods is considerably scarce, probably due to the
many different foods that can be subjected to frying and
the difficulties found to replicate data given the high num-
ber of variables involved in the process.
Correspondence: Carmen Dobarganes, Instituto de la Grasa
(CSIC), Avda. Padre García Tejero 4, 41012 – Sevilla, Spain.
Phone: +34 95 4611550, Fax: +34 95 4616790; e-mail: cdobar
@cica.es
Review Article
food into the frying oil modifying its quality, the inter-
changes between major lipid components in fatty foods
determining the composition of the finished products, and
chemical interactions between components of the food
and the frying oil giving place to non-volatile and volatile
compounds.
2 Mass transfer during deep-frying
2.1 Major changes in food: Oil uptake
and water loss
During frying heat is transferred to the food, which is
rapidly heated and covered with steam when water on the
surface reaches its boiling point. The temperature of the
frying oil decreases as a result of food addition and tem-
perature inside the food increases slowly, remaining
around 100 °C, while the water is flowing from interior to
exterior layers. Steam limits the penetration of oil through
the surface to the centre of the foods, resulting a fried
product where two characteristic zones can be defined:

© WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH, 69451 Weinheim, 2000 0931-5985/2000/0809-0521 $17.50+.50/0

522 Dobarganes et al. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 521–528

(i) the dehydrated surface where the main changes take
place and (ii) the interior or core where temperature does
not overpass 100 °C.
Water loss and oil absorption in a certain food are interre-
lated as the pressure inside the food is greater than that
outside and limits penetration of the frying oil. The main
parameters influencing water loss and oil uptake are tem-
perature and time. It has been found that temperature has
no significant effect between 150 and 180 °C [2] although,
in general, the higher the temperature the lower the oil ab-
sorption on the surface and, on the contrary, an excess of
oil absorption may result from low frying temperatures. In-
terrelation of both variables in frying is common and thus,
the higher the temperature the shorter the time to obtain a
fried product of similar quality.
Tab. 1 summarises major changes during frying of two
frozen pre-fried foods, French potatoes and battered
hake, using two oils of different levels of degradation
compounds. The results for fried foods were expressed
by the food weight obtained from 100 g of initial pre-fried
food. Thus, from the data shown both the loss of water
and the net gain of oil can be directly determined by sub-
traction. As can be observed, the changes depended
clearly on the food subjected to frying, as the final process
of frying was identical for both products. The battered
hake, with lower surface-to-weight ratio, had a lower loss
of total weight and moisture. However, surprisingly, the
amount of oil absorbed was much higher than that re-
tained by the potato. Nevertheless, no significant differ-
ences were found under the conditions used due to the
quality of the oil used [12].

Apart from the parameters established for food prepara- 2.2 Composition of used frying oils and oils
tion, water loss and fat absorption clearly depend on both absorbed by the food
food and frying oil. With respect to the food, many vari- A complementary aspect of interest is to know whether
ables affect the final composition of the finished fried there are significant differences between the frying oil in
product. Among them, food composition, in particular the the fryer and the oil retained by the food which justify the
surface structure and composition, moisture, lipid con- analytical evaluation of food lipids instead of that of frying
tent, product shape, surface-to-weight ratio, porosity, and oil or fat. There is no agreement in the literature in this re-
pre-frying treatment have been reported [3–6]. As an ex-
ample, even for a single non-lipid food, like potatoes, oil
absorption and water loss strongly depended on the pota-
to specific gravity – oil uptake being lower as the specific
gravity increases – as well as on the surface-to-weight ra-
tio exposed to the frying medium – the larger the ratio the
higher the oil absorption [7]. Nevertheless, oil uptake can
also be modified by steam treatment to remove external
oil or pre-drying [8]. On the other hand, many foods are
subjected to frying after modification of the surface by a
cover of bread or batter which modify water loss and lipid
interchange in fatty foods. Even more, small changes in
the composition of the external layers have been reported
to be essential for controlling oil absorption [9]. Thus, in
conclusion, there are many variables of control, which
make it difficult, affecting the oil content of fried foods,
which are not easy to foresee. Oil absorption can vary
from as little as 6% in the case of roasted nuts to around
40% in the case of potato crisps [10].

The influence of the fat or oil used was found to be much

lower than that of the food. In general, oil absorption de-
pended on the frying oil quality more than on the oil or fat
used for frying. Influence of oil quality was attributed to
formation of degradation compounds which increased the
polarity of the frying medium. On the one hand, the oil
viscosity increased, which in turn could contribute to in-
crease the amount of oil on the food surface [11] and, on
the other hand, the interfacial tension between the food
and the oil would decrease, thus facilitating oil absorption.
Fig. 1. Analytical procedure for the determination of total
polar compounds and their distribution. Abbreviations:
HPSEC, high-performance size-exclusion chromatogra-
phy; TGP, Triacylglycerol polymers; TGD, Triacylglycerol
dimers; oxTGM, oxidised triacylglycerol monomers; DG,
diacylglycerols; FA, fatty acids.
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 521–528 Interactions between fat and food during deep-frying 523

Tab. 1. Influence of food and polar compound level of frying oil on water loss and oil absorption. Mean of six determina-
tions. Numbers within brackets are standard errors.
Prefried food Component Before frying After frying
Initial oil* Used oil*
Potatoes Moisture 66.9 (0.34) 23.2 (0.50) 24.4 (0.43)
Lipids 4.6 (0.11) 8.5 (0.28) 8.3 (0.82)
Dry matter 28.5 29.9 28.5
Total 100.0 61.6 61.2
Battered hake Moisture 58.2 (0.93) 42.1 (0.21) 41.3 (0.26)
Lipids 6.6 (0.70) 13.5 (0.45) 14.2 (0.43)
Dry matter 35.2 35.7 35.1
Total 100.0 91.3 90.6
* Polar compounds were 4.8% and 18.6% for initial and used frying oils, respectively.

gard, even when the same substrate is considered. In Tab. 2. Total polar compounds and α-tocopherol content
some studies, similar fatty acid compositions and/or in frying oils and lipids extracted from fried potatoes
levels of news compounds in both lipids from fried Frying oil Polar α-tocopherol
potatoes and frying oils were found [12–14] while, in compounds [%] [mg/kg]
contrast, great differences between the two oils have
been also reported [15]. Frying Food Frying Food
oil lipids oil lipids
We have conducted different studies to establish differ- High oleic 5.5 4.9 535 569
ences between frying oils and oil extracted from the fried sunflower oil 16.0 15.4 10 tr
food [12, 14] by analysing total polar compounds [16], the
Sunflower oil 7.0 6.4 543 584
main groups of new compounds, i.e. polymers, oxidised
triacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, and fatty acids [17] as 19.1 18.7 185 155
well as fatty acid composition and tocopherol content. tr – traces
Fig. 1 shows the analytical scheme applied for the evalu-
ation of degradation compounds in used frying oils and in
lipids extracted from freeze-dried potatoes. As observed, in Tab. 2, showing results for polar compounds and α-to-
five groups of compounds could be quantified, i.e. triacyl- copherol contents in samples of frying oils and food lipids
glycerol polymers and dimers, oxidised triacylglycerol corresponding to two types of oils used for frying at two
monomers, diacylglycerols, and fatty acids. This detailed levels of polar compounds [14]. No differences where
analytical approach was applied to a large number of found indicating that, under the conditions applied, there
samples of fried potatoes, either crisps or French fries, was no preferential adsorption of polar compounds or nat-
prepared by industrial frying using three different oils: ural antioxidants on the food surface. Consequently, data
palm olein (PO), conventional sunflower oil (SO), and obtained from the analysis of used frying oils would be
high oleic sunflower oil (HOSO). Due to the minimum lipid representative for those obtained after food lipid extrac-
content of the potatoes, comparison between oils from tion. However, it is important to note that these results
the fryers and oils extracted from fried potatoes should refer to the oil physically absorbed or adsorbed on the
give a clear indication whether a preferential adsorption of food and, thus, new stable compounds, non-extractable
polar compounds on food surface is significant. Fig. 2 by polar organic solvents, originated through the chemical
shows the exclusion chromatograms obtained for used reactions were not included in food lipids.
frying oils and the corresponding oils extracted from
crisps. As can be observed, the profiles were practically
identical for each frying oil and the extracted oil, its coun- 3 Transfer of lipids from food to frying oil
terpart [18].
As commented on above, food quality is greatly affected
In these studies, polar compound levels were lower than by the quality of used frying fats and oils although the in-
10% in all cases although similar results were found in fry- fluence of the food being fried on the quality of the frying
ing oils with around 20% polar compounds, as observed oil may be of similar importance.
524 Dobarganes et al.
3.1 Migration of minor compounds
Minor compounds present in the food leaching into the
frying oil may easily modify oil performance and quality.
Although it is not easy to find studies directed to know the
specific effect of minor compounds from foods, some in-
teresting information can be found in general reviews
[3, 15, 19, 20]. Among the main compounds contributing
to modifying physical or chemical properties of used fry-
ing fats and oils the following groups stand out:
1. Amphiphilic compounds like phospholipids and emulsi-
fiers can contribute to early foaming.
2. Lipid-soluble vitamins and trace metals leaching into
the frying oil inhibit or accelerate oil oxidation depend-
ing on their antioxidant or prooxidant effect.
3. Cholesterol from fatty animal foods is found in veg-
etable frying oils and can be incorporated in non-fatty
foods during subsequent frying operations.
4. Pigments and Maillard browning products modify the
susceptibility against oxidation of frying oil and con-
tribute to darkening.
5. Phenolic compounds present in the foods or in added
spices increase the frying oil stability.
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 521–528
Fig. 2. Exclusion
chromatograms of
polar compounds
in oils from fryers
and oils extracted
from crisps. Abbre-
viations: SO, sun-
flower oil; HOSO,
high oleic sun-
flower oil; PO, palm
olein.
6. Volatile compounds coming from strongly flavoured
foods like fish or onions can contribute to special off-
flavours.
Finally, apart from migration of lipids from the food into the
frying oil, it is important to take into account that foods
which are breaded or battered may contribute particles of
the surface coating to the fat, resulting in burning and off-
flavours and increasing fat or oil degradation.
3.2 Fat interchange during deep-frying
of fatty foods
From a quantitative point of view, used frying oil is mainly
affected by contamination with fats or lipids, which
migrate to the frying medium from foods. Two different
types of fatty foods will be considered separately: (i)
natural fatty foods, i.e. fish or meat, which are normally
coated by batter or bread and are characterised by a low
content of lipids on their surface, and (ii) the increasing
group of frozen pre-fried foods (potatoes, fish, vegeta-
bles, etc.) where the fat or oil is mainly located on the sur-
face. Lipid exchanges as well as final lipid composition
and quality might be very different in both groups.
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 521–528 Interactions between fat and food during deep-frying 525

3.2.1 Natural fatty foods Tab. 3. Quantitation of significant fatty acids before and
after frying different fatty foods in olive oil.
Great differences can be found in lipid composition de-
pending on the method of frying, type of food, and surface Sample C14:0 C18:1 C18:2 C22:6
composition, i.e. batter, bread, or uncoated food. It has Before frying
been found that battered fish absorbed less fat than
Olive oil – 76.3 8.3 –
breaded fish. The reason seems to be the rapid formation
of a crust which impedes the transfer of oil and water in Potatoes – 40.9 2.9 –
the battered food while the amount of coating in breaded Hake – 28.9 52.8 –
fish is much lower and less protective [21]. As a conse- Sardines 6.6 13.2 1.2 11.5
quence of variable fat absorption, it is difficult to foresee After frying
the fatty acid composition of the final product. The higher
Potatoes – 73.4 7.9 –
the amount of oil absorbed, the better is the final lipid
composition reflects that of the frying fat and the higher is Hake – 72.3 11.2 –
the energy density of the food. Sardines 3.1 47.9 2.8 6.0

Even more important from the nutritional point of view is

the possible diffusion of food lipids into the frying oil dur-
Fat absorption, lipid interchange, and possibilities of pref-
ing the process. Lipid interchange is obvious in foods like
erential adsorption of polar compounds on food surface
meat or chicken whose lipid content after frying might
during frying of frozen pre-fried foods have been studied
even be lower than before frying [22] but exchanges oc-
in detail [12, 13, 27, 28]. As commented on above, fat ab-
cur as a general fact during frying of fatty foods, as
sorption clearly depended on the type of food while simi-
demonstrated by the presence of minor compounds, i.e.
lar levels of polar compounds, polymers, and minor com-
cholesterol, phospholipids, vitamins, etc., of food lipids in
pounds were found in the lipids extracted from fried foods
the frying oil. Surprisingly, there is no information on this
and in the frying oils. On the other hand, similar fatty acid
aspect in detailed studies on lipid changes during frying of
profiles were found for the oil and the food fried in it, indi-
fish [23–25] even though lipid exchanges can be easily
cating that lipid interchange was very high. When the fat-
calculated from the proximate and fatty acid compositions
ty acid profile of the frozen pre-fried food and that of the
of the foods before and after frying [12]. Reinterpretation
oil used for frying were very different, both the initial lipids
of the results obtained from the quoted papers would indi-
remaining in the fried product and those being transferred
cate that a significant percentage of the initial food lipids
to the frying oil could be calculated with high accuracy
had passed into the frying medium, mainly from fish with
[12]. Irrespective of the oil used and of the pre-fried food
high lipid content. A similar conclusion is deduced from
subjected to frying, more than 90% of the fried food lipids
the analysis of the fatty acid composition of used frying
came from the frying oil while more than 85% of the pre-
oils after a high number of frying operations [26]. Conse-
fried food lipids were released into the frying oil. Tab. 3
quently, from a nutritional point of view, great care should
shows changes in significant fatty acids after frying pre-
be taken regarding the composition of the dietary fat in-
fried potatoes, pre-fried hake, and sardines in olive oil to
gested as both absorption of the frying oil and migration of
remark the differences between natural fatty foods and
lipid into the fryer would contribute to modify the fatty acid
pre-fried foods. As can be observed, the amounts of se-
composition of the finished fried product, which may be
lected fatty acids in the fried potatoes and hake were very
far different from that of the initial food.
similar to those present in olive oil while in the case of sar-
dines almost 50% of their characteristic fatty acids (C14:0
3.2.2 Frozen pre-fried foods and C22:6) remained in the fried product.
Lipid exchanges in frozen pre-fried products are of spe-
cial interest as the lipid constituents have two specific
4 Chemical interactions between frying
characteristics:
oil and food components
– Pre-fried products contain significant amounts of ab-
sorbed used frying fat or oil of unknown composition Mass transfer and lipid exchanges, i.e. dehydration, distil-
and quality depending on the variables of the pre-fry- lation, and extraction, are the main physical changes con-
ing process. tributing to final composition, energy density, and special
– As a consequence of the previous frying process, the texture and palatability of fried foods. Nevertheless,
oil is preferably absorbed in the external layers of the chemical reactions between frying oils and food con-
food and thereby lipids are in contact with the frying oil stituents at the high temperatures of the frying process
during the second frying operation. should not be neglected as they are important contribu-
526 Dobarganes et al.
tors to the other sensory properties typical of fried foods:
odour, colour, and flavour.
4.1 Formation of non-volatile compounds
Although the main reactions contributing to the golden
colour of fried products are considered to be produced by
protein-carbohydrates reactions, i.e. the Maillard reac-
tion, lipids can also play a role in non-enzymatic brown-
ing. Particularly, the reaction of lipid oxidation products
with amines, aminoacids, and proteins has long been re-
lated to the browning observed in many foods during pro-
cessing and storage.
For those interested, some excellent reviews on the sub-
ject provide complete information on the complexity of the
reactions involved between reactive groups of proteins
and oxidised lipids [19, 29, 30]. The intensity of browning
has been primarily correlated with losses of lysine, histi-
dine, and methionine while the main reactive compounds
from lipids were aldehydes, epoxides, hydroxyketones,
and dicarbonylic compounds [29]. Fig. 3 shows the first
mechanism described for non-enzymatic browning. Ac-
cording to it, carbonyl compounds derived from unsatu-
rated lipids condense with free amino groups to produce
imino Schiff bases which polymerise by aldol condensa-
tion producing brown macromolecules. A much more re-
cent and additional mechanism has been proposed
based on the interaction of epoxyalkenals and reactive
groups of proteins, which explains the formation of poly
pirrolic polymers as well as volatile heterocyclic com-
pounds [30]. This is especially interesting as epoxides are
Fig. 3. Formation of brown pigments by aldolic condensa-
tion.
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 521–528
one of the major groups of compounds formed at high
temperatures [31].
These complex reactions have been studied in model
systems and, consequently, their extension under the
conditions of the frying process is unknown. On the one
hand, the reaction products are insoluble macromole-
cules of difficult extraction and analysis and, on the other
hand, the structures and number of the new compounds
formed through these pathways would increase enor-
mously, if, as suggested, reactions between oxidised
lipids and Maillard reaction intermediates cannot be ex-
cluded [32].
4.2 Formation of volatile compounds
Lipids are the main contributors to desirable and undesir-
able flavours in fried foods. A variety of compounds con-
sisting in series of aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons,
and alcohols arise through decomposition of hydroperox-
ides at high temperatures [33]. Even from simple model
frying systems in the absence of food, hundreds of
volatile compounds are formed which, at frying tempera-
ture, are leaving the oil and, thus, the composition of the
mixture is continuously changing. However, in spite of the
complexity of the decomposition pattern, from the propor-
tions of the main compounds it is not difficult to deduce
the fatty acids undergoing oxidative degradation [33, 34].
In addition to the frying oil other important sources of
volatiles include oxidative and thermal decomposition of
food lipids, breakdown products of other main con-
stituents of the food, and compounds produced by inter-
action of food components and/or interaction between
food and frying oil. From detailed studies and reviews it is
deduced that the difficulty rests with distinguishing the
pathway of formation of hundreds of volatile compounds
found in frying oils or fried foods [35–37]. For example,
135 volatile compounds were identified in fried bacon and
they include hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes,
acids, esters, phenols, pyrazines, furans, thiazoles, oxa-
zoles, pyrroles, pyridines, etc. [37]. Such complicated
mixtures of reactive components at frying temperatures
give very complex flavour profiles and, hence, identifica-
tion of volatiles formed by interaction of frying oils and
food constituents is still a difficult task .
4.3 Hydrolysis of used frying oils
Finally hydrolytic reactions take place in the used frying
oil due to food moisture. The main consequence is forma-
tion of diacylglycerols and fatty acids, the latter contribut-
ing to volatile formation and decrease the smoke point.
Even with hydrolysis being one of the simplest reactions
during frying, inconsistent results are obtained on the
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102 (2000) 521–528
variables promoting formation of fatty acids. For some
authors, hydrolysis is the most important reaction during
frying [38, 15]. Nevertheless, in well-controlled laboratory
potato frying operations under many different conditions,
hydrolytic products were minor compounds among the
total new compounds obtained, even if the substrate had
a very high content of water [12, 13, 39, 40]. These results
would indicate that other variables, depending on the type
of food or not, have a much more important effect than
moisture content [41].
5 Final considerations
To sum up, interaction between food and the frying medi-
um during deep-frying involves many physical and chem-
ical modifications in both the oil and the food, among
which physical changes stand out.
Main physical changes include surface dehydration by
continuous evaporation of food moisture, lipid exchanges
in the two directions, i.e. used frying oil absorption by the
food and migration of food lipids into the frying oil, and
distillation of flavour compounds. These changes are the
main contributors to the texture and odour of fried foods
as well as to its caloric value.
Chemical reactions between main food constituents and
between oxidation compounds and proteins or amino
acids seem to be the most important pathways for forma-
tion of compounds responsible for colour and flavour.
Overall, much work remains to be done to explain the
complex reactions and interactions taking place under the
conditions of the frying process characterised by the si-
multaneous action of many different variables related to
the process, the frying oil, and the food.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded in part by CICYT (Proyecto ALI 98-
0884). Authors thank M. Giménez for excellent secretari-
al services.
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[Received: June 8, 2000; accepted: June 26, 2000]