GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
of electrons (e-) in a neutral atom
Atoms and Their Isotopes
Source: Affairs Cloud Learn To Lead
Have you ever wondered how small is the corona virus
(SARS-CoV-2), responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic
the whole world is experiencing now? What could be
smaller than this virus? Did you know that a molecule is
even smaller than the corona virus and an atom is even
much smaller?
Studies show that the size of the Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
ranges from 0.1 μm-0.3 μm (micrometer/micron) or
approximately 10-7 meter. It is relatively bigger than the
Water molecule (H2O) at 10-10 meter and a lot bigger
than the Heliumatom (He) which is only 1 fm
(femtometer) or 10-15 m.
The atom was believed to be the smallest particle
comprising substances during the time of John Dalton.
However, before the end of the 19th century,
experiments provided proof of the existence of smaller
particles within the atom. Do you want to know what are
those particles?
THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
During the early twentieth century, scientists discovered
that atoms can be divided into more basic particles.
Their findings made it clear that atoms contain a central
portion called the nucleus. Inside the nucleus are the
sub atomic particles known as protons and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons are often called nucleons.
Protons (p+) are positively charged, and neutrons(n0)
are neutral. Whirling about the nucleus are particles
called electrons(e-)which are negatively charged. The
electrons are relatively small in mass. Take a look at this
picture below for a size comparison.
Source: Study Blue A Chegg service
Now a natural question is whether electrons, protons,
and neutrons are the most fundamental particles. The
answer is NO. These fundamental particles are
made of more fundamental particles called quarks. But
we don't have to go that far yet. Just be aware that such
sub-fundamental particles exist. The only fundamental
particles are electrons, protons, and neutrons. Did you
know what information can be derived from these sub
atomic particles?
ATOMIC NUMBER vs. MASS NUMBER
The number of protons in an atom's nucleus denotes the
atomic number. While, the total number of protons and
neutrons denotes the mass number.
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons (p+) = number
Mass number (A) = number of protons (p+) + number of
neutrons (n0)
The figure below shows how to write the symbol of an
atom together with its atomic number and atomic mass
ISOTOPES
Some atoms have the same atomic number, but different
mass numbers. This means different number of
neutrons. Such atoms are called isotopes. The existence
of isotopes was shown by mass spectroscopy
experiments, wherein elements were found to be
composed of several types of atoms, each with different
masses. Take a look at this sample problem of
determining the number of sub atomic particles of
isotopes of the element Silicon.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.1: Determining the Number of
Subatomic Particles in the Isotopes of an Element
PROBLEM: Silicon(Si) is essential to the computer
industry as a major component of semiconductor chips.
It has three naturally occurring isotopes:28Si, 29Si, and
30
Si.
Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons in each silicon isotope.
PLAN: We have to use the atomic number and atomic
masses.
SOLUTION: The atomic number of silicon is 14.
Therefore
28
Si has 14p+, 14e- and 14n0 (28-14)
29
Si has 14p+, 14e- and 15n0 (29-14)
30
Si has 14p+, 14e- and 16n0 (30-14)
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable
atomic nucleus spontaneously loses energy by emitting
ionizing particles and radiation. This decoyer loss of
energy, results in an atom of one type, called the parent
nuclide transforming to an atom of a different type, called
the daughter nuclide. Atoms with unstable nuclei can
undergo radioactive decay to become atoms which are
more stable than their parent atoms. In the process,
different types of particles are emitted. For example: a
carbon-14 atom (the "parent") emits radiation and
transforms to a nitrogen-14 atom (the "daughter"). This
is a random process on the atomic level, in that it is
impossible to predict when a given atom will decay, but
given a large number of similar atoms, the decay rate,
on average, is predictable.
MODES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Alpha emission (α) is a low-penetrating emission. It is
actually helium nucleus and is often represented as
4
2He. An example of radioactive decay of radium-226 is
given below:
226
88 Ra → 22286Rn + 42He
As you can see, the resulting atom has both mass
number and atomic number changed. The atomic
number decreases by 2, and the mass number
decreases by 4. Because of its very large mass (more
than 7000 times the mass of the beta particle) and its
charge, it has a very short range. It is not suitable for
radiation therapy since its range is less than a tenth of a
millimeter inside the body. Its main radiation hazard
comes when it is ingested into the body; it has great
destructive power within its short range. In contact with
fast-growing membranes and living cells, it is positioned
for maximum damage.
Beta particles (ß-) are emissions having medium level
penetration. They are fast traveling electrons. As a result
of beta emission, the resulting atom will have an
increase in the atomic number by 1. There is no change RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES - have an unstable
in the mass number. In the process, there is also a combination of protons and neutrons. These isotopes
proton formation from the neutron inside the nucleus, decay, emitting radiation that includes alpha, beta and
along with the electron formation. In the following gamma rays. Scientists classify radioactive isotopes
example, thorium-234 decays to protactinium-234 by according to their creation process: long-lived,
emitting a beta particle. cosmogenic, anthropogenic and radiogenic. Long-lived
traveling electrons. As a result of beta emission, the radioactive isotopes emerged during the creation of the
resulting atom will have an increase in the atomic solar system, while cosmogenic radioactive isotopes
number by 1. There is no change in the mass number. In occur as a reaction of the atmosphere to cosmic rays
the process, there is also a proton formation from the emitted by stars. Anthropogenic isotopes come from
neutron inside the nucleus, along with the electron human-made nuclear activities, such as weapons testing
formation. In the following example, thorium-234 decays and nuclear fuel production, while radiogenic isotopes
to protactinium-234 by emitting a beta particle. are the end result of radioactive decay. The tables below
show the applications of isotopes in different fields.
234 Radioactive Isotopes Applications to Medicine
Th → 234 Pa + 0 e- Applications to
90 91 -1 Medicine
The high energy electrons have greater range of Cobalt-60 Radiation therapy to prevent
penetration than alpha particles, but still much less than cancer
gamma rays. The radiation hazard from betas is greatest Iodine-131 Locate brain tumors, monitor
if they are ingested. Beta emission is accompanied by cardiac, liver and thyroid activity
the emission of an Carbon-14 Study metabolism changes for
electron antineutrino which shares the momentum and patients with diabetes, gout and
energy of the decay. The emission of the electron's anemia
antiparticle, the positron, is also called beta decay. Beta Carbon-11 Tagged onto glucose to monitor
decay can be seen as the decay of one of the neutrons organs during a PET scan
to a proton via the weak Sodium-24 Study blood circulation
interaction. Thallium-201 Determine damage in the heart
Positron emission (ß+) is the positive counterpart of an tissue, detection of tumors
electron emission. A positron has the exact mass of an
Technetium-99 Imaging of organ and blood
electron but has a positive charge. During this event, a
flow studies
proton is converted to a neutron and a positron. The
Radioactive Isotopes Industrial Applications
product of a positron decay will have an atomic number
Americium-241 For uniform thickness when
less than that of the decayed atom by one unit. There is
rolling steel and paper,
no change in mass number.
determine location of oil wells
Electron capture: As a result of electron capture, a
proton is converted into a neutron. The electron is Sodium-24 Oil well studies and to locate
usually captured from the innermost shell of the atom. leaks in pipelines
The atomic number of the product will be one less than Iridium-192 Test integrity of boilers and
that of the original atom. There aircraft parts
is no change in mass number. Uranium-235 Nuclear power plant and naval
Gamma (У) emissions or gamma rays, as they are propulsion system fuel,
commonly referred to, are highly penetrating and construction and building
dangerous emissions. They are high frequency industries.
electromagnetic rays. Gamma rays travel at the speed of Californium-235 Determine moisture content of
light. The resulting product atom has the same atomic soil- important for road
and mass numbers as those of the parent atom from construction and building
which the gamma rays are emitted. Gamma rays have industries.
no charge. It is distinguished from x-rays only by the fact Radioactive Isotopes Applications in Research
that it comes from the nucleus. Most gamma rays are Applications in
somewhat higher in energy than x-rays and therefore are Research
very penetrating. It is the most useful type of radiation for Carbon-14 Carbon dating of organisms
medical purposes, but at the same time it is the most and substances (archeology),
dangerous because of its ability to penetrate large research to determine steps
thicknesses of material. involved in plant photosynthesis
Phosphorus-32 Used in research involving
APPLICATION Phosphorus-33 biology and genetics
Isotopes are alternative “versions” of elements that have Selenium-75 Protein studies in life science
a different atomic mass but the same atomic number. Strontium-85 Metabolism and bone formation
Scientists divide isotopes into two main types: studies
radioactive and stable. Both types have wide uses in Hydogen-3/ Tritium Used to study life science and
several industries and fields of study. drug metabolism

STABLE ISOTOPES - have a stable proton-neutron

combination and do not display any sign of decay. This
stability comes from the amount of neutrons present in
an atom. If an atom has too many or too few neutrons, it
is unstable and tends to disintegrate. Since stable
isotopes do not decay, they do not produce radiation or
its associated health risks.
Scientists performing environmental and ecological
experiments use stable isotopes of oxygen, hydrogen,
sulfur, nitrogen and carbon. For example, in
geochemistry, scientists study the chemical composition
of geological materials such as minerals and rocks.