Polymers

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 Introduction
• A large group of engineering materials of steadily increasing
importance in industrial applications are composed of natural
and synthetic organic polymers.

• Naturally occurring polymers – those derived from plants and

animals – include wood, rubber, cotton, wool, leather and silk.

• Other natural polymers such as proteins, starches and cellulose

are important in biological and physiological processes in plants
and animals.

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 Introduction
• Natural polymers such as starch and cellulose are the basic
constituents of all plants, while proteins form the basis for all
animal life.
• Many of our useful plastics, rubbers and fiber materials are
synthetic polymers.
• The synthetics can be produced inexpensively and their properties
may be managed to the degree that many are superior to their
natural counterparts.
• In some applications metal and wood parts have been replaced by
plastics, which have satisfactory properties and may be produced
at a lower cost. 3
 Characteristics
• Low density
• Good corrosion resistance
• Low coefficient of friction
• Good mouldability
• Can be produced with close dimensional tolerances
• Good surface finish
• Economical
• Poor tensile strength
• Poor temperature resistance

• Low mechanical properties

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 Classification of Polymers
• The word mer means a unit; monomer stands for a single unit
and polymer means many units joined together by a chemical
reaction.

• Polymers may be classified as follows, according to the

mechanical response at elevated temperatures.

1. Thermoplastic

2. Thermosetting

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 Thermoplastic
• Thermoplastic polymers soften when heated and harden, when
cooled – processes that are totally reversible and may be repeated.

• These materials are normally fabricated by the simultaneous

application of heat and pressure.

• On a molecular level, as the temperature is raised, secondary

bonding forces are diminished ( by increased molecular motion ) so
that the relative movement of adjacent chains is facilitated when a
stress is applied.

• Most linear polymer and those having some branched structures

with flexible chains are thermoplastic.
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 Thermoplastic
• Thermoplastic are relatively soft and ductile.

• Since thermoplastic have low melting temperatures and can be

repeatedly moulded and remoulded to the desired shapes, they
have a resale value.

1. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene used in such articles as

plastic wall and floor tile.

2. Polystyrene – fluorescent light reflectors.

3. Polymethyl methacrylate – plastic lenses.

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 Thermosetting
• Thermosetting polymers become soft during their first heating and
become permanently hard when cooled. They do not soften upon
subsequent heating.

• They cannot be remoulded/reshaped by subsequent heating. They

do not have a resale/scrap value.

• Thermosetting polymers are generally harder, stronger and more

brittle than thermoplastic and have better dimensional stability.

• They are more usable in processes requiring high temperature.

• Most of the cross linked and network polymers which include

1. Vulcanized rubbers 3. Phenolic
2. Epoxies 4. Poly ester resin 8
 Molecular Structure

• The physical characteristics of a polymer depend on its:

1. Molecular weight

2. Shape

3. Difference in the structure of the molecular chains.

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 Molecular Structures
1. Linear

2. Branched

3. Cross-linked

4. Network

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 1. Linear
• Linear polymers are those in which the mer units are joined
together end to end in single chains.

• For linear polymers, there may be extensive van der waals bonding
between the chains.

• Examples: Polyethylene, Polyvinyl Chloride, Polystyrene,

Polymethyl Methacrylate, Nylon and Fluorocarbons.

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 2. Branched
• Polymers may be synthesized in which side branch chains are
connected to the main ones, these are fittingly called branched
polymers.

• The chain packing efficiency is reduced with the formation of side

branches, which results in a lowering of the polymer density.

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 3. Cross-linked
• In crosslinked polymers, adjacent linear chains are joined one to
another at various positions by covalent bonds.

• Many of the rubber elastic materials are crosslinked; in rubbers,

this is called Vulcanization.

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 4. Network
• Trifunctional mer units, having three active covalent bonds, form
three dimensional networks.

• The Epoxies and Phenol-formaldehyde belong to this group.

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 Copolymers
• There is a continuous search by polymer chemists for new

materials, that can be easily and economically synthesized and

fabricated, with improved properties or better property

combinations than are offered by the homopolymers. One group

of these materials are the copolymers.

• A copolymer is a polymer that consists of two or more dissimilar

mer units in combination along its molecular chains.

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Random Alternating

Block Graft copolymer 16

• Synthetic rubbers are often copolymers.

• Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) is a common random

copolymer from which automobile types are made.

• Nitrile rubber (NBR), another random copolymer, is

highly elastic.

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 Polymerization
• Polymerization may be defined as the process of growing large
molecules from small ones.

• Polymerization links together manomers.

• Manomers are small molecules which combine end to end to form

a large molecule known as a polymer.

• The monomers combine together in a polymerization reaction.

• Examples of polymers are wood, resin, starch, nylon.

• An example of polymerization reaction is the joining of ethylene

molecules into a large molecule resulting in polyethylene.
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 Mechanism
• Polymerization mechanisms explain how the small molecules
combine to form large molecule; or how high polymers are
formed by polymerization reaction.

1. Addition polymerization

2. Copolymerization

3. Condensation polymerization

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 1.Addition Polymerization
• The polymer is produced by adding a second monomer to the

first, then a third monomer to this dimer, a fourth to the trimer

and so on until the long polymer chain is terminated.

• Addition polymerization is usually instigated by the application

of heat, light, pressure or a catalyst in the following manner.

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• An example of addition polymerization is:
Polyethylene is produced by the addition polymerization of
ethylene monomers as follows:

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 2. Copolymerization
• Copolymerization is another kind of addition polymerization.
• Many monomers will not polymerize with themselves, but will
copolymerize with other compounds.
• Copolymerization is the addition polymerization of two or more
different monomers.
• An example of copolymers is butadiene-styrene, a rubber used in
tires.

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 3. Condensation Polymerization
• Bakelite, the first commercial plastic, owes its origin to the
process called condensation polymerization.

• It occurs in the combination of a compound with itself or other

compounds, accompanied by the elimination of some simple
compound such as H2O, HCl, as a result of polymerization.

• When phenol and formaldehyde monomers are polymerized,

water is released, and the resulting product is a polymerized
phenol-formaldehyde (Bakelite).

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• Polyamides, polyesters, amino plastics, are some of the
condensation products.

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 Difference between Addition and Condensation
Polymerization

• Unlike addition polymerization, condensation polymerization

yields a by product such as H2O, HCl

• Unlike addition polymerization which is a kinetic chain reaction ,

condensation polymerization associates inter molecular reaction.

• Whereas addition polymerization completes in seconds,

condensation polymerization needs hours and even days to

complete.
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 Polymer Processing
• Polymer processing consists of a series of operations carried out on
polymeric materials to increase their utility.

• They are modified and compounded with various additives to

modify the mechanical, chemical and physical properties for
particular uses.

1. Compounding 4. Plasticizers

2. Blending 5. Stabilizers

3. Filler material 6. colorants

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Any Question..?

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