ASOSSA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

COLLEGE OF NATURAL &COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, ENVIRONMETAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME

A Seminar on: Solid waste management practice and factors influencing its
effectiveness in Ethiopia

By: Jibril Olika--------------------MR0017/15-0

Advisor: Habtamu, G. (Ph.D)

December, 2023

ASOSSA, ETHIOPIA

Table of Contents
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS.....................................................................................3
1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................4
2. CONCEPTUAL REVIEW ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT...................................................5
2.1 Definitions and concepts of Solid Waste.....................................................................................5
2.2. Solid wastes......................................................................................................................................6
2.2.1. Classification and basis of solid wastes.....................................................................................6
3. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA.............................................................................6
3.1. Existing solid Waste Management Practice in Ethiopia....................................................................8
3.1.1 Waste Collection and transference systems................................................................................8
3.1.2 Solid Waste Transportation Practices.......................................................................................10
3.1.3 Solid Waste Disposal................................................................................................................10
4. WASTE DISPOSAL AND ALTERNATIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS......................11
4.1 Source reduction........................................................................................................................11
4. 2 Reuse..............................................................................................................................................12
4. 3 Recycle...........................................................................................................................................12
4. 4 Composting....................................................................................................................................12
4.5 Sanitary landfill...............................................................................................................................13
5. FACTORS INFLUENCING EFFECTIVE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICE...........14
5.1 Financial factor..........................................................................................................................14
5.2 Technical factor.........................................................................................................................14
5.3 Political Factor...........................................................................................................................14
5.4 Institutional Factor.....................................................................................................................15
6. CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK.....................................................................................................15
7. CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................................................17
8. RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................................................................................................17
9. REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................19
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
MSWM Municipal Solid Waste Management
OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
SWM Solid Waste Management
UNCH United Nation Center for Human Settlement
UNCHS United Nation Center for Human Settlement.
UNEP Unite Nation Environmental Programme
 1. INTRODUCTION
Solid waste is defined as any material which has no longer value to its original owner, and then
discarded. The main constituents of solid waste in urban areas are organic waste (including
kitchen waste and garden trimmings), paper, glass, metals and plastics. Ash, dust and street
sweepings can also form a significant portion of the waste (Rouse, 2008).

Solid Waste management is the generation, prevention, characterization, monitoring, treatment,

handling, reuse and residual disposition of solid wastes. There are various types of solid waste
including municipal (residential, institutional, commercial), agricultural, and special (health care,
household hazardous wastes, sewage sludge). Municipal solid waste management include refuse
from households, non-hazards solid wastes from industrial, commercial and institutional
establishments (including hospitals, market wastes, yard wastes and street sweepings
(Ogwueleka, 2009).

Solid waste management (SWM) has been a big challenge to both the developed and developing
countries over the world. It is estimated that more than 3.5 billion or more than 52% of the world
population does not have access to the most elementary waste management services like sound
waste collection and removal out of the residential areas and at least a controlled disposal and the
problem is mainly urban and it is expected to be further increase due to the rapid urbanization
process that will take place next 15 years (ISWA, 2012).

Solid waste management is becoming a big concern for cities administration task in developing
countries. This is mainly due to the magnitude of rapid urbanization and increasing population
growth; which in turn has greatly accelerated municipal solid waste generation rate in the urban
environment. (Hayal, 2014).

According to World Bank (2012), every year developing nations spend nearly $46 billion on
managing their municipal solid waste. These investments could exceed $150 billion per year by
2025. Solid waste management (SWM) in Africa is often weak due to lack of appropriate
planning, inadequate governance, poor technology, weak enforcement of existing legislation and
lack of economic incentives (UNEP, 2005). This impacts environment and public health.
Different approaches are used by countries to manage solid waste in order to prevent its impacts
on the environment and health. Until recently, solid waste management (SWM) services in
Ethiopia were mainly the responsibilities of municipalities, which results in inadequate service
provision reflected by lack of proper collection, poor sanitary facilities, improper planning and
co-ordination ( Tadesse, 2004 ; Edmealem, 2013).
2. CONCEPTUAL REVIEW ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
2.1 Definitions and concepts of Solid Waste
Wastes are materials that are not prime products (that is products produced for the market) for
which the initial user has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production,
transformation or consumption, and of which he/she wants to dispose. Wastes may be generated
during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final
products, the consumption of final products, and other human activities (ENPHO, 2008).

Solid waste can be defined as any garbage, refuse, sludge, and other discarded solid materials
resulting from industrial, commercial, agricultural operations, and community activities, but does
not include dissolved materials (Zerbock, 2003). Comprises all the wastes arising from human
and animal activities that are normally solid and that are normally discarded as useless or
unwanted. In short it is anything that is neither liquid nor gas and is discarded as unwanted
(FNGE, 2007).

Solid Waste Management is defined as the control, generation, storage, collection, transfer and
transport, processing and disposal of solid waste in consistent with the best practices of public
health, economics & financial, engineering, administrative, legal and environmental
considerations (Jamal, 2002).
2.2. Solid wastes
2.2.1. Classification and basis of solid wastes
Based on the sector of the economy responsible for generating them, Eldon and Bradley (2006)
categorized solid waste in to four broader kinds as: mining, agricultural, industrial and
municipal solid waste. Based on points of origin of the materials there are six types of municipal
solid wastes namely: household waste, commercial waste, industrial waste, institutional waste,
agricultural waste, constructions and demolition wastes (Rand et al., 2000). According to Rand et
al (2000), the explanations of each classification of solid wastes are discussed as follows:

 Household wastes: These are wastes derived from residential neighborhoods which is
the largest component of municipal solid waste. It includes food preparation, sweeping,
cleaning, waste and fuel burning. It also include old clothing, old furnishing, retired and
appliances, gardening, packaging and reading matter.
 Industrial wastes: These are wastes arising from industrial activities which including:
rubbish ashes, chemical plants and hazardous wastes.
 Agricultural wastes: These are wastes of biodegradable components i.e. organic
materials, which includes; dairies, poultry farms, livestock and other agricultural
activities like vegetable cultivation.
 Construction and Demolition: These are wastes from wood, steel, and concrete which
include: New construction sites, road repair, renovation sites and demolition of buildings.
 Commercial wastes: This category consists of wastes from stories, offices, fuel services
stations, restaurants, warehouses and hotels. This waste typically consisted of packaging
and container materials, used office supplies and food wastes. In developing country,
markets may contribute the major portion of this waste category refuse.
 Institutional wastes: Solid wastes from schools, prisons, hospitals, religious institutes
and all other governmental and non-governmental offices are included in this category
3. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA
Abedullah (2006) stated that solid waste management is one of the critical challenges of
developing countries including Ethiopia because of the social, economic and environmental
implications once not properly managed. In addition, a study conducted revealed percentage
of solid wastes which are left uncollected and disposed anywhere without due attention
regarding their consequences in different towns of Ethiopia.

SWM in Ethiopia is generally in a poor state. For example, the collection services are often
inefficient and don’t cover all areas. In general, the unauthorized and most of the authorized
dump sites are poorly managed causing significant environmental impacts. In addition,
Edwards (2010) also noted that, in Ethiopia city councils and municipalities have insufficient
means to solve the problems of solid waste management. The major source of these problems
is the lack of resources in terms of work force and particularly finances. There is no clear
cost recovery structure related to solid waste management in Ethiopia, hence, there is an
extremely low level of returns for efforts put into dealing with solid waste. The solid waste
management institutions not only lack funds, but their capacity to work in partnership with
the local communities is also limited.

Edwards (2010) also noted that, since the year 2001, most municipalities and city councils in
Ethiopia have become aware of the negative consequences of poor solid waste management
and have revised and implemented a system to collect and dispose of solid waste that
involves waste collection associations. A study conducted in 2004 by UNDP in Bahir Dar,
Mekele, Adama, and Hawassa showed that their municipalities collected and disposed of 46,
48, 54, and 50 percent of the solid waste generated daily, respectively.

Ethiopia is still in challenge to deal with the problem of proper management of solid wastes.
With the current rate of urbanization municipal solid waste collection, transportation and
disposal have been a major problem of municipalities in most of the Ethiopian cities.
Collection of municipal solid waste in most of the cities is difficult and complex because the
generation of residential, commercial and industrial waste is a diffuse process that takes place
in every house, every building and every commercial and industrial facility as well as in the
streets, parks and even in the vacant areas available within the community. In addition to this,
According to (Yukalang, 2017), many cities face problems such as lack of work force,
equipment and financial constraints.
3.1. Existing solid Waste Management Practice in Ethiopia
One of the parameters used in assessing a performance of a waste service delivery is its
effectiveness. Effectiveness of a firms waste service delivery practice can be assessed using
indicators such as waste reliable collection, transportation and disposal. The present study
employs these indicators to assess effectiveness of waste service delivery by selected private
firms in Addis Ababa.
3.1.1 Waste Collection and transference systems
A given waste management practice is considered to be effective when a waste collection goals
are achieved. An effective waste collection can be recorded when companies are able to facilitate
enough collection points near to all beneficiaries, increase a frequency of waste pick up, avoid
waste spill over and when waste personnel is fully and frequently trained. Collection and
transference of solid waste contain the process of gathering waste from the place of generation,
taking it to the nearest public solid waste containers or transfer stations, and finally dumping it in
a disposal site (Antwi et al.,2021).

Figure 1. Dry waste gathering and transportation system in Addis Ababa

Source: Field survey (September 2020)

This practical component is a very critical and compulsory element of urban dry waste handling
because the output and efficiency of this service are greatly determined by it. The community
waste collection facility is insufficient, and scenes of distributed waste are usual in most of the
city (Getinet, 2016). According to the present policy, solid wastes are collected by the
administration workers, private companies based on prescribed agreements, and Micro and Small
Enterprise (MSE). However, the regulations that the waste creators are subject to put their wastes
into different containers based on the exact type of wastes are not observed in the city
(Kibrekidusan, 2017).

In waste collection, there are two sub-stages: primary and secondary collection systems. Micro
and small enterprises with formal agreements to collect from houses and dispose of them in
specified containers conduct the primary collection. These pre-collectors have a contractual
arrangement with the municipality to undertake the procedure and be paid for it. Much of the
areas in the city for motor-driven collection are inac cessible. The human-powered system of
collection, therefore, is most often used. Hands and hand-pushed carts can be used to transfer
waste to containers (Figure 1b) (Tassie et al., 2019).

The secondary gathering system is a method of transferring solid wastes from the containers to
the last discarding site, carry out by the municipality, which signifies the maximum level in the
transportation system (Figure 2). Studies revealed that the role of the private sector in this system
is limited (Tilaye and van ,2014). The estimate of the United Nations (UN) in 2010 indicated
that only 65% of the dry waste produced in the city is collected properly and dumped, while the
remaining 35% of the waste being disposed of improperly in open spaces, drainage systems,
streets, and rivers.

Figure 2. The formal waste management process

3.1.2 Solid Waste Transportation Practices
Under the framework of effective solid waste management, safe and reliable transportation was
considered as one of the key measurement for effective SWM (Hufane, 2015). Subsequently,
effective solid transportation can be achieved by companies with sufficient manpower and
modern vehicle, nature of available roads, traffic condition and traveling Schedule (Shubeler,
1996). Transportation of waste is carried out by City Administration and private sector vehicles.
The existing reality in Addis Ababa where waste transporting tracks are not available to the level
demanded and even some of the available trucks don't all fully perform.
3.1.3 Solid Waste Disposal
Waste management is also dependent on safe and reliable disposal system. This system can be
effectively achieved when disposal site is on accessible landfill near to collection points, closed
and protected from animals and which has no bad smell to the community.

Figure 3: Key Elements of Solid Waste Management Systems

As shown in figure 3 above, the key elements in solid waste management include:
  waste generation: those activities in which materials are identified as no longer
being of value and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal.
 storage: Activities associated with the handling, storage and processing of solid
wastes at or near the point of generation.
 collection: those activities association with the gathering of solid wastes & the
hauling of wastes to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied.
 transfer and transport: Those activities association with the transfer of wastes
from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport equipment and the
subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distance, to the disposal site.
 recycling and recovery: Those techniques equipment and facilities used both to
improve the efficiency of the other functional elements and to recover useable
materials, conversion products, or energy from solid wastes.
 final disposal: This means that when waste is generated it is first stored in either
dustbins or skips. It is then collected and finally disposed of in landfill.
4. WASTE DISPOSAL AND ALTERNATIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT
OPTIONS
The disposal of solid wastes is the ultimate fate all waste collected from different source which
include both disposal of solid and semi-solid materials that are resulting from human and animal
activities that are useless, unwanted, or hazardous. Most of the time municipal solid waste
(MSW) is dumped illegally on land with more or less uncontrolled manner in developing
country. These situations create scarcity of the available space, allow free access to waste
pickers, animals and flies and often produce unpleasant and hazardous smoke from slow burning
fires. So the safe and reliable long-term disposal of solid waste is considered as an essential
component of integrated waste management (Melaku, 2008).
4.1 Source reduction
Source reduction means avoiding the production of waste at generation phase by decreasing its
amount or toxicity of the materials that we throw away. Effective and efficient source reduction
encourages the use of products that generate the smallest environmental impacts. It includes
Purchasing of long lasting goods, seeking products and packaging which are as free of toxics as
possible. Prevention is better than cure. By preventing or reducing the generation of waste, we
can minimize other problems such disposal which related to waste to a great extent. Source
reduction is the acceptable method of reducing waste at the time of generation. Source reduction
also has huge benefit for the environment. It avoids emissions of many greenhouse gases,
reduces pollutants, saves energy, conserves resources, and reduces the need for new landfills and
combustors (Pradhan, 2008). Generally, Waste reduction is based on the 3 Rs of resource use:
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.
4. 2 Reuse
Reusing items by repairing them, donating them to charity and community groups, or selling
them also reduces waste production. Reusing of the waste materials as much as possible is better
than recycling because the item does not need to be reprocessed before it can be used again
(Melaku, 2008). Reusing is also more efficient and better than both recycling and composting
methods because cleaning and reusing materials in their present form avoids the cost of energy
for remaking them in to something else (Cunningham, 2008). Reuse can be realized through
using items more than once so they stay useful for longer and giving away unwanted household
items to someone who needs them and can use them rather than throwing them away (Sardinia,
2007).
4. 3 Recycle
Recycling is an important way of collecting solid waste materials and returning them into useful
products that can be sold in the market place. In this process the materials can be recycled in two
ways: primary and secondary. Primary recycling is a process in which original waste material is
made back in to the same material for example, newspapers recycled to make newsprint. In
secondary recycling, waste materials are made into different products that may or may not be
recyclable for instance, cardboard from waste newspapers (Miller, 2007).
Recycling can provide benefit for social, economic, and environment. It also provides an income
to the scavengers who recover recyclable materials and reduces the amount of wastes that need
to be collected, transported and disposed of, and extends the life of disposal facilities, which
saves money to the municipalities (Kofoworola, 2006).

4. 4 Composting
Composting is the process of allowing biological decomposition of solid organic materials by the
action of microorganisms into a soil for transforming large quantities of organic materials to
compost (humus like materials). It is used as fertilizer for agricultural purpose and it is non-
odorous and free of pathogens. As a result of the composting process, the waste volume can be
reduced to 50-85% (Sharholy et al., 2008).

Generally compost which is prepared from organic waste has too much advantage; first it would
reduce amount of waste requiring ultimate disposal and extending the life of landfills. When it
done correctly the end result becomes a useful product, capable of being used at household level
for agriculture to enhance soil nutrient levels and increase organic matter in the soil, increasing
soil stability. If the product has high enough quality and markets exist, it can be sold (Solomon
Cheru, 2011). Therefore, the final product is sufficiently stable for storage and application to
land without adverse environmental effect.
4.5 Sanitary landfill
One of the accepted and recommended methods for ultimate disposal of MSWM is sanitary land
filling. It is one of the essential mechanisms of MSWM. Due to all other method produce some
residue that must be disposed of through land filling. Its Structural process involves placing of
wastes in a large specially designed cavity, then covering them with soil each day. The daily
cover prevents attraction of animals and insects. There are many specific requirements for
landfills, including that the bottom of the landfill be lined with more than one layer of
impermeable materials such as synthetic plastic and natural clay to prevent the contamination of
ground water by liquid leaching from the landfill (Dereje, 2009).

In an urban area landfill site selection is a critical issue. Because of its huge impact on the
economy and the environmental health of the region, many sitting factors and criteria should be
carefully organized and analyzed. Locating of landfill sites has precise steps including site
selecting and preparation of waste for landfill site. If these landfill sites are near the center
community area, it may cause severe consequences to human life (Taghi et al., 2015).

So to say the sanitary land fill is acceptable method of municipal solid waste it must fulfill the
following three condition; Compaction of waste, Daily covering of waste with soil or other
material, Control and prevention of negative impacts on public health and the environment
(Kadam and Sarawade, 2016).
 5. FACTORS INFLUENCING EFFECTIVE SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
5.1 Financial factor
Financial resources are concerned with operating cost for waste collection, financial cost, cost
recovery and management of funds which are necessary for the safe and reliable collection and
disposal of solid waste (Coffey & Coad, 2010). Operating costs are labor cost, fuel cost, and
maintenance cost. Likewise, financial cost includes costs to own vehicle and the associated
depreciation. Furthermore, the cost of recovery includes refuses collection charge, government
grants, and littering fines (Un -Habitat,2013).

Financial constraints are the main reasons for inadequate collection and disposal of solid waste
especially where local governments are weak or underfinanced (Zurbrug, 2002). To ensure the
long-term sustainability of SWM systems, investments in systems development should
correspond to the level of resources which the society can make available for the waste
management (Schubeler ,1996). Unless funds are continuously available without any delay it is
impossible to run a regular collection service and any system which has been set up will rapidly
come to stop. The main reasons for poor collection and disposal of waste are related to
insufficient funding, and causes inadequate capacity to handle solid waste, low morale of waste
workers due to poor remuneration, lack of training, and finally lack of expertise and manpower
to run solid waste (Ogwueleka, 2009).
5.2 Technical factor
According to Schubeler (1996) and Ansari (2012), technical systems established include the
collection, transfer, and disposal system knowledge of solids waste. Lack of adequate modern
waste disposal equipment, lack of regular training, and inaccessibility of spare parts for damaged
and broken vehicles and equipment are more or less negatively influencing factors on the proper
waste disposal practice (Muche,2016). If the container is shared by households, there is a risk
that waste will be dumped near it and this will discourage others from putting their waste inside
the container (Coffey & Coad, 2010). All kinds of waste are the result of the absence of
management and control of waste, the management and control of solid and liquid waste remain
major problem in every town in Somalia (Health, 2010).
 5.3 Political Factor
Political aspect include the formulation of goals and priorities, determination of roles and
jurisdiction and the legal and regulatory framework (Schübeler, 1996). National government
have little to say in waste collection services but rather play a significant role in policy decisions
such as to what extent the private sector should involved, and it may control the expenditures on
solid waste management, and sometimes cover employment payment in some cases (Coffey and
Coad, 2010).

Out-dated policies and lack of knowledge in re use and recycling with effective enforcement of
the law have all contributed to the ineffectiveness of MSWM (Dominic, 2017). Lack of
enforcement of policies of solid waste is the real challenge to sustainable waste management.
However, straightforward, unambiguous legal and regulatory framework, involving functioning
and enforcement procedures at the national, provincial, and a local levels is extremely important
to the proper functioning of MSWM (Mcallister, 2015)
5.4 Institutional Factor
Institutional aspects concern the distribution of functions and responsibilities and correspond to
organizational structures, procedures, methods, institutional capacities and private sector
involvement (Schübeler, 1996). Successful solid waste management requires integration of many
organizations and groups into partnership such as national government, local government,
private sector, and informal sector. (Coffey and Coad, 2010).

Local government is normally responsible for SWM, or handed over to private sector which is
responsible actual sweeping, collection and disposal services (Coffey and Coad, 2010). In order
to improve effectiveness of MSWM the institution should do capacity building for strategic
planning and financial management, private sector involvement such as competitive bidding,
regulatory instruments and monitoring and control systems (Schübeler, 1996).
6. CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK
This conceptual frame work figure illustrates the relationship between influencing factors and
effective SWM. As shown in this figure the influencing factors were financial aspects, technical
aspects, social aspects, institutional aspects and political aspects and the effective SWM were
collection, transportation and disposal. However, financial aspects was (financial cost, operating
cost, and cost recovery and investment on capital) while technical aspects was modern vehicle
 and equipments, skilled personnel for waste collection, transfer, and waste disposal. Social
aspect were the condition of the workers, beneficiaries attitudes and awareness raising programs.
Institutional aspects were conceptualized as integrated SWM, proper institutional framework,
and elongated contract. Political aspects were conceptualized as proper authority regulations and
rules, proper enforcement, and government priority. The conceptual framework shows that the
status of financial condition, institutional condition, technical condition, social condition and
political condition directly influence the collection, transportation and disposal.

Influencing factors solid waste management

Financial Resource
Operating and financial cost Management of funds
cost recovery

Technical Aspect
 Effective collection
Knowledge of waste Collection/transport Modern  Effective transportation
vehicle/equipment Skilled labor
 Effective disposal
Social aspects
Condition of the workers Beneficiaries’ attitudes
Awareness raising programs

Political aspect Institutional Aspects

Authority regulations and rules Enforcement Elongated contract Municipality capacity Institutional
setup

Table 1 Conceptual Framework

7. CONCLUSIONS
Solid waste can be defined as any garbage, refuse, sludge, and other discarded solid materials
resulting from industrial, commercial, agricultural operations, and community activities, but does
not include dissolved materials.

Municipal solid waste management include refuse from households, non-hazards solid wastes
from industrial, commercial and institutional establishments(including hospitals, market wastes,
yard wastes and street sweepings.

Based on points of origin of the materials there are six types of municipal solid wastes namely:
household waste, commercial waste, industrial waste, institutional waste, agricultural waste,
constructions and demolition wastes.

Solid Waste management is the generation, prevention, characterization, monitoring, treatment,

handling, reuse and residual disposition of solid wastes. There are various types of solid waste
including municipal (residential, institutional, commercial), agricultural, and special (health care,
household hazardous wastes, sewage sludge).

Generally, Waste reduction is based on the 3 Rs of resource use: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.
This conceptual frame work figure illustrates the relationship between influencing factors and
effective SWM. The influencing factors were financial aspects, technical aspects, social aspects,
institutional aspects and political aspects and the effective SWM were collection, transportation
and disposal. The conceptual framework shows that the status of financial condition, institutional
condition, technical condition, social condition and political condition directly influence the
collection, transportation and disposal.
8. RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations were made in conclusion of the study;
 Financially, the city government should allocate enough money for the provision of solid
waste management. Improving the service payment rate of private collectors, providing
incentives, designing revenue generation mechanisms and access to credit system are
required. The newly introduced payment system for private collectors should be revised
through detail information about their cost of collecting and transporting.
 Technically: For waste management to be effective there should be proper waste
collection systems with qualified personnel, availability of modern vehicle and
equipment so as to reduce environmental pollution and prevent health hazards. The city
government and private firms should ensure better waste management through waste
reduction, reuse, and recycling of compost waste. The government should support
business communities through pilot projects, funding training, and technical assistance
information exchange follow up support and monitoring.
 Institutionally: The agency should facilitate proper institutional structure and integrated
waste management between stakeholders. It should elongate the duration of the contract
agreement with private waste managing firms for potential cost recovery; besides, the
contract agreement should be modified to allow the private firms work in a flexible
manner. There should be continuous assessment of satisfaction about the service delivery
and supervision function as well.
 Socially: The cleaning agency and service delivering firms should provide awareness
raising programs to inform the community about the danger and the consequences of
waste, especially on illegal open dumping. Private waste managing firms also need to
improve the status and conditions of workers by providing clothing adequate salary and
benefits.
 Politically: the research found out that there are policies and laws that promote about
effective SWM but it lacks strict enforcement by-laws by the waste cleaning agency such
that dumping off waste on open pits and drainages are common. This research
recommends that existing bylaws should be strictly enforced in all areas of the city.
9. REFERENCES
Ansari, M. (2012). Municipal solid waste management in kingdom of Baharain. International
Journal of water resource and Enviromental Enginering , 150-161
A. Dagne, “Determinants of Solid Waste Disposal Practices in Urban Areas of Ethiopia:
HouseholdLevel Analysis”, East Africa Social Science Research Review, vol. 24 no.1,
pp.1-14, 2008.
Coffey, M., Coad, A. (2010). Collection of Municipal Solid Waste in Developing
Countries.MANAGEMENT PRACTICE AND FACTORS INFLUENCING ITS
EFFECTIVENESS. 2016.
Cunningham, (2008). Principles of Environmental Science Inquiry and Applications.4th edition,
McGraw Hill International Edition, USA.
Dereje, Diriba , (2009). Household solid waste generation rate, composition and content analysis
for disposal and resource recovery in two selected kebeles of Hawassa town. MSc
thesis, Addis Ababa university. Ethiopia
Dominic, M. A. (2017). FACTORS AFFECTING THE MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTE
IN URBAN AREAS.
Edmealem Bewuket (2013). Assessment of the sustainability of solid waste collection and
transport service by MSEs case of Bahir Dar city, Urban Management: Rotterdam, The
Netherlands.
Edwards, S. (ed.). (2010). Ethiopian Environment Review No1. 2010. Forum for Environment.
Eclipse Printing Press, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Enger and Smith, (2008) .Environmental Science a Study of Interrelationship.11th edition,
McGraw Hill International Edition. USA
Eldon, E., & Bradley, S. (2006). Environmental Science: A Study of Interrelationship (10thed.).
Mc Graw Hill Company New York, USA.
ENPHO (2008). Solid waste management in Nepal.110/25 Adarsa Marga-1, Thapagaon, New
Baneshwor GPO Box: 4102, Kathmandu, Nepal. Retrieved from:
www.enpho.org(Accessed date: 28 January 2019).
Frantz, A, (2006). A comparative study of municipal waste disposal practices and management
in the Breede River District Council and the Cape Metropolitan Area. MSc thesis,
University of the Western Cape
Gabretsadkan Gabremichael, (2002). Domestic Solid Waste Management in Mekelle City:
Tigray Region, MSc thesis, Addis Ababa University. Ethiopia
Getinet Z. Solid waste management practice and factors influencing its effectiveness: The case of
selected private waste collecting companies in Addis Ababa. Paper presented at:
Proceedings of the 8th Multi-Disciplinary Seminar. August 2016.
http://repository.smuc.edu.et/handle/123456789/3019
Gyimah P, Mariwah S, Antwi KB, Ansah-Mensah K. Households’ solid waste separation
practices in the Cape Coast in Metropolitan area, Ghana. GeoJournal. 2021; 86:567-83.
[DOI:10.1007/s10708-019-10084-4]
Hayal Desta, Hailu worku, and Aramde Fetene, (2014). Assessment of the Contemporary
Municipal Solid Waste Management in Urban Environment :The case of Addis Ababa
Ethiopia. Enviromental science and technology.
Hoornweg .D and Perinaz . B .T, (2012 ). A Global Review of Solid Waste Management.
WHAT A WASTE.
Hui Y., Li’ao W., Fenwei S., and Gang H. (2006). Urban solid waste management in Chongqing:
challenges and opportunities waste management, 26(9), 1052-1062.
J. Rouse,“Planning for sustainable municipal solid waste management: Practical Action; the
Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development Bourton-on-Dunsmore Rugby”,
Warwickshire, United Kingdom, 2008.
Jamal, O. (2002). Household Preference for Solid Waste Management. The Economy and
Environment Program for South East Asia (EEPSEA) Publication, Malaysia.
Kadam M.S ,and Sarawade S. S. , (2016) . Study and Analysis of Solid Waste Management
Challenges and Options for Treatment (Indian Villages): IOSR Journal of Mechanical
and Civil Engineering e-ISSN: 2278-1684,p-ISSN: 2320-334X PP 15-22.
Kibrekidusan S. Evaluation of Addis Ababa’s in-house solid waste management activities,
threats and prospects: the Yeka sub-city case [MA thesis]. Ethiopia: Addis Ababa
University; 2017.
Kirunda . M. P., (2009) .Public Participation in Solid Waste Management: Challenges and
Prospects. A case of Kira Town Council, MSc thesis, University of Agder. Uganda.
Kofoworola .O.K . , (2006). Recovery and recycling practices in Municipal solid waste
management in Lagos. Journal of Waste Management. 27 (3), 1139–1143
Lars .M .J and Gabriela .B,(1999). Observations of Solid Waste Landfills in Developing
Countries: Africa, Asia, and Latin America, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Lemma Asfaw, (2007). Household generation rate and composition analyses in Adama town.
MSc thesis, Addis Ababa university. Ethiopia

Maskey, B., Maharjan, K. L., and Singh, M. , (2016). Ecological solid waste management act
and factors influencing solid waste management in barangay Pansol of Quezon City, the
Philippines: Journal of International Development and Cooperation. 22, 37–45.
Miezah, K., Obiri-Danso, K., Kádár, Z., Fei-Baffoe, B., and Mensah, M. Y. , (2015). Municipal
solid waste characterization and quantification as a measure towards effective waste
Miller. G., (2007). Living in the Environment. 5th Edition, International Student Edition, USA
Ogwueleka, T. 2009. Municipal Solid Waste Characteristics and Management.Vol.16, 3.173-
180, Nigeria.
Ogwueleka, T. C. (2009). Municipal Solid Waste Characteristics and Management in Nigeria.
Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering, 6(3), 173–180.
https://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2016.002
Oribe-Garcia, I., Kamara-Esteban, O., Martin, C., Macarulla-Arenaza, A. M., and Alonso-
Vicario, A. , (2015). Identification of influencing municipal characteristics regarding
household waste generation and their forecasting ability in Biscay. Waste Management,
39, 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.02.017
Pradhan.U.M, (2008). Sustainable solid waste management in a mountain ecosystem:
Darjeeling, West Bengal, India.MSc thesis, University of Manitoba. India
Rand, T., Haukohl, J., & Marxen, U. (2000). Municipal solid waste incineration. Requirement
for successful project, 23- 462.
RODE, S Health, W. (2010). Environmental health situation analysis in Somalia 2010.
Sardinia, (2007). Waste recycling in developing countries in Africa: Barriers to improving
reclamation rates, Eleventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
Schubeler, P. W. (1996). A conceptual framework for municipal solid waste management in
low- income countries. Gallen; Switzerland: Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation
(SKAT. 1-59.
SE. Smith, “What is solid waste management?”, 2010.
Sharholy. M., Ahmad, K., Mahmood, G. and Trivedi, P.C. (2008).Municipal solid waste
management in Indian cities- A review, waste management 28, 459-467.
Siddiqqui .M .A , (2018). Municipal solid waste management in India-Status and Challenges: An
overview: International Journal of Biology Research. 3(1), 126-133.
Soloman Cheru, ( 2011). Assessment of Municipal solid waste management service in Dessie
Town. MSc thesis, Addis Ababa University. Ethiopia
Sujauddin, M., Huda, S. M. S., and Hoque, A. T. M. R. , (2008). Household solid waste
characteristics and management in Chittagong, Bangladesh.: Journal of Waste
Management. 28(9), 1688–1695.
Sustainable Development Regional Implementation Meeting for CSD”, 18 Sixth Session 27-30
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2009.
Taghi .S,.Seiied.S ,Ebrahim. F, Taghi .E, and Ali .M. (2015). Site Selection of Sarein's
Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Using the GIS Technique and SAW Method:
International Journal of Environmental Science and Development. 6(12), 934-937.
Tassie K, Endalew B, Mulugeta A. Composition, generation and management method of
municipal solid waste in Addis Ababa city, central Ethiopia: A review. Asian J Environ
Ecol. 2019; 9(2):1-19. [DOI:10.9734/ajee/2019/ v9i230088]
Tilaye M, van Dijk MP. Private sector participation in solid waste collection in Addis Ababa
(Ethiopia) by involving micro enterprises. Waste Manag Res. 2014; 32(1):79-87.
[DOI:10.1177/0734242X13513826] [PMID]
UNDP. (2004). Urban Agriculture: Food, Jobs, and Sustainable Cities. New York: UNDP Urban
Harvest Working Paper Series, Pp.1.
UNEP. (2005). Selection, Design and Implementation of Economic Instruments in the Solid
Waste Management Sector in Kenya. Nairobi Kenya: United Nations Environment
Programme.
UNESC, “Africa Review Report on Waste Management. Committee on Food Security and
Yohanis Birhanu and Genemo Berisa, (2015 ). Assessment of Solid Waste Management
Practices and the Role of Public Participation in Jigjiga Town, Somali Regional State,
Ethiopia: International Journal of Environmental Protection and Policy. 3(5) ,153-168.
United Nations 1995, World Bank 1995 and 1998, UNEP/SPREP 1997.
World Bank (2012). Annual report on Environmental Protection . Washington.DC: World Bank
Zerbock.O. (2003). Urban solid waste management, waste reduction in developing
nations , Akra, Ghana
Yukalang, N., Clarke, B., & Ross, K. (2017). Barriers to Effective Municipal Solid Waste
Management in a Rapidly Urbanizing Area in Thailand. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, (14).124-143.
Zerbock, O. (2003). Urban solid waste management: waste reduction in developing nations
(Unpublished Master’s thesis). Candidate School of Forest Resources and Environmental
Science: Master’s International Program Michigan Technological University, USA.