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wavesbooklet
wavesbooklet
Class…………..
science-spark.co.uk
G482
Electrons, Photons and Waves
Module 2.4:
Waves
2. Reflection and (e) explain what is meant by reflection, refraction and diffraction of waves such as Reflection, refraction,
Refraction sound and light. speed, echo, sonar
3. Diffraction (e) explain what is meant by reflection, refraction and diffraction of waves such as Diffraction,
sound and light. wavelength,
interference,
constructive,
destructive,
transverse,
longitudinal.
6. Polarization and (f) explain what is meant by plane polarised waves and understand the Plane, polarise,
Malus’ Law polarisation of electromagnetic waves; transverse,
(g) explain that polarisation is a phenomenon associated with transverse waves longitudinal,
only; reflection, transmit,
(h) state that light is partially polarised on reflection; intensity, filter.
(i) recall and apply Malus’s law for transmitted intensity of light from a polarising
filter.
8. 2 Source (e) describe experiments that demonstrate two source interference using sound, Interference,
Interference light and microwaves; constructive,
(f) describe constructive interference and destructive interference in terms of destructive, path
path difference and phase difference; difference, phase
difference, intensity,
power, amplitude
9. Intensity (g) use the relationships intensity = power/cross-sectional area intensity, power,
intensity = k x amplitude2 ; amplitude
10. Young’s Slits (h) describe the Young double-slit experiment and explain how it is a classical Young double slit,
confirmation of the wave-nature of light (HSW 1); wavelength, slit width,
11. Diffraction gratings (k) describe the use of a diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of light Diffraction, diffraction
(the structure and use of a spectrometer are not required); grating, wavelength,
(l) select and use the equation dsinθ = nλ; frequency, coherence,
(m) explain the advantages of using multiple slits in an experiment to find the path difference, phase
wavelength of light. difference.
13. Stationary Waves (d) describe experiments to demonstrate stationary waves using microwaves, Standing, progressive,
and resonance stretched strings and air columns; node, antinode
(e) determine the standing wave patterns for stretched string and air columns in
closed and open pipes;
(f) use the equation: separation between adjacent nodes (or antinodes) = λ/2;
(g) define and use the terms fundamental mode of vibration and harmonics;
(h) determine the speed of sound in air from measurements on stationary waves
in a pipe closed at one end.
The dashed line drawn through the center of the diagram represents the
equilibrium or rest position of the string. This is the position that the string
would assume if there were no disturbance moving through it. Once a
disturbance is introduced into the string, the particles of the string begin to
vibrate upwards and downwards. At any given moment in time, a particle on
the medium could be above or below the rest position. Points A and F on the
diagram represent the crests of this wave. The crest of a wave is the point on
the medium which exhibits the maximum amount of positive or upwards
displacement from the rest position. Points D and I on the diagram represent
the troughs of this wave. The trough of a wave is the point on the medium
which exhibits the maximum amount of negative or downwards displacement
from the rest position.
The wave shown above can be described by a variety of properties. One such
property is amplitude. The amplitude of a wave refers to the maximum
amount of displacement of a a particle on the medium from its rest position. In
a sense, the amplitude is the distance from rest to crest. Similarly, the
amplitude can be measured from the rest position to the trough position. In
the diagram above, the amplitude could be measured as the distance of a line
segment which is perpendicular to the rest position and extends vertically
upward from the rest position to point A.
Because the coils of the slinky are vibrating longitudinally, there are regions
where they become pressed together and other regions where they are
spread apart. A region where the coils are pressed together in a small amount
of space is known as a compression. A compression is a point on a medium
through which a longitudinal wave is travelling which has the maximum
density. A region where the coils are spread apart, thus maximizing the
distance between coils, is known as a rarefaction. A rarefaction is a point on
a medium through which a longitudinal wave is travelling which has the
minimum density. Points A, C and E on the diagram above represent
compressions and points B, D, and F represent rarefactions. While a
transverse wave has an alternating pattern of crests and troughs, a
longitudinal wave has an alternating pattern of compressions and rarefactions.
You count how many coaches go by in a second and you know the length of
one – so you multiply the two together to get the train’s speed.
Apply this to waves: count the number of waves passing each second (=
frequency), and multiply by the length of each (= wavelength) to find the
speed.
So v = f λ
[3]
(c) (i) The speed of sound in air is about 340 m s–1 while light
travels at a speed of 3.0 × 108 m s–1. Calculate the time
interval between seeing a flash of lightning, 1.0 km
away, and hearing the sound of thunder caused by the
lightning.
Total [9]
2 The diagram shows a series of water waves reflecting off a barrier in a ripple tank.
Complete the diagram to show how the reflected waves move.
(3)
3 The distance from the Earth to the Moon can be found by reflecting a ray of laser
light off the surface of the Moon, and measuring the time it takes to travel to the
Moon and back.
If the return journey takes 2.7 s, how far is the Moon from the Earth?
(Speed of light in space = 300 000 km/s)
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(2)
4 The diagram shows what happens when light waves travel from air into glass.
6 Sketch on the path of the light as it is refracted through the transparent block.
Label the diagram fully.
(4)
7 Explain what refraction is and how it occurs.
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The part of the wave which hits the wall in the above two pictures is reflected
straight back on itself.
The amount of spread of the wave will depend on the path difference and the
constructive or destructive interference that occurs because of this.
The Huygens' Principle says that every point on a wavefront acts like a new
source so each transparent slit becomes a new source.
Fig. 5.1
You count how many coaches go by in a second and you know the length of
one – so you multiply the two together to get the train’s speed.
Apply this to waves: count the number of waves passing each second (=
frequency), and multiply by the length of each (= wavelength) to find the
speed.
So v = f λ
Visible
Type of ray: Gamma rays: X-rays: Ultraviolet:
light:
Produced by
Emitted during
firing electrons Emitted by Emitted by
Production: radioactive
at a metal the Sun the Sun
decay
target
Medicine for
Medicine in
Uses: looking at Tanning Seeing
chemotherapy
bones
Intense light
Causes cancer Causes cancer
Can cause can
Hazards: by damaging by damaging
skin cancer damage
cells cells
your sight
Wavelength 7 x10-7 to
x10-12 x10-10 x10-8
(m): 4x10-7
Frequency
x10 20 x10 18 x10 15 x10 14
(Hz):
Photon
Energies 400 k 4k 4 0.4
(eV):
Type of ray: Infra red: Micro-waves: Radio-waves:
Produced by Produced by
Emitted by hot
Production: changing currents changing currents in
objects
in a conductor a conductor
Microwave
Conventional Communication and
Uses: cooking and
cooking media
communications
Currently not
Hazards: Can burn Can burn considered to be
hazardous
Wavelength
x10-5 x10-3 to x10-2 x1
(m):
Frequency
x10 12 x10 10 x10 8 to x10 10
(Hz):
Photon
Energies 4m 40 m 4
(eV):
Infrared cooking
Thermal radiation is infrared waves. These waves don’t need particles to
transfer the energy; when they hit a surface they make the particles in that
surface vibrate and so heat it up. If you heat something up enough you can
cook it. This is how grills and toasters work.
If you look inside a toaster when it is on you will see that the wire inside is
glowing red-hot and it is emitting infrared waves.
A grill or toaster works by emitting these infrared waves, which are then
absorbed by the surface layer of the thing you are cooking. The surface
particles vibrate increasing their kinetic energy and so heat is transferred to
the centre by conduction, cooking the rest of the food.
Infrared waves
Grill
Microwave cooking
Microwaves produce microwaves
in the Magnetron; this gives out a
stream of the electromagnetic
waves. These electromagnetic
waves will interact with particles
that
have
charges and make them vibrate, increasing their
kinetic energy. Typically, microwaves interact
with water molecules or fat molecules in the
first few centimetres of a food. They vibrate
and rub against neighbouring molecules and the
Exension
Skin Types
Darker skins reduce cancer risk by:
Example Calculation
Albert will get sunburn if he stays in the sun for 30 minutes. How many
hours can he stay in the sun if he uses sunscreen with an SPF of 15?
= 7.5 hours
Radio communications
Objectives
Recognise common uses of wireless technology.
• Radio;
• mobile phones.
• laptop computers.
Explain how long-distance communication depends on the reflection of waves
from the Ionosphere or by being received and re-transmitted from satellites.
Recognise that radio stations with similar transmission frequencies often
interfere.
©2011 science-spark.co.uk RAB Plymstock School
History
http://pass.maths.org.uk/issue8/features/phones/index.html
Uses
The ionosphere
The ionosphere is a set of ionized layers in the
upper portions of the atmosphere that span the
altitude range between about 75 and several
hundred kilometers above Earth's surface.
Mobile phones
Objectives
Recognise that microwaves are used to transmit information over large
distances that are in line of sight.
Describe how diffraction and interference of microwaves can cause signal
loss.
Diffraction
Diffraction occurs around objects like buildings and hills and the diagram
shows how, as the signal is spread out its strength reduces. The lighter the
line, the weaker the signal.
The following are links to websites about the dangers where you can make up your
own mind:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/07/25/nmasts125.xml
http://www.thehealthierlife.co.uk/article/3096/mobile-phone-health-risks.html
http://web.ukonline.co.uk/faderuk/Health/Concerns/Why_Worry/why_worry.html
©2011 science-spark.co.uk RAB Plymstock School
http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanonc/article/PIIS1470204500002382/fulltext
(free registration needed)
Optical Fibres
There are two types of multiplexing, time division and frequency division. They
both involve splitting the signal up and interleaving it with other signals. Using
specific codes they can then be interpreted at the other end of the cable and
stuck back together to make the full communication.
Extension
Other Uses
Optical fibres can be used for the purposes of illumination, often carrying light
from outside to rooms in the interiors of large buildings.
Optical fibres can also be used as simple light guides. At least one fancy
modern car has a single high intensity lamp under its bonnet, with optical
fibres taking the light to a series of mini-headlamps on the front. Less high
tech versions carry light from bulbs to the glove compartment etc.
So we can see that optical fibres are not just passive light pipes. Researchers
are finding ways in which they can make the fibres become the active
elements of the circuit, e.g. amplifiers or filters. This means that the
information could remain in light form from one end of a link to the other,
removing the limitations of the electronics in circuits and enabling more of the
theoretical information carrying capacity to be used.
Gamma (3)
Stopping high
10-10 m speed electrons (2)
at a target
10-8 m (3)
High frequency
10m oscillation of (2)
electrons
At the beginning of the nineteenth century the only known way to generate
polarized light was with a calcite crystal. In 1808, using a calcite crystal, Malus
discovered that natural incident light became polarized when it wasreflected
by a glass surface, and that the light reflected close to an angle of incidence
of 57° could be extinguished when viewed through the crystal. He then
proposed that natural light consisted of the s- and p-polarizations, which were
perpendicular to each other.
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[2]
[Total 3 marks]
eye
Fig. 1
intensity
0
0 90º 180º 270º 360º
angle of rotation
Fig. 2
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[2]
(ii) Hence explain how sunglasses using polarising filters reduce glare.
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[2]
[Total 4 marks]
3. State an example of plane-polarisation that does not involve visible light
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[Total 2 marks]
Interference
• When 2 or more waves interact with each other to distort the
waveform of the other(s).
Path difference
• Path difference is the difference in path length for two waves to reach
the same point.
Superposition
The principle of superposition may be applied to waves whenever two (or more)
waves travelling through the same medium at the same time. The waves pass through
each other without being disturbed. The net displacement of the medium at any point
in space or time, is simply the sum of the individual wave displacements. This is true
of waves which are finite in length (wave pulses) or which are continuous sine waves.
Destructive interference
Waves on a pond
Imagine dropping a pebble into a pond. It would make these kind of concentric
circles:
If you dropped 2 pebbles in a pond the waves would interfere with each other
like this:
The lines are where there would be destructive interference. In between this
there is constructive interference because of the path difference between the
waves.
You can imagine that if these two sources were speakers and you walked
along the edge you would hear loud and soft sounds. Likewise if they were
light waves there would be light and dark areas, these areas are called fringes
and will be described in more detail in lesson 29.
So if you slowly walk across the room parallel to the plane of the speakers,
you hear loud sounds as you approached anti-nodal locations and virtually no
sound as you approached nodal locations. (there would be some because of
reflections from the walls)
Definition of Intensity
The intensity of any wave is the rate at which it transmits power per unit area
through some region of space.
I=P
A
The unit of intensity is the watt per square meter — a unit that
has no special name.
Since the intensity is the power / area. As the sound is spread over larger
areas, the intensity goes down. You can find the area of a sphere by using the
equation 4r2.
So the equation for intensity becomes:
I=P
4r2
The diagram shows how the total energy of the system stays constant whilst
KE and PE change.
For the mass and spring system, the work done stretching a spring by an
amount x is the area under the force extension graph = 1/2 kx2. The PE-
extension graph is a parabola.
The kinetic energy will be zero at +A and a maximum when x = 0, so its graph
is an inverted version of the strain energy graph. At any position kinetic +
elastic strain energy is a constant E, where E = KEmax = PEmax.
PEmax A2, so the total energy E of a wave is proportional to (amplitude) 2.
Energy stored in a stretched spring
extra area
F1 x
F1
total area
1 Fx
2
0
0 x extension x
unstretched
force F1
no force
work F1 x
larger force
Energy supplied
F=0 small change x
x=0 energy supplied = F x
F = kx
x
stretched to extension x by force F:
energy supplied = 12 Fx
b) Calculate the light intensity 1.45m from a 100 Watt light bulb. Assume
that the light radiates equally in all directions.
He fired coherent light of one colour towards a screen with two small slits in it.
He did this to discover if light was a wave or if it was a particle. If it was a
particle it would just form two fringes of light as in the diagram below.
If light was a wave though and the slits were of the right size (about the same
size as the wavelength of the light) it would diffract and behave as in the
diagram below:
At some points the two sets of waves will meet crest to crest, at other spots
crest meets trough.
Where crest meets crest, there will be constructive interference and the
waves will make it to the viewing screen as a bright spot.
Where crest meets trough there will be destructive interference that cancel
each other out.
Slit P x
a
O
Slit Q λ Screen
D
To create the first bright fringe, the path difference of light from slit Q must
one wavelength further than light from slit P so that constructive interference
occurs.
For small values of the fringe width, x, the two shaded triangles are similar
and so a/ λ = D/x.
So rearranging:
λ = ax/D
Lesson 30 questions – Young’s Slits
1 Explain what is meant by the principle of superposition of two waves.
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[Total 2 marks]
Fig. 4.1
(i) State, in terms of the path difference of the waves, the
conditions necessary to produce:
screen
y
P
S1
a O
S2
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[2]
(ii) In the diagram, the central point O is a point of maximum
intensity. Point P is the position of minimum intensity nearest
to O. State, in terms of the wavelength λ, the magnitude of
the path difference S1P and S2P.
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[1]
screen
y
P
S1
a O
S2
Fig. 1
a = ............................................................ m
[3]
0
–16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 y /m m
Fig. 2
[2]
[Total 8 marks]
Introduction
A diffraction grating is an object that has lots of slits that light can pass
through. It can be used to split white light up into a spectrum.
Multiple slits
If the path difference is exactly 1 wavelength like in the diagram they will
constructively interfere to produce a bright fringe. From the diagram you can
see that this happens when: (/d)=sin. If the path difference is just slightly
out then destructive interference will occur and no light will be seen. So if
white light is shone through dispersion occurs. A spectrum of fringes will be
seen as below with white in the centre where the path difference in zero, violet
nearest the centre and red nearest the edge:
Measuring the wavelength of monochromatic light
n=3 3rd order
maximum
n=2 2nd order
maximum
n=1 1st order
maximum
Monochromatic source undeviated light.
central maximum
zeroth order
Diffraction grating n=1 1st order
maximum
n=2 2nd order
maximum
n=3 3rd order
maximum
n=dsinn.
Lesson 31 questions – Diffraction Gratings
These questions give you practice in using the grating formula n = d sin n.
2. Monochromatic light is aimed straight at the grating and is found to give a first-order
maximum at 15º. Calculate the wavelength of the light source.
3. Calculate the position of the first-order maximum when red light of wavelength
730 nm is shone directly at the grating.
4. The longest visible wavelength is that of red light with = 750 nm. The shortest
visible wavelength is violet where = 400nm. Use this information to calculate the
width of the angle into which the first-order spectrum is spread out when white light is
shone onto the grating.
A grating is illuminated with a parallel beam of light of wavelength 550 nm. The first-order
maximum is in a direction making an angle of 20º with the straight-through direction.
7. Calculate the wavelength of light that would give a second-order maximum at = 32º
–6
with a grating of slit spacing 2.5 10 m.
Hints
1. What must the gap be between the centre of each line in order to fit 500 lines into
1 mm? Remember to express your answer in metres.
2. This is about the first-order minimum so use the formula n = d sin with n = 1.
3. Rearrange the formula n = d sin to make sin the subject. Remember to take
the arcsin (or sin–1) to give an answer in degrees.
4. Use the same method as question 3 to obtain the position of first-order maxima for
red and violet light. The dispersion is simply the angle of maximum of red light minus
the angle of maximum of violet light.
Lesson 31 notes – Stationary Waves
Objectives
2.4.4 Stationary waves
Candidates should be able to:
(a) explain the formation of stationary (standing) waves using graphical methods;
(b) describe the similarities and differences between progressive and stationary waves;
(c) define the terms nodes and antinodes;
This can be two waves from different sources or as the diagram below shows,
can be from one source and its reflected wave.
Guitar Strings
A guitar string has a number of frequencies at which it will naturally vibrate.
These natural frequencies are known as the harmonics of the guitar string and
are associated with a standing wave pattern.
The diagram below depicts the standing wave patterns for the lowest three
harmonics or frequencies of a guitar string.
The wavelength of the standing wave for any given harmonic is related to the
length of the string.
Length-Wavelength
Harmonic Pattern # of Loops
Relationship
1st 1 L=1/2•
2nd 2 L=2/2•
3rd 3 L=3/2•
4th 4 L=4/2•
5th 5 L=5/2•
6th 6 L=6/2•
-- n L=n/2•
nth
We can do the same as above for a resonating tube and be able to find wavelength or
length of tube given the other and the harmonic.
Length of resonating
air (L) -Wavelength
Harmonic Pattern
Relationship
1st L = (1 / 4) •
2nd L = (3 / 4) •
3rd L = (5 / 4) •
-- L = (2n-1) / 4 •
nth
Substituting in v=f into allow us to work out the speed of sound if we know
the resonating frequency.
Apparatus
Resonance Tube (eg perspex tube, about 75 cm long and about 5 cm internal
diameter), loudspeaker with similar diameter (0.1 W, higher impedance better
for typical oscillator), oscillator (preferably matching loudspeaker power
rating/impedance or low impedance audio amplifier may be necessary), tie
clip microphone/preamp, oscilloscope, thermometer, two test leads (BNC - 4
mm). The schematic experimental set up is as shown in figure 2.
Figure 2
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[Total 2 marks]
c c
l1
l2
pipe pipe
w ater w ater
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
The air at the open end of of the pipe is free to move and this
means that the antinode of the standing wave is actually a small
distance c beyond the open end. This distance is called the end
correction.
l1 + c = λ/4 l2 + c = 3λ/4
(i) Draw the standing wave in the pipe shown in Fig. 2 which
corresponds to the equation l2 + c = 3λ/4.
[1]
(b) The student repeats the experiment, but sets the frequency of the
sound from the speaker at 5000 Hz.
Suggest and explain why these results are likely to give a far less
accurate value for the speed of sound than those obtained in the
first experiment.
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Total [10 marks]