Astronomy

Physics A-
Level
Ghazi Dallah
Standard candles

•A standard candle is an
astronomical object of known
luminosity. Astronomers use
standard candles to determine the
distance of far-flung galaxies by
measuring the intensity of the
electromagnetic radiation arriving
at Earth. Two well-known types of
standard candles are Cepheid
variable stars and Type 1A
supernovae.
Cepheid variable
•Cepheid variables are a type of star known as standard
candles, used by astronomers to measure distances within our
galaxy and to nearby galaxies.

•Variability: Cepheids are pulsating stars that cyclically grow

brighter and dimmer due to changes in their size and
temperature, caused by internal forces related to ionization of
helium.

•Period-Luminosity Relationship: A key property of Cepheid

variables is the direct correlation between their pulsation
periods and intrinsic luminosities (brightness). Longer
pulsation periods mean higher luminosity.

•Distance Measurement: By observing the period of a

Cepheid's light changes, its absolute brightness can be
determined. Comparing this to its apparent brightness as seen
from Earth allows astronomers to calculate the distance to the
star through the inverse square law of light.
Cepheid variable
•Importance in Astronomy: Cepheid variables have
been instrumental in establishing the size of the Milky
Way, the scale of the known universe, and they played a
role in the discovery of the universe's expansion.

•Historic Discovery: The period-luminosity relationship

was first discovered by Henrietta Swan Leavitt in the
early 20th century, paving the way for modern
astronomical distance measurements.

•Cepheids are rare but vital tools for cosmology due to

their brightness, which makes them visible over vast
intergalactic distances. They continue to be fundamental
for calibrating other distance measurement methods and
enhancing our understanding of cosmic scale.
•Henrietta Leavitt's Contributions:
•Leavitt identified a consistent pattern,
Cepheid variables with longer pulsation
periods exhibited greater intrinsic
luminosities.
•Leavitt's discovery provided astronomers
with the first "standard candle" for measuring
cosmic distances.
Type Ia Supernova
• Type Ia supernovae have a fairly consistent intrinsic
luminosity because they originate from this uniform
process. Due to this consistency, they serve as another
form of "standard candle" for distance measurements in
the universe.
• By comparing the observed brightness of a Type Ia
supernova to its known intrinsic brightness, astronomers
can calculate the distance to the host galaxy. This is
similar to the method used with Cepheid variables but
can be applied to much greater distances due to the
supernovae’s higher luminosities.
Luminosity and radiant flux intensity

We can see from Table that the observed

brightness of a star is linked to both its distance
from the Earth and its luminosity.
Can we relate the brightness of a star to its
luminosity? Yes, as long as we understand the
underlying assumptions that:
• the power from the star is uniformly radiated
through space
• there is negligible absorption of this radiated
power between the star and the Earth.
With these assumptions, we can determine the
intensity of electromagnetic radiation observed at
the Earth.
The observed intensity is known as radiant flux
intensity F. This is defined as the radiant power
passing normally through a surface per unit area.