CENTRAL UNIVERSITY Of SOUTH BIHAR

GAYA-824236

SCHOOL OF LAW & GOVERNANCE

Contamination of Water in India: Challenges and Solutions

Under the supervision of:

Mr. Mani Pratap

Assistant Professor

School of Law & Governance

Central University of South Bihar

Submitted By:-

Shwet Kamal

Int. B.A.LL.B (Hons.)

6th Semester (2021-2026) Enrollment no. – CUSB2113125111, Section- B

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 Selection of Topic

 1. Introduction
 2. Types
o 2.1Surface water pollution
o 2.2Marine pollution
o 2.3Groundwater pollution
 3. Categories of pollution sources
o 3.1Point sources
o 3.2Non-point sources
 4. Contaminants and their sources
o 4.1Pathogens
o 4.2Organic, inorganic and macroscopic contaminants
o 4.3Change in temperature
 5. Measurement
o 5.1Sampling
o 5.2Physical testing
o 5.3Chemical testing
o 5.4Biological testing

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 I. Introduction

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities.
Water bodies include for example lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater. Water
pollution results when contaminants are introduced into the natural environment. For example,
releasing inadequately treated wastewater into natural water bodies can lead
to degradation of aquatic ecosystems. In turn, this can lead to public health problems for people
living downstream. They may use the same polluted river water for drinking or bathing
or irrigation. Water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and disease, e.g. due
to water-borne diseases.[1][2]

Water pollution can be grouped into surface water pollution. Marine pollution and nutrient
pollution are subsets of water pollution. Sources of water pollution are either point sources and
non-point sources. Point sources have one identifiable cause of the pollution, such as a storm
drain, wastewater treatment plant or stream. Non-point sources are more diffuse, such
as agricultural runoff.[3] Pollution is the result of the cumulative effect over time. All plants and
organisms living in or being exposed to polluted water bodies can be impacted. The effects can
damage individual species and impact the natural biological communities they are part of.

The causes of water pollution include a wide range of chemicals and pathogens as well as
physical parameters. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Elevated
temperatures can also lead to polluted water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of
water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures
decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food chain composition, reduce
species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species.

II. RELEVANCE

Surface water pollution

See also: Nutrient pollution

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Surface water pollution includes pollution of rivers, lakes and oceans. A subset of surface water
pollution is marine pollution.

Marine pollution
Main article: Marine pollution

A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey

One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. An example is directly
discharging sewage and industrial waste into the ocean. Pollution such as this occurs particularly
in developing nations. In fact, the 10 largest emitters of oceanic plastic pollution worldwide are,
from the most to the least, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt,
Malaysia, Nigeria, and Bangladesh,[13] largely through the rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow, Hai,
Nile, Ganges, Pearl, Amur, Niger, and the Mekong, and accounting for "90 percent of all the
plastic that reaches the world's oceans."[14][15]

Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. Plastic debris can absorb toxic
chemicals from ocean pollution, potentially poisoning any creature that eats it. [16] Many of these
long-lasting pieces end up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. 1 This results in
obstruction of digestive pathways, which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation.

There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a
derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration
of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants.

Groundwater pollution
Main article: Groundwater pollution

Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater
pollution, also referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface
water pollution.[17] By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination
from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies. The distinction of point vs. non-
point source may be irrelevant.

1
Charan, P. D., Sharma, R., & Sharma, K. C. (2010).

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Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on soil characteristics and site
geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants. Causes of groundwater
pollution include: naturally-occurring (geogenic), on-site
sanitation systems, sewage, fertilizers and pesticide, commercial and industrial leaks, hydraulic
fracturing, landfill leachate.

Categories of pollution sources

Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources even
though they are interrelated.[17] Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater.
Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surface water pollution
are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin.

III. Point sources

Further information: United States regulation of point source water pollution

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single,
identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include
discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain.

The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes.
[18]
The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer
systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites.[19]

Non-point sources

Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single
discrete source. This type of pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of
contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen
compounds from fertilized agricultural lands. [3] Nutrient runoff in storm water from "sheet flow"
over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of non-point source pollution.

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Blue drain and yellow fish symbol used by the UK Environment Agency to raise awareness of
the ecological impacts of contaminating surface drainage

Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff,
is sometimes included under the category of non-point sources. However, because this runoff is
typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface
waters, it becomes a point source.

IV. METHODOLOGY

The main economy branch in the Province of Vojvodina is agriculture, which has significantly
influenced water quality of watercourses as well as groundwater. Both nonpoint and point source
of pollution are present in the form of agricultural runoff from arable land and point sources from
farm wastewater discharges. Pollution assessment stated by the EU Water Framework Directive
requires the application of integral approach. 2 The paper presents a methodology for pollution
assessment that includes precise determination of the pollution sources and GIS mapping,
monitoring and quantification, modeling, and calculating Total Maximum Daily Load - TMDL
values. Water quality model QUAL2K was employed, while developed models were used for
simulation of possible scenarios. This kind of methodology was applied to the basin of drainage
canal KC-III, a part of Vrbas's drainage system.

Households or businesses not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an

individual septic tank, which pre-treats the wastewater on site and infiltrates it into the soil. This
can lead to groundwater pollution if not properly done.

Globally, about 4.5 billion people currently (in 2017) do not have safely managed sanitation,
according to an estimate by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.
[35]
Lack of access to sanitation often leads to water pollution, e.g. via the practice of open
defecation: during rain events or floods, the human feces are moved from the ground where they
were deposited into surface waters.3 Simple pit latrines may also get flooded during rain events.
The use of safely managed sanitation services would prevent this type of water pollution.[35]

2
Corcoran, E., C. Nellemann, E. Baker, R. Bos, D. Osborn, H. Savelli. (2010).
3
Deccan Herald. (2015). India-United Nations pact to end DDT use by 2020.

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Some industrial facilities generate wastewater that is similar to domestic sewage and can be
treated by sewage treatment plants. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations
of organic matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic
compounds) or nutrients such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some industries
install a pre-treatment system to remove the pollutants, and then discharge the partially
treated wastewater to the municipal sewer system. Industries generating large volumes of
wastewater typically operate their own treatment systems. Some industries have been successful
at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process
called pollution prevention.

To remove heat from wastewater generated by power plants or manufacturing plants the
following technologies are used:

 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection,
and radiation
 cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation or heat
transfer
 cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic or industrial heating
purposes.[36]

V. OBSERVATION

Some people believe pollution is an inescapable result of human activity: they argue that if we
want to have factories, cities, ships, cars, oil, and coastal resorts, some degree of pollution is
almost certain to result. In other words, pollution is a necessary evil that people must put up with
if they want to make progress.4 Fortunately, not everyone agrees with this view. One reason
people have woken up to the problem of pollution is that it brings costs of its own that undermine
any economic benefits that come about by polluting.

4
Dhananjayan, V., & Muralidharan, S. (2010). Organochlorine Pesticide Residues in Inland Wetland Fishes of
Karnataka, India and Their Implications on Human Dietary Intake.

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Take oil spills, for example. They can happen if tankers are too poorly built to survive accidents
at sea. But the economic benefit of compromising on tanker quality brings an economic cost
when an oil spill occurs. The oil can wash up on nearby beaches, devastate the ecosystem, and
severely affect tourism. The main problem is that the people who bear the cost of the spill
(typically a small coastal community) are not the people who caused the problem in the first
place (the people who operate the tanker). Yet, arguably, everyone who puts gasoline (petrol)
into their car—or uses almost any kind of petroleum-fueled transport—contributes to the
problem in some way. So oil spills are a problem for everyone, not just people who live by the
coast and tanker operates.

Sewage is another good example of how pollution can affect us all. Sewage discharged into
coastal waters can wash up on beaches and cause a health hazard. People who bathe or surf in the
water can fall ill if they swallow polluted water—yet sewage can have other harmful effects too:
it can poison shellfish (such as cockles and mussels) that grow near the shore. People who eat
poisoned shellfish risk suffering from an acute—and sometimes fatal—illness called paralytic
shellfish poisoning. Shellfish is no longer caught along many shores because it is simply too
polluted with sewage or toxic chemical wastes that have discharged from the land nearby.

VI. DESCRIPTION

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants.

Due to these contaminants it either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, or
undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its biotic communities, such as fish. Natural
phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes
in water quality and the ecological status of water.

Water pollution is a major global problem. It requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water
resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been
suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and diseases. 5 Water
pollution accounted for the deaths of 1.8 million people in 2015.

5
Evaluation of ecological risk of metal contamination in river Gomti, India: A biomonitoring approach.
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 110, 49-55.

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India and China are two countries with high levels of water pollution: An estimated 580 people
in India die of water pollution related illness (including waterborne diseases) every day. About
90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted.[10] As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had
no access to safe drinking water.

In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed

countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in a report on water
quality in the United States in 2009, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64 percent of assessed
lake acres, and 30 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as
polluted.

VII. REPORT

Most of the earth’s surfaces water is in the oceans, which contains about 35 parts per thousand of
dissolved salt of the remainder, most of fresh water with salt content of 0.2% of found either in
lakes and ponds (still water) or in rivers and streams (running water).

Fresh water is also available in the form of rains, snow, dew etc. Hydrosphere covers ground
water also. Evaporation of water from oceans, cloud formation and precipitation are responsible
for worldwide water supply through hydrological cycles. Water is essential to all life. Life was
first originate in water.6

Pollution of water is the presence of some foreign organic, inorganic, biological, radiological or
physical substances in the water. These substances contaminate water by degrading its quality
which may cause health hazard or decrease the utility of water.

There are two principle sources of water, surface water and ground water. Surface water comes
from streams, lakes, rivers, shallow wells and reservoirs created by damming. Most surface
water contains suspended solids, organic and inorganic substances, microbes and other biota. If
these substances are present in water in optimum level, they do not cause pollution.

6
Haloi, N., & Sarma, H. P. (2012). Heavy metal contaminations in the groundwater of Brahmaputra flood plain: an
assessment of water quality in Barpeta District, Assam (India).

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 On the contrary some of them are useful in improving the quality of water. When the
concentration of these materials or organisms are high, they degrade the quality of water and
make it unfit for recreational, domestic, industrial or other use.

Some substances like industrial poisons, toxic chemicals and pathologic organisms pollute the
water even at very low concentrations. Some pollution occurs naturally in the form of soil
erosion, deposition of animal wastes and fallen leaves, solution of minerals in water etc. Much of
it is the direct result of human activity.

These influence the fertility or productivity of soil in several ways:

i. They produce humus by decomposing dead plant and animal material

ii. Release minerals (e.g. calcium, magnesium and iron) from organic compounds for recycling

iii. Interconvert ions and molecules to other beneficial forms and

iv. Decompose toxic substances to harmless forms.

All these contribute to soil productivity. Any substance that adversely affects the productivity of
the soil is a soil pollutant Soil pollution is also called as land pollution.

Air and water pollution can be spread to long distances. But soil is greatly localized. Any
pollution of soil of one field need not always affect the soil of neighbouring field.

VIII. RESULT

Most environmental experts agree that the best way to tackle pollution is through something
called the polluter pays principle. This means that whoever causes pollution should have to pay
to clean it up, one way or another. Polluter pays can operate in all kinds of ways. It could mean
that tanker owners should have to take out insurance that covers the cost of oil spill cleanups, for
example. It could also mean that shoppers should have to pay for their plastic grocery bags, as is
now common in Ireland, to encourage recycling and minimize waste.7 Or it could mean that
factories that use rivers must have their water inlet pipes downstream of their effluent outflow

7
Jayaprakash, M., Nagarajan, R., Velmurugan, P. M., Sathiyamoorthy, J., Krishnamurthy, R. R., & Urban, B. (2012).

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 pipes, so if they cause pollution they themselves are the first people to suffer. Ultimately, the
polluter pays principle is designed to deter people from polluting by making it less expensive for
them to behave in an environmentally responsible way.

Life is ultimately about choices—and so is pollution. We can live with sewage-strewn beaches,
dead rivers, and fish that are too poisonous to eat. Or we can work together to keep the
environment clean so the plants, animals, and people who depend on it remain healthy. We can
take individual action to help reduce water pollution, for example, by using environmentally
friendly detergents, not pouring oil down drains, reducing pesticides, and so on. We can take
community action too, by helping out on beach cleans or litter picks to keep our rivers and seas
that little bit cleaner. And we can take action as countries and continents to pass laws that will
make pollution harder and the world less polluted. Working together, we can make pollution less
of a problem—and the world a better place.

IX.[VIII.] Recommended Approach

The white paper presents a conceptual framework to tackle issues related to contamination of
water resources. The framework is further explained with a specific example of its adaptation in
case of chromium contamination. The systematic approach to design any pertinent remediation
method is diagrammatically depicted in Figure A. The figure outlines the thought process that
allows easy implementations by defining various actions, along with the sequence.

People/Stakeholders/Experts

The text in orange color represents the community that is either affecting the process or is being
affected by the process. “People” are the section of society who are affected by the water
contamination issue and “Stakeholders/Experts” are those who are responsible for taking the
remediation steps.

Defining Standards

Looking towards the methodology, the first and foremost step to assure contaminant-free water
must be defining the standards pertaining to specific contaminants such as metals, pesticides, and
organic content. The standards may or may not vary locally but should be in accordance to the
standards prescribed by the Central Pollution Control Board, the government of India or any

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other organizations such as WHO, EPA, etc. The state pollution control boards, in different
zones, should enact strict guidelines specifying the tolerable limits for various contaminants.
These guidelines may differ from state to state depending on the existing contamination in that
particular state. After the guidelines are set, a continuous monitoring system is required to track
these data. After this step, a gap can be identified, showing the difference in the permissible
quantity of the contaminant and actual quantity found in the contaminated water.

Point/Nonpoint

The problem thus identified has to be further qualitatively defined as point or nonpoint problem.
A nonpoint problem is defined as one where the source of the contaminant is not one single point
but widespread (for instance, when agrochemicals seep down into the soil and mix with
groundwater). On the contrary, a point contamination (or point problem) is defined as one where
15 contaminants leach out of a particular area (a single point), thereby making that area
contaminated. A classic example of this is contamination caused by the tannery industry, which
is a source of point contamination.

Gap Analysis

The gap analysis and point/ nonpoint examination should lead to definition of the problem. It is
also suggested by the panel of the committee to define the problem by specifying the associated
contaminants. Consequently, based on the problem defined, a solution should be provided. The
solution can be either technological or infrastructural.

Integrated/Isolated Approach

The solution proposed can have an integrated approach or isolated approach. As the name
suggests an integrated approach would incorporate multiple technologies/remediation methods.
On the other hand, an isolated approach would use only single technique or methods for de-
contaminating water. The selection of the approach would depend on the severity and type of the
contaminants in conjunction with the feasibility of the contaminant being removed using a single
technology.8

Centralized/Household Implementation
8
Chetia, M., Chatterjee, S., Banerjee, S., Nath, M., Singh, L., Srivastava, R., & Sarma, H. (2011).

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 Furthermore, the implementation of the solution can be categorized as “Centralized” or
“Household”-based. Centralized solutions can be policies framed by the government to curb
pollution, or decontamination work of a particular site by the government (example: Ganga
Action Plan (GAP) launched in 1986 to reduce the contamination levels in the river). Household
solutions can involve usage of various types of filters to remove contaminants from the polluted
water. Economic Feasibility Any technology or solution is rendered useless if it does not suit the
economics of the user. The affordability of the solution proposed in the entire process is of prime
importance to the “people” who will utilize the suggested intervention. It is for this very reason
an economic feasibility study becomes vital. Hence, economic feasibility should be a prerequisite
in selecting a concept to be pursued further to develop into a technology or a solution.

X.[IX.] Conclusions

This workshop was designed to offer sustainable and socio-economic measures for the removal
of water contaminants. The concerns voiced by the experts on the issues of water quality
revealed that the implemented policies have uncertainties; therefore there is an urgent need for
green framework to provide one process for refining and building consensus on it. Moreover, the
fragmentation and lack of co-ordination between the research field and industries is one of the
key concerns. The nature of the problem and the inevitable increasing spread of contaminants in
groundwater demands coherent approach of science and engineering for the development of
various wastewater technologies. During discussions, the participants designed a conceptual
framework for addressing water contamination issues pertaining to metal and pesticide
contamination, keeping in view the six geographical zones of the country. The broad framework
can be effectively used to develop zone-wise, region-specific interventions. The conceptual
framework may be used to design any regionspecific remediation method. An example of the
framework adaptation was presented for tannery industries.. The development of different
inexpensive resins for selective and cyclic recovery of heavy metals is underway. The overriding
message from government officials and policymakers was that a ready reference such as the
conceptual framework can assist in designing effective remediation solutions.

XI.[X.] Bibliography

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 Behera, B., Das, M., & Rana, G. S. (2012). Studies on ground water pollution due
to iron content and water quality in and around, Jagdalpur, Bastar district,
Chattisgarh, India. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 4(8), 3803–
3807.
 Bhagure, G., & Mirgane, S. R. (2011). Heavy metal concentrations in
groundwaters and soils of Thane Region of Maharashtra, India.
 Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 173(1-4), 643–652.
doi:10.1007/s10661-010-1412-9 Bishnu, A., Chakrabarti, K., Chakraborty, A., &
Saha, T. (2009). Pesticide residue level in tea ecosystems of Hill and Dooars
regions of West Bengal, India.
 Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 149(1-4), 457–464.
doi:10.1007/s10661-008-0222-9 Charan, P. D., Sharma, R., & Sharma, K. C.
(2010).
 Gas chromatographic analysis of organochlorine pesticides in Lake Anasagar of
Ajmer, Rajasthan (India). Journal of environmental science & Technology.

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