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Physical pendulum - A simple experiment can give comprehensive

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Article in European Journal of Physics · February 2014

DOI: 10.1088/0143-0807/35/2/0255018

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 European Journal of Physics

Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 (14pp) doi:10.1088/0143-0807/35/2/0255018

Physical pendulum—a simple experiment

can give comprehensive information about
a rigid body
Mária Kladivová and L’ubomı́r Mucha
Department of Physics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics,
Technical University of Košice, Park Komenského 2, 042 00 Košice, Slovakia

E-mail: maria.kladivova@tuke.sk

Received 17 September 2013, revised 28 January 2014

Accepted for publication 28 January 2014
Published 17 February 2014

Abstract
A simple experiment with a physical pendulum examining some aspects of
rigid body motion is presented in this paper. The experiment consists of
measuring the period of oscillation of a rod with non-homogeneous mass
distribution used as a physical pendulum, dependent upon the position of the
pivot axis. The obtained dependence provides sufficient information to calculate
the position of the centre of mass, moment of inertia of the rigid body and local
gravitational acceleration. This experiment is intended for secondary school
and undergraduate students.
Keywords: physics practical, rigid body, physical pendulum, reduced length,
simple harmonic motion, curve fitting
(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction

Rigid body dynamics is an area of physics which is very important for understanding other
areas of physics, but on the other hand it is rather difficult for students. Their main problem lies
in accepting and understanding the physical meaning of the key physical quantities: torque,
angular momentum and moment of inertia. This paper presents a simple experiment with a
physical pendulum for examining rigid body motion.
The experiment presented below was motivated by the very neat and detailed description
of physical pendulum motion given by Sivukhin in his famous tutorial [1]. The novelty of this
experiment consists in the fact that it is possible to obtain comprehensive information about
a rigid body from only one obtained experimental dependence (period of oscillation versus
position of pivot point) . Simultaneously, data processing increases students’ skills in applying

0143-0807/14/0255018+14$33.00 © 2014 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK 1

Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1. (a) Physical pendulum, O is the pivot point, C is the centre of mass. (b) Point
O is the centre of gyration, l is the reduced length of a physical pendulum and also the
length of a simple pendulum with the same period of oscillation, a is the distance of the
centre of gyration from the centre of mass. (c) Scheme of physical pendulum used in
experiment: ‘rod-like’ rigid body with non-homogeneous mass distribution due to the
small additive mass at fixed position.

knowledge from other sciences such as analysing functions in mathematics, using free software
in informatics, or fitting theoretical functions to experimental data in programming.

2. Theory

A physical pendulum is a rigid body that can oscillate about a fixed horizontal axis passing
through any pivot point other than its centre of mass [1–4]. The experiment described below
is based on the detailed study of experimental dependence period versus position of the pivot
point. This idea is often used in student experiments; for instance in [5, 6]. However, the
novelty of the proposed method is that this single measured dependence enables one to obtain
practically complete information regarding the geometrical and dynamical characteristic of a
rigid body and regarding its motion, no further information (gravity acceleration, moment of
inertia) is necessary. If the pendulum is displaced from its stable equilibrium, the torque due
to the pendulum’s weight F g makes the pendulum rotate (see figure 1(a)). If the pivot joint is
frictionless the period of oscillation is

I
T = 2π (1)
mga
where a is the distance of the centre of mass from the pivot point and the moment of inertia I
according to the parallel-axis theorem is
I = I0 + ma2 , (2)
where I0 is the moment of inertia with respect to the centre of mass. The period does not
depend on the total mass, m, of the physical pendulum (I ∝ m).
The reduced length of a physical pendulum is defined as the length, l, of the thread of a
simple pendulum with the same period of oscillation (see figure 1(b)). For a simple pendulum
with bob mass m and a massless thread of length l the moment of inertia is I = ml 2 . Using (1)
a known expression for the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is obtained

l
T = 2π . (3)
g
2
Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

Figure 2. Theoretical dependence of period of oscillation on the pivot point position.

Symmetrically embedded points Omin , Omin are the positions of pivot point with a
minimal period of oscillation. At the bottom of the figure is the schematically depicted
position of the rod-like pendulum (see figure 1(c)), with centre of mass, C, at the position
xC = 0. Cr is the rod centre and the small vertical line on it shows the position of the
additional mass. Horizontal dashed lines indicate reduced lengths l for various coupled
pivot points, while the length of their positive and negative parts correspond to a and a ,
respectively. Symmetrically embedded reduced lengths are also possible (not depicted).

Comparing (1) and (3), the reduced length l of a physical pendulum can be defined as
I I0
l= =a+ . (4)
ma ma
For each pivot point there is some unique distance a and according to (4) also a reduced
length l. Point O , which is located at a distance l from the pivot point O on the straight line
passing through the centre of mass, is called the centre of gyration. From (4), it follows that
the pivot point and centre of gyration are always localized on the opposite sides with respect
to the centre of mass, C, and l > a. These two points are coupled, which can be proved by
interchanging their positions. This holds with respect to the new pivot point
a = l − a, (5)
and according to (4) the new reduced length l  is
I
l = . (6)
ma
Using (2) and (4)–(6), it can easily be shown that the reduced length l  corresponding to this
new pivot point O is equal to the reduced length l defined for the original pivot point O. Once
l  = l, the periods of oscillations are the same for both these pivot points [1, 7] and can be
obtained using (3).
The theoretical dependence of period T versus position of pivot point x derived from (1)

2π I0 1
T =√ + |xC − x| (7)
g m |xC − x|
is depicted in figure 2. Coordinate axis x lies along the rod-like pendulum in figure 1(c) and
passes through the centre of mass; the value of |xC − x| corresponds to the distance a in (1)
and (2), where xC is the position of the centre of mass.

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Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

The reduced length of the physical pendulum is l = a + a ; distances a and a are different
(see figure 2). Along a line passing through the centre of mass there are two symmetrically
embedded pairs of pivot points at a distance l with the same period of oscillation. For the
minimal possible period, these pairs coalesce into one pair. In this case a = a = lmin /2 (see
figure 2) as will be shown below.
The values of a and a for a given reduced length l can be obtained using (4), from which
we obtain a quadratic equation with respect to an unknown a. The roots of this equation, which
correspond to the positions of pivot points with the same period of oscillation (see figure 2)
are

l ± l 2 − 4 Im0
a = |xC − x| = (8)
2
so from (8) we can calculate a and a and the corresponding positions x for both pairs of pivot
points on distance l. Solutions exist only if the expression under the square root is not negative
I0
l2  4 . (9)
m
From (9) it follows that the lowest possible value of reduced length lmin is

I0
lmin = 2 . (10)
m
For lmin , using (8) and (10) we obtain the corresponding values am and am
lmin
am = am = . (11)
2
The period of oscillation Tmin for these pivot point positions is the lowest possible, as follows
from (3) and can also be seen in figure 2.
So, in (11) it has been theoretically proven that the pivot points for a minimal period of
oscillations are symmetrically embedded with respect to the centre of mass on the minimal
possible distance, the minimal reduced length of the physical pendulum. This feature enables
a nice experiment to be performed, in which it is possible to gain information about a rigid
body only from the measured dependence period of oscillation versus pivot point position.
The proposed experiment is described in the next section 3.

3. Experiment

In this experiment students are expected to measure the dependence T (x) of the period
of oscillation of a physical pendulum on the position x of the pivot axis. Using only this
dependence students have to perform the following laboratory tasks.
(1) Find the position of the centre of mass.
(2) Calculate the moment of inertia with respect to the centre of mass.
(3) Calculate local gravitational acceleration.
(4) Find the distances from the centre of mass for which the period is the shortest.
Students are expected to compare the quantities obtained from experimental results with those
calculated theoretically for a simple ‘linear model’ of a non-homogeneous bar.
The experimental set-up used in the experiment is shown in figure 3. The physical
pendulum consists of a thin uniform rod of length L = 60.0 cm and mass mr = 184.0 g
with a set of small holes to hang the pendulum, and additional ‘bob’ masses, small nuts with
masses mZ1 = 29.4 g and mZ2 = 29.0 g with centres of mass at points xZ1 = 49.0 cm and
xZ2 = 58.0 cm from the end point A (see figure 3). All these parameters are given.

4
Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

Figure 3. Experimental equipment.

x (m) T (s)
0.0100 1.338
0.0800 1.265
0.1000 1.248
0.1200 1.235
0.1400 1.223
0.1500 1.218
0.1600 1.220
0.1700 1.214
0.1800 1.216
0.1900 1.215
0.2000 1.224
0.2100 1.226
0.2300 1.272
0.2500 1.309
0.4600 1.324
0.4800 1.257
0.5000 1.234
0.5100 1.236
0.5200 1.221
0.5300 1.221
0.5400 1.215
0.5500 1.218
0.5600 1.219
0.5700 1.224
0.5900 1.231

Figure 4. Experimental dependence of the period of oscillation on the pivot point

position for the rod-like pendulum in figure 3 and a list of obtained experimental data.

Typical measurement results are depicted in figure 4, where the current position x of a
pivot point is measured as the distance between the end A (xA = 0) and the pivot point (see
figure 3). Measurements were performed using a personal computer connected to an interface
card CoachLab II equipped with the software COACH 5 which makes it possible to carry out
experiments and to process the data both numerically and graphically. The COACH optical
gate sensor was used to determine the period of oscillation, T , of the pendulum. For a fixed
pivot point position x, the period T is obtained from the slope of the dependence t = (T/2) n
(see figure 5), where t is the time when the pendulum crosses the optical gate and n is the
number of half-periods T/2 occurring thus far. The obtained periods for all pivot points are
listed in the table in figure 4.
Results processing. For a pendulum there are three important points: the pivot points Omin ,
Omin , about which the pendulum oscillates with a minimal period of oscillation and a centre

5
Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

Figure 5. Experimental dependence (points) t = (T/2) n for a pivot point at position

x = 1 cm, the slope of the fit function (line) obtained using the software COACH 5 is
(T/2) = 0.6691 s.

of mass C. As follows from the theory and as is also depicted in figure 2, the position of the
centre of mass is located on the axis of symmetry of dependence, i.e. in the middle between
points Omin , Omin . The determination of these three points from the measured dependence is
important for the successful completion of all four laboratory tasks. Figures 6 and 7 depict
various methods, discussed below, for obtaining the positions x1 , x2 and xC of Omin , Omin and
C respectively.
(A) The position of C can be obtained using the symmetry of experimental dependence as
is depicted in figure 6(a). The axis of symmetry is found using the simplest way: chart
sheet is folded in such a way that the joint set of points now follows just one branch
of dependence. The fold line of the sheet is the axis of symmetry of the experimental
dependence, its intersection with the x-axis determines the position of the centre of gravity
on this axis. The obtained value can be verified by finding the equilibrium point of the
pendulum at the edge of a laboratory desk. The position of points Omin , Omin can be
roughly estimated as the position of the minima in this dependence.
(B) For the determination of the positions of both pivot points Omin , Omin in practicals,
students usually use the Software COACH 5, which can calculate the first derivative of
experimental dependence. Zeros on this derivative in figure 6(b) (see right vertical axis)
are the pivot point positions x1 and x2 with a minimal period; in the middle between
them there is the coordinate xC of point C. (The middle zero is not a solution; around C
theoretically T → ∞, therefore the measurement cannot be performed in this region.)
Values of x1 , x2 and xC obtained using this method are taken below in the solution of the
laboratory tasks.
(C) Usually, experimental dependence is not very smooth around the minima, so an alternative
method can be used in the same environment of COACH 5 for more exact determination
of x1 and x2 . In figure 6(c) the quadratic function is fitted to a group of points in the
vicinity of the minimum for each branch of dependence. Coordinates of x1 and x2 can
be obtained from both fitting functions as parameters of these functions, the positions of
their apexes.
(D) In our laboratory, more skilled students can also use a special free software program
for data processing, SciDavis (its principles are the same as those of professional data

6
Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6. Methods A, B and C for obtaining the positions x1 , x2 and xC .

processing programs). In this program the real function (7), which is rewritten with respect
to the point A (xA = 0 (see figure 3)) can be defined as the fit function, which is fitted to
each branch of experimental dependence. If only the positions of points Omin and Omin are
needed, the first derivatives of the fitting functions can be obtained using this computer
program, and their zeros determine the positions of these points. The fit function and its
derivative is presented in figure 7. However it should be mentioned here that the values
of fitting parameters obtained in this function, g, xC , I0 /m, immediately provide answers
to the laboratory tasks 1, 2 and 3.

7
Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

Figure 7. Method D for obtaining the positions x1 , x2 and xC .

Table 1. List of obtained values of x1, x2 and xC from experimental data. Values in the
parentheses—uncertainty in the last digit place.
Method x1 (m) x2 (m) xC (m) Tmin (s)
A 0.17(1) 0.54(1) 0.36(1) 1.215(1)
Equilib. 0.357(1)
B 0.180(1) 0.545(1) 0.363(1) 1.214(1)
C 0.172(2) 0.545(2) 0.359(2) 1.216(4)
D 0.172(9) 0.542(9) 0.357(9) 1.216(5)

A list of obtained values for x1 , x2 and xC from the experimental data using the methods
proposed above is presented in table 1, where for B, C and D xC = (x1 + x2 )/2 and
Tmin = (T1min + T2min )/2. We can see that all values are close to each other.

8
Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

Thus, in the proposed experiment students first have to measure experimental dependence
T (x). Then they solve the problem for finding positions x1 and x2 from it using some of
the methods discussed above. Finally they perform the laboratory tasks and compare the
experimental and theoretical results obtained.
Task 1. Find the position of the centre of mass.
The experimentally obtained xC B = 0.363 m. Due to the pendulum geometry, a simplified
formula can be used for theoretical calculation of the position of the centre of mass
mr L2 + mZ1 xZ1 + mZ2 xZ2
xC theor = ≈ 0.357 m. (12)
mr + mZ1 + mZ2
Comparison of theoretical value xC theor with experimental value xC B
 
 xC teor − xC B 
δxC =   100% ≈ 1.7%. (13)
x 
C teor
Task 2. Calculate the moment of inertia with respect to the centre of mass1.
The minimal reduced length, i.e. the distance between pivot points for the minimal period,
is lmin B = x2 B − x1 B . So, using (10), the moment of inertia with respect to the centre of mass
can be calculated2
 
x2 B − x1 B 2
I0 B = (mr + mZ1 + mZ2 ) ≈ 8.1 × 10−3 kg m2 . (14)
2
Due to the pendulum geometry the theoretical value I0 ther can be obtained using a simplified
formula
 
1 L 2
I0 theor = mr L2 + mr xC − + mZ1 (xZ1 − xC )2 + mZ2 (xZ2 − xC )2 ≈ 8.1 × 10−3 kg m2 .
12 2
(15)
Comparison of theoretical value with experimental one gives
 
 I0 teor − I0 B 

δI0 =   100% ≈ 0.1%. (16)
I0 teor 
Task 3. Calculate local gravitational acceleration.
The local gravitational acceleration can be found using the reversible pendulum method.
The expression for g B can be obtained using (3) 3
x2 B − x1 B
g B = 4π 2 2
≈ 9.78 m s−2 . (17)
Tmin B
The obtained value can be compared with the true value gKosice = 9.809 16 m s−2
 
 gKosice − g B 
δg =   100% ≈ 0.4%. (18)
g 
Kosice
Task 4. Find the distances from the centre of mass for which the period is the shortest.
The experimental value of am B is half of the minimal reduced length
x2 B − x1 B
am B = ≈ 0.183 m. (19)
2
From the theoretical point of view, laboratory task 4 is a standard theoretical problem solved
by undergraduates. The value of the pivot point position with the minimal period of oscillation
√
1 In practice, instead of I0 the sought parameter is the so-called minimal radius of gyration R0 = I0 /m = lmin /2,
where m is total mass [2].
2 The moment of inertia I can also be calculated from an arbitrary reduced length l = a + a , obtained from the
0
graph (see figure 2) using (4).
3 An arbitrary l = a + a and corresponding T obtained from T (x) can be used for the calculation of g from (3).

9
Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

Table 2. The list of obtained values for the laboratory tasks and theoretical calculations.
Method Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4
xC (m) I0 (g m2 ) g (m s−2 ) amin (m)
Theor. 0.357(1) 8.1(2) 9.809 16* 0.183(3)
A 0.36(1) 8.3(1) 9.9(3) 0.185(1)
B 0.363(1) 8.1(1) 9.78(7) 0.183(1)
C 0.359(2) 8.4(1) 9.96(9) 0.187(2)
D 0.357(9) 8.3(4) 9.9(3) 0.185(9)
From fit D 0.355(1) 8.1(2) 9.74(8)
∗
Value for town Košice.

can be obtained from the condition for the extremum of function T (a) (1): dT/da = 0. The
following expression can be derived

I0 theor
am theor = ≈ 0.183 m. (20)
mr + mZ1 + mZ2
The experimentally obtained am B can be compared with the calculated one using the
theoretically calculated I0 from (15) (the value am theor = R0 , see footnote on page 9):
 
 am teor − am B 
δa0 =   100% ≈ 0.1%.
 (21)
a m teor

The list of values obtained for the laboratory tasks using the methods proposed above and
theoretical calculations is presented in table 2.

4. Discussion

The aims of the laboratory experiment presented in this paper can be divided into three groups.
• The first includes the observation of the rotational motion of a rigid body and the possibility
of learning more about its main characteristics. This results in the discovery that there is
just one value of distance of the pivot point from the centre of gravity for which a minimum
period of oscillation is observed. For a quasi-linear rigid body, this means that there are
two pivot point positions (at equal distances from the centre of mass) with the minimum
period of oscillation. For any other pivot points, positioned on the pendulum, the period of
oscillation is longer. Along a line passing through the centre of mass, there are four points
positioned in pairs symmetrically with respect to the centre of gravity, about which the
pendulum oscillates with the same period of oscillation. This observation helps students
to acquire more detailed knowledge about the reduced length of a physical pendulum,
which may be immediately confronted with the results of the experiment using a simple
pendulum.
• The second group of aims includes the confrontation of theoretical knowledge with
experimental results followed by a deepened understanding of concepts describing the
rigid body and its motion, such as moment of inertia, centre of mass and period of
oscillation.
• The aims of this experiment are also to improve the students’ skills in experimental data
processing and to emphasize the need for mathematical knowledge and skills for the
analysis of experimental data.

10
Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

Figure 8. Dependence T (x) obtained using repeated measurements, where the line is a
fit function.

Due to the time-consuming nature of the measurements, data processing and solving
of the laboratory tasks, students are not required to evaluate uncertainties and errors. This
experiment focuses on qualitative knowledge, i.e. on the comparison of theoretical predictions
with results obtained experimentally. On the other hand, there is a need to discuss various
sources of possible errors.
In discussions with students, it is also necessary to justify good agreement of experimental
results with the theoretical ones (see table 2) obtained for a very simple theoretical model,
in which the friction in the pivot as well as viscous friction due to the surrounding air are
neglected.
Below we present a few arguments for such a discussion.
• The accuracy of obtained experimental dependence T (x) plays a crucial role in the solving
of all laboratory tasks, and precise measurements of experimental points in the vicinity
of minima are especially important. An optical gate enables the period of oscillation to
be measured with high precision, so more accurate values can be obtained using repeated
measurements, as illustrated in figure 8. In this figure, all points were measured five times;
the error bars were obtained using a simplified statistical formula [9].
• Precise localization of the positions of the axes around which the pendulum really oscillates
can improve the experimental results and obtained experimental dependence. In the
experimental set-up used here, the diameter of the holes is 2 mm and the diameter of
the pivot pin is 1 mm, so the position of each axis around which the pendulum oscillates
is slightly shifted from the middle of the hole.
• The theoretical values of the sought physical quantities are determined with an error that
depends on the accuracy in measurement of the mass and geometrical dimensions of the
body.
• The real dimensions of the physical pendulum (the rod diameter is 1.2 cm, the geometry
of both additional masses: hollow cylinders with a height of 1 cm and inner and outer
diameters of 1.2 cm and 3.2 cm, respectively) should be taken into account in theoretical
calculations.
Non-homogeneous mass distribution along the rod caused by the presence of a set
of non-homogeneously distributed holes (see figure 3), causes a small shift of the centre
of mass of the rod from the rod middle. Both the experimentally obtained value (finding
11
Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

Figure 9. Experimental dependence displacement of one point on the pendulum versus

time.

equilibrium position) and the value obtained from the exact theoretical formula (for rod
with holes) give a very small value of this shift, about 0.1%. This means that using of
simplified theoretical equation (12) (for mass line with point masses) is sufficiently correct
(see uncertainties in table 1).
The correctness of the simplified theoretical formula (15) (for a mass line with point
additional masses) for theoretical calculation of the moment of inertia was also verified
by the calculation using an exact formula for the moment of inertia (for the rod with holes
and additional masses, hollow cylinders). The difference between the results of the exact
theoretical formula and the simplified theoretical one is less than 0.1%. This means that
using of simplified theoretical equation (15) is also sufficiently correct (see uncertainties
in table 2).
• It should be noted that equal spacing of the holes along the rod would be more appropriate,
because the fit procedures used for solving of some of the laboratory tasks require regular
distribution of an independent variable. In this experiment, however, we prefer a pendulum
with a selected set of suitably positioned hanging holes (see the table in figure 4) in order
to save measuring time (less important time-consuming measurements in the vicinity of
the centre of gravity are excluded).

Finally, it has to be explained why a very simplified theoretical model, in which any
kind of friction is omitted, still works. The strong influence of friction forces can be seen
in figure 9, where an experimental dependence displacement of one point on the pendulum
from its equilibrium position versus time is displayed. The instant position of this point was
measured using the Vernier Motion Detector 2 MD-BTD. Detailed numerical analysis of
this measured dependence shows that for the first approximately 25 oscillations, amplitude
decreases linearly, while the subsequent oscillations exhibit a roughly exponential decrease
in amplitude. In the time interval during which the amplitude decrease is linear, analysis
shows that the period of oscillation is constant. In the subsequent time interval the frequency
gradually decreases. These observations can be explained as follows.
12
Eur. J. Phys. 35 (2014) 0255018 M Kladivová and L’ Mucha

In the time interval when the pendulum oscillates with large amplitudes, the pendulum
velocity is relatively high most of the time and the pendulum slides around the pivot. In this
interval, the motion can be sufficiently precisely described using the theory given in [10, 11].
From this theory it follows that the observed significant decrease in the amplitude is linear. The
brake torque friction with constant magnitude, which periodically changes its orientation in
the direction against the motion, ensures that the frequency is the same as in the case without
damping ω = ω0 .
For smaller amplitudes, the body rotates with less speed and finally the pendulum
swings around the pivot practically without slipping. Movement with small amplitudes
is predominantly influenced by the friction torque in the pivot, which depends on the
instantaneous displacement angle, and by air resistance. In this case the pendulum motion
can be roughly described as damped harmonic motion; ω < ω0 .
Based on the above findings, we can conclude that the proposed experiment is correct
and the period of oscillation can be described using (7) on which the current experiment is
based. This conclusion can be verified in figure 5, in which it can be seen that the periods of
oscillation were determined from the initial 12.5 oscillations, i.e. in the time interval where
the frequency is really ω0 (see the evident linear decrease of the amplitude in figure 9 of these
oscillations).

5. Conclusions

This experiment is intended for secondary school and undergraduate students. In the
experiment, the main characteristics of a rigid body (the position of the centre of mass,
the moment of inertia of the rigid body, or more exactly the radius of gyration, and the
pivot points about which the body oscillates with minimal period) are obtained using only
the experimental dependence period versus the position of the pivot point. Secondary school
students can perform the proposed laboratory practical. Furthermore, using a simple pendulum
with arbitrary bob mass, students can also check the validity of (5). Undergraduate students can
compare the results obtained with theoretical results using skills obtained in others subjects
such as mathematics, informatics, programming.
On the other hand, the obtained dependence T (x) can be used in mathematical
applications: to analyse functions and to use in mathematical software. Observations of
pendulum motion can also be used in other subjects, such as biology [12], programming,
informatics and technical subjects. For undergraduates and talented young students, this
experiment can be extended to examining and interpreting the influence of other force fields
on pendulum motion [13–16].

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under contract
no. LPP-0067-07 ‘Scouting and educating talents in physics through physics competitions at
elementary and secondary schools’.

References

[1] Sivukhin D V 1974 General Course of Physics (Mechanics vol 1) (Moskva: Nauka) pp 209–13 (In
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Experimental problems IPhO’96: 27th International Physics Olympiad (Oslo, Norway, 30 June–7
July)
Experimental problems 2 IPhO’42: 42nd International Physics Olympiad (Bangkok, Thailand,
10–18 July, 2011)

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