Principles of Steady-State

Converter Analysis
 Chapter 2
Principles of Steady-State Converter
Analysis

2.1. Introduction
2.2. Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge
balance, and the small ripple approximation
2.3. Boost converter example
2.4. Summary of key points

1
 2.1 Introduction
Buck converter

1
SPDT switch changes dc + +
component 2
+ R v(t)
Vg – vs(t)

– –

vs(t)
Vg
Switch output voltage
waveform DTs D'Ts

Duty cycle D: 0
0< D< 1 0 DTs Ts t
Switch
complement D: 1 2 1
position:
D = 1 - D

2
Dc component of switch output voltage

vs(t)
Vg

area = vs = DVg

DTsVg
0
0 DTs Ts t

Fourier analysis: Dc component = average value

Ts
vs = 1 vs(t) dt
Ts 0

vs = 1T s(DT s Vg ) = DVg

3
 Insertion of low-pass filter to remove switching
harmonics and pass only dc component

L
1
+ +

2
Vg + C R v(t)
vs(t)
–

– –

Vg
v  vs = DVg

0
0 1 D
4
 Three basic dc-dc converters
(a)
1
L M(D) = D
1 0.8
iL (t) +
0.6

M(D)
Buck Vg – +
2
C R v 0.4

0.2
– 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
D

(b) 5
L 2
4 M(D) = 1
+ 1– D
iL (t)
Boost 1 3

M(D)
+
Vg –
C R v 2

1
–
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
D

D
(c) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
+
Buck-boost 1 2

iL (t)
–1

–2
+

M(D)
Vg –
C R v
L –3

– –4
M(D) = – D
–5
1– D

5
 Objectives of this Lecture

●
Develop techniques for easily determining output
voltage of an arbitrary converter circuit
●
Derive the principles of inductor volt-second
balance
and capacitor charge (amp-second) balance
●
Introduce the key small ripple approximation
●
Develop simple methods for selecting filter element
values
●
Illustrate via examples

6
2.2. Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge
balance, and the small ripple approximation

Actual output voltage waveform, buck converter

iL(t) L
1
Buck converter + vL(t) – +
iC(t)
containing practical 2
+
low-pass filter Vg –
C R v(t)

Actual output voltage v(t) Actual waveform

waveform v(t) = V + vripple(t)
V
v(t) = V + vripple(t)
dc component V

0
t

7
 The small ripple approximation

v(t) Actual waveform

v(t) = V + vripple(t)
v(t) = V + vripple(t) V

dc component V

0
t

In a well-designed converter, the output voltage ripple is small. Hence,

the waveforms can be easily determined by ignoring the ripple:

< V
vripple

v(t)  V

8
 Details:
The small ripple approximation

1. For reasons that will become apparent as the course progresses, the
small ripple approximation is useful only for continuous waveforms that
have small ripple. Specifically, it is applied only to:
• Inductor currents
• Capacitor voltages
2. The small ripple approximation must not be applied to discontinuous
waveforms, i.e., waveforms that switch.
3. The small ripple approximation is used to simplify the solution of the
filter element waveforms. Instead of exponential and damped
sinusoidal solutions for the circuit differential equations, the small
ripple approximation allows approximation of the solutions as linear
functions. The approximation is valid provided that the switching
period Ts is short compared to the natural time constants of the circuit.

9
 Buck converter analysis:
inductor current waveform
iL(t) L
1
+ vL(t) – +
iC(t)
2
original Vg + C R v(t)
–
converter
–

switch in position 1 switch in position 2

iL(t) L L

+ vL(t) – + + vL(t) – +
iC(t) iC(t)
+ + C R v(t)
Vg C R v(t) Vg – iL(t)
–

– –

9
 Inductor voltage and current
Subinterval 1: switch in position 1

iL(t) L
Inductor voltage
+ vL(t) – +
iC (t)
vL = Vg – v(t)
+
Vg C R v(t)
–
Small ripple approximation:
–
vL  V g – V

Knowing the inductor voltage, we can now find the inductor current via
di L(t)
vL(t) = L
dt

Solve for the slope:

di L(t) vL(t) Vg – V  The inductor current changes with an
= 
essentially constant slope
dt L L

10
 Inductor voltage and current
Subinterval 2: switch in position 2

L
Inductor voltage +
+ vL(t) –
iC(t)
vL(t) = – v(t)
+ iL(t) C R v(t)
Vg –
Small ripple approximation:
–
vL(t)  – V

Knowing the inductor voltage, we can again find the inductor current via
di L(t)
vL(t) = L
dt

Solve for the slope:

di L(t) V  The inductor current changes with an
dt  – L essentially constant slope

11
Inductor voltage and current waveforms

vL(t)
Vg – V
DTs D'Ts
t
–V
Switch
1 2 1 di L(t)
position: vL(t) = L
dt
iL(t)
iL(DTs)
iL
I
iL(0) Vg – V –V
L L

0 DTs Ts t

12
Determination of inductor current ripple magnitude

iL(t)
iL(DTs)

I
iL(0) Vg – V –V iL
L L

0 DTs t

T
Vsg – V
2 iL = DTs
L
(change in i L )= (slope)(length of subinterval)
Vg – V Vg – V
iL = DT s L= DT s
 2L 2 L
i

13
 Inductor current waveform
during turn-on transient

iL(t)

V g – v(t)
L
iL(nTs) iL((n + 1)Ts)
– v(t)
iL(Ts) L

iL(0) = 0
0 DTs Ts 2Ts nTs (n + 1)Ts t

When the converter operates in equilibrium:

iL((n + 1)Ts) = i L(nTs)

14
The principle of inductor volt-second balance:
Derivation

Inductor defining relation:

di (t)
vL(t) = L L
dt
Integrate over one complete switching period:
Ts

i L(T s ) – iL(0) = 1L 0
vL(t) dt

In periodic steady state, the net change in inductor current is zero:

Ts

0= vL(t) dt
0

Hence, the total area (or volt-seconds) under the inductor voltage
waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state.
An equivalent form:
Ts

0= 1
vL(t) dt = vL
Ts 0
The average inductor voltage is zero in steady state.
15
 Inductor volt-second balance:
Buck converter example

vL(t)
Vg – V Total area 
Inductor voltage waveform,
previously derived:
DTs t

–V
Integral of voltage waveform is area of rectangles:
Ts

 = vL(t) dt = (Vg – V)(DT s ) + ( – V)(D'T s )

0

Average voltage is
vL = Ts= D(V g – V) + D'( – V)
Equate to zero and solve for V:
0 = DV g – (D + D')V =  V = DVg
DVg – V
16
 The principle of capacitor charge balance:
Derivation

Capacitor defining relation:

dv (t)
iC(t) = C C
dt
Integrate over one complete switching period:
Ts

vC(Ts) – vC(0) = 1C 0
i C(t) dt

In periodic steady state, the net change in capacitor voltage is zero:

Ts

0= 1
iC(t) dt = i C
Ts 0

Hence, the total area (or charge) under the capacitor current
waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state.
The average capacitor current is then zero.

17
 2.3 Boost converter example

L 2

iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)
Boost converter 1
+
with ideal switch Vg C R v
–

L D1

iL(t) + vL(t) – +
Realization using iC(t)
power MOSFET Q1
+
and diode Vg + C R v
–
–
DT s Ts

18
 Boost converter analysis

L 2

iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)
1
original Vg + C R v
–
converter
–

switch in position 1 switch in position 2

L L

iL(t) + vL(t) – + iL(t) + vL(t) – +

iC(t) iC(t)
+ +
Vg C R v Vg C R v
– –

– –

19
 Subinterval 1: switch in position 1

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

vL = V g
L
iC = – v / R
iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)
+
Vg C R v
Small ripple approximation: –

vL = Vg –
iC = – V / R

20
 Subinterval 2: switch in position 2

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

vL = V g – v L
iC = iL – v / R iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)
+
Vg C R v
Small ripple approximation: –

–
vL = V g – V
iC = I – V / R

21
Inductor voltage and capacitor current waveforms

vL(t)
Vg

DTs D'Ts
t

Vg – V

iC(t) I – V/R

DTs D'Ts
t
– V/R

22
 Inductor volt-second balance

vL(t)
Net volt-seconds applied to inductor Vg
over one switching period: DT D'Ts
s

t
Ts
vL(t) dt = (Vg ) DTs + (Vg – V) D'Ts
0
Vg – V

Equate to zero and collect terms:

Vg (D + D') – V D' = 0

Solve for V:
Vg
V =

D' conversion ratio is therefore

The voltage

M(D) = VVg = D'

1 = 1
1–D
23
 Conversion ratio M(D) of the boost converter

5
1 = 1 –1 D
M(D)= D'
4

3
M(D)

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
D

24
Determination of inductor current dc component

iC(t) I – V/R

Capacitor charge balance: DTs D'Ts

t

i C (t) dt = ( – V ) DTs + (I – V ) D'T s

Ts – V/R
0 R R

Collect terms and equate to zero: I

Vg/R
– VR (D + D') + I D' = 0 8
6
Solve for
I: 4
VR
I = D'
2

Eliminate V to express in terms of Vg: 0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Vg D
I= 2
D' R

25
 Determination of inductor current ripple

Inductor current slope during iL(t)

subinterval 1: iL
I
diL (t) vL(t) V g Vg Vg – V
= =
dt L L L L
Inductor current slope during
subinterval 2: 0 DTs Ts t

di L(t) vL(t) V g – V
= =
dt L L
Change in inductor current during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):
Vg
2iL = L DTs

Solve for peak ripple:

Vg • Choose L such that desired ripple magnitude
iL = 2L DTs is obtained
26
 Determination of capacitor voltage ripple

Capacitor voltage slope during v(t)

subinterval 1:
V v
dvC(t) iC(t)
= =–V –V
dt C RC CI – RC
V
RC
Capacitor voltage slope during 0 DTs Ts t
subinterval 2:
dvC(t) iC(t) I V
dt = C = C– RC

Change in capacitor voltage during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):

– 2v = –RC
V DT
s

Solve for peak ripple:
v = 2 VRC DT s
• Choose C such that desired voltage ripple
magnitude is obtained
• In practice, capacitor equivalent series
resistance (esr) leads to increased
voltage ripple
27
 2.5 Estimating ripple in converters
containing two-pole low-pass filters

Buck converter example: Determine output voltage ripple

L
1
iL(t) +
iC(t) iR(t)
2
+ C
Vg vC(t) R
–

iL(t)
Inductor current iL(DTs)
I iL
waveform.
iL(0) Vg – V –V
What is the L L
capacitor current?
0 DTs Ts t

41
 2.6 Summary of Key Points

1. The dc component of a converter waveform is given by its average

value, or the integral over one switching period, divided by the
switching period. Solution of a dc-dc converter to find its dc, or steady-
state, voltages and currents therefore involves averaging the
waveforms.
2. The linear ripple approximation greatly simplifies the analysis. In a
well- designed converter, the switching ripples in the inductor currents
and capacitor voltages are small compared to the respective dc
components, and can be neglected.
3. The principle of inductor volt-second balance allows determination of
the dc voltage components in any switching converter. In steady-state,
the average voltage applied to an inductor must be zero.

46
 Summary of Chapter 2

4. The principle of capacitor charge balance allows determination of the dc

components of the inductor currents in a switching converter. In steady-
state, the average current applied to a capacitor must be zero.
5. By knowledge of the slopes of the inductor current and capacitor
voltage waveforms, the ac switching ripple magnitudes may be
computed. Inductance and capacitance values can then be chosen to
obtain desired ripple magnitudes.
6. Converters capable of increasing (boost), decreasing (buck), and
inverting the voltage polarity (buck-boost) have been described.
Converter circuits are explored more fully in a later chapter.

47