Lecture33 Image

RANJAN PAREKH Principles of MULTIMEDIA, 2E © 2013 Tata McGraw-Hill Education
INSTRUCTOR’S MATERIALS
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Contents
• Image Data Representation
• Image Acquisition
• Image Processing
• Binary Image Processing
• Grayscale Image Processing
• Color Image Processing
• Image Output on Monitors
• Image Output on Printers
• Image File Formats
• Image Processing Software
INSTRUCTOR'S MATERIALS Chapter – 3 : 2

Image Data Representation

• Overview
– Pixel : Intensity (V) and Location (L)
– Binary image : 1-bit representation : 0 ≤ V ≤ 1
– Grayscale image : 8-bit representation : 0 ≤ V ≤ 255
– Color image : 24-bit representation : R (0 ≤ VR ≤ 255), G (0 ≤ VG ≤ 255), B (0 ≤ VB ≤ 255)
CONTENTS INSTRUCTOR'S MATERIALS Chapter – 3 : 3

Image Acquisition
• Scanner
– Light reflected from document falls on set of electronic sensors called CCD (charge coupled device)
– The sensors convert light into electrical signals which are fed to an ADC to convert to digital values
– A scanning software helps to save the values to a digital image file.
– The software also specifies parameters like image size, resolution, file type, color & tonal corrections
– The CCD produces signals proportional to the luminance information of a pixel
– For color scans, three CCDs per pixel is used along with optical splitters
– Generally 3 types of scanners used : flatbed scanners, drum scanners, bar-code scanners

Image Acquisition
• Scanner software
– Software used to specify output path, file type, bit depth, dimensions, brightness/contrast, color etc.
– Graphical interface enables users to change/ set these values
– Certain transformation operations like invert, flip etc. might also be possible
– Users can preview output image before finally saving them

Image Acquisition
• Scanned image
– Quality of scanned image is determined mostly by its resolution and bit-depth
– Resolution determines how closely pixel information is acptured
– Optical resolution refers to the actual number of sensor elements per unit inch of the scan head
– Interpolated resolution use interpolation techniques to increase resolution
– Color-depth indicates the total numbers of colors that can be represented

Image Acquisition
• Digital Camera
– In a digital camera light from an object is focused by a lens onto a CCD array
– Electrical signals generated from CCD are digitized via an ADC
– To reduce space requirements images are compressed by passing through a signal processor
– A CAMERA mode enables one to capture images
– A PLAY mode allows one to browse through the stored images and manipulate them
– Other facilities might include self-timer, automatic flash, inbuilt microphones etc.

Image Acquisition
• Interface Standards
– Provides standardized interfaces between hardware devices like scanner or digital camera, and
image capture software
– TWAIN and ISIS form an intermediate layer between software applications and devices, so that
these do not need to communicate directly with each other
– Applications send image acquisition request to the interface layer which are passed on to the device
– The device sends the acquired image data to the interface layer which are passed on to the
application

Image Processing
• Overview
– Low-level image processing involves reading pixel values of digital images and modifying their color
and tonal qualities like brightness and contrast
– Mid-level image processing involves generation of attribute values from image pixels e.g.
segmentation borders, histograms, edge contours etc.
– High-level image processing involves semantic recognition of objects from images e.g. sky, grass,
water, rock, buildings etc.
– Data analysis and visualization tools like MATLAB are frequently used in image processing tasks by
treating images as matrices of pixel values
– Image enhancement implies improving visual clarity of images
– Image restoration involves improving a degraded image to its original condition
– Image segmentation involves partitioning images into constituent parts
– Image compression involves a set of techniques to compress file size of images
– Image indexing is a set of techniques enabling quick and efficient searching of images

Image Processing
• Basic operations
– Reading an image and displaying information related to it
– Displaying part or whole of the image
– Conversions between color and grayscale versions
– Changing image quality and resolution
– Writing images back to disk in specified formats
– Associated MATLAB commands : imread, imshow, imfinfo, rgb2gray, size, whos, imwrite

Image Processing
• Arithmetic operations
– Involve addition of two or more images, aslo with scalars : I3 = I1 + I2, I4 = I1 + K
– Subtraction of images : D1 = I6 – I5, D2 = |I6 – I5|
– Multiplication of an image with a scalar quantity : I8 = I7 * K, I9 = I8/K
– Linear combinations :
I10 = 0.2*I1 + 0.8*I8, I11 = – 0.2*I1 + 0.8*I8, I12 = 0.8*I1 + 0.2*I8, I13 = 0.8*I1 – 0.2*I8
– Associated MATLAB commands : imadd, imsubtract, imabsdiff, immutiply, imdivide, imlincomb

Image Processing
• Correlation and convolution
– Involves sliding a filter mask or kernel containing a set of coefficients over an image
– Kernel is moved in a sequential manner from left to right and top to bottom
– At any position of the kernel the image pixel below the center of the kernel is allotted a new value
– New value is generated by multiplying the neighbouring pixel values within the boundary of kernel
by coefficients of the kernel and adding them up.
– Correlation and convolution is similar except for the latter the kernel is first rotated by 90 degrees
– Associated MATLAB commands : imfilter

Image Processing
• Affine transformations
– Involves linear combination of translation, rotation, scaling
– Translation : portions of images moved by adding increments to their locations along X and Y axes
– Rotation : portions of images rotated by an angle about a pivot point in CW or CCW directions
– Scaling : dimensions of image portions changed by multiplying scalar quantities along X and Y axes
– Associated MATLAB commands : imrotate, imresize

Binary Image Processing

• Morphological operations
– Dilation : enlarges boundaries of foreground pixels
– Erosion : shrinks boundaries of foreground pixels
– Opening : erosion followed by dilation
– Closing : dilation followed by erosion
– Thinning : thickness of lines are reduced, like erosion
– Thickening : thickness of lines are increased, like dilation
– Skeletonization : thinning followed by erosion
– Edge detection : detects high contrast edges in images
– Associated MATLAB commands : im2bw, bwmorph, imdilate,

imerode, imopen, imclose,

Binary Image Processing

• Logical operations
– Involves changing image pixels based on logical relations : AND, OR, NOT, XOR
– Associated MATLAB commands : min, max

Grayscale Image Processing

• Edge detection operators
– Involves detection of high frequency edges in an image
– Sobel masks for detecting horizontal and vertical edges
– Prewitt masks for detecting horizontal and vertical edges
– Roberts masks for detecting horizontal and vertical edges
– Associated MATLAB commands : rgb2gray, edge, fspecial, imfilter


• Canny operator
– Image smoothed with Gaussian filter
– Edge strength computed at each point
– Edge direction calculated
– Edge direction digitized
– Pixels along edge are converted to maximum values
– Each pixel determined to be an edge pixel or not using two thresholds (hysteresis)
• LoG operator
– Image is convolved with Gaussian function after which the second derivative is computed
– Masks similar to those below are used


• Intensity transformations
– Refers to transformations related to adjustments of pixel intensities
– Mapping of pixels from input image to output image is done using gamma curve
– Brighter values are produced using γ < 1 and darker values are produced using γ > 1
– An intensity band, say [0.2, 0.5], can be expanded to full range [0, 1]
– Images can be inverted using a mapping of [0, 1] to [1, 0]
– Associated MATLAB commands : imadjust


• Histogram Processing
– Histogram is defined as the relation between pixel frequencies against gray levels
– Represented as a discrete function h(rk) = nk where rk is the intensity at level k and nk is number of
pixels having intensity rk
– Histogram equalization is the modification of the histogram to distribute a narrow range of gray
values across the entire available range
– Histogram equalization generally leads to a marked improvement in tonal quality of an image
– Histograms are usually depicted pictorially using a bar graph
– Associated MATLAB commands : imhist, plot, bar


• Logical Operations
– AND operation is represented by minimum value of corresponding pixels
– OR operation is represented by maximum value of corresponding pixels
– NOT operation is represented by the inverse pixel value (subtracted from 255)
– Associated MATLAB commands : min, max, uint8, double


• Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
– Converts an image from spatial to frequency domain
– The (u,v)-th frequency term is given by the following where f(x,y) is the (x,y)-th
pixel of an image having dimensions M by N
– The inverse transform depicts conversion of frequency domain signal back to

time domain values
– Magnitude and phase angle of transform is
– Associated MATLAB commands : fft2, fftshift


• Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT)
– Converts an image from spatial to frequency domain but uses only real values
– The (u,v)-th frequency term is given by the following where f(x,y) is the (x,y)-th
pixel of an image having dimensions M by N
– The inverse transform depicts conversion of frequency domain signal back to

time domain values
– Associated MATLAB command : dct2


• Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)
– Similar to DFT but uses small waves of varying frequency and limited duration,
as basis functions
– Analyzes the signal at different resolutions by decomposing into an
approximation coefficient and a number of detail coefficients
– The 2D DWT of an M by N image A is given by
– B : blur or approximation coefficient, represents average value of A

– H : horizontal detail coefficient, represents differences along rows of A
– V :vertical detail coefficient, represents differences along columns of A
– D :diagonal detail coefficient, represents differences along diagonals of A
– Associated MATLAB commands : wavedec2, appcoef2, detcoef2


• Noise modeling
– Noise refers to unwanted random variation in image pixels generated due to reasons like
interference, digitization, defects of lenses, motion etc.
– Small random dots arising due to amplification distortions is called Gaussian noise.
– A mixture of bright and dark spots is called salt-and-pepper noise
– Average blurring is produced by defects in lenses
– Motion blurring is produced due to motion of camera and/or objects
– Associated MATLAB commands : imnoise, fspecial, imfilter


• Image filtering in spatial domain
– Filtering is used to either suppress high-frequency components using a low-
pass filter or suppress low-frequency components using a high-pass filter
– Spatial domain filtering is performed directly in spatial domain by convolving
image by filter function
– Mean filter : each pixel replaced by mean value of its neighbours including itself
– Often a 3 × 3 or 5× 5 kernel is used.
– Median filter : each pixel in the image is replaced by the median of the pixel
values in the neighbourhood i.e. within the kernel window.
– Especially effective in removing salt-and-pepper noise
– A Gaussian filter uses a kernel whose coefficients are generated using a
Gaussian function. Such filters produce a blurring effect
– Associated MATLAB commands : imfilter, medfilt2, imnoise, fspecial


• Image filtering in frequency domain
– Frequency domain filtering is done by converting the image to frequency domain and multiplying
with DFT of filter function
– Convolution operation in spatial domain becomes a multiplication operation in frequency domain
– F, H, G are the frequency domain representations of f, h, g
– Associated MATLAB commands : fft2, fftshift, fspecial, imfilter, mesh

Color Image Processing

• Seeing color
– Depends on 3 factors : nature of light, physiology of human vision, interaction of light with matter
– Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, visible spectrum ranges from 400 to 700 nm in wavelength
– Light enters through the retina of eye and falls on rod/cone cells which produce color sensations
– When light falls on an object part of it gets absorbed and the remaining part gets reflected
– The wavelengths present in the reflected light cause different sensations of color


• Color models and spaces
– Used in recognizing and expressing information related to color
– Most of the colors we see can be derived by mixing a few elementary colors, called primary colors,
– A color model defines the primary colors and the range of values they can take.
– The color gamut is the total range of colors the model can represent
– Color models like RGB and CMY are called device dependent, as the color shades they produce
depend on the physical properties of devices
– RGB model used for monitors, has a larger gamut than CMY used for printers
– This implies that all colors viewed on a screen cannot be printed out


• CIE XYZ
– Color model defined by CIE based on tri-stimulus values of color X, Y,
Z derived from peak sensitivities of photo-receptors in human eye
– Derived parameters x, y, z, called color matching functions, indicate
chromatic responses of a standard observer
– Plotting x and y for all visible colors, produces the CIE chromacity
diagram which is the projection of XYZ space onto the XY plane
– Luminosity function is the average visual sensitivity of the human
eye to lights of different wavelength.
– Color temperature of a light source is the temperature in Kelvin (K)
of a black-body radiator that radiates light of same color
– Color temperature of white point specification D65 is 6504K and D50
is 5003K
– Chromacity values of D65 are (x=0.313, y=0.331) for 10°
– Chromacity values of D50 are (x=0.347, y=0.359) for 10°


• CIE LAB
– Derived from CIE XYZ model with objective of making it more perceptually uniform
– L represents lightness, ‘a’ represents the red-green axis and ‘b’ represents the yellow-blue axis
– CIE LAB closely matches with human perception of color and is used during color calibration for
conversion of color spaces from one device to another
– CIE LAB is not device dependent and its gamut is larger than both RGB and CMYK


• RGB
– RGB (red green blue) model is used to describe behaviour of colored lights emitting from screens
and monitors.
– Called additive model as all three primary colors add up to produce white
– Equal amounts of primary colors (R, G, B) produce secondary colors cyan, yellow, magenta
– RGB color cube consists of primary and secondary colors at the 6 vertices and white and black at the
other two.
– Proportions of colors are represented in range 0 to 255


• sRGB
– A color space with defined chromacity values created by HP and
Microsoft defined in ITU-T Rec. 709
– Occupies 35% of LAB color space and uses D65 white point
Chromacity Red Green Blue White

x 0.64 0.3 0.15 0.3127
y 0.33 0.6 0.06 0.3290
z 0.03 0.1 0.79 0.3583
• AdobeRGB
– A color space created by Adobe with defined chromacity values
– Occupies 50.6% of LAB color space and uses D65 white point
Chromacity Red Green Blue White

x 0.64 0.21 0.15 0.3127
y 0.33 0.71 0.06 0.3290
z 0.03 0.08 0.79 0.3583


• CMYK
– CMY (cyan magenta yellow) model is used to describe behaviour of colored inks on paper.
– Called subtractive model as all three primary colors combine to produce black
– Equal amounts of primary colors (C, M, Y) produce secondary colors red, green, blue.
– To account for impurities of ink, pure black (K) color added to the model
– CMY color cube consists of primary and secondary colors at the 6 vertices and white and black at
the other two.
– Proportions of colors are represented in range 0 to 100.


• HSV
– HSV (hue saturation value) model is based on human perception of color.
– Hue H is the actual color measured in angles on a circular surface, and
ranges from 0 for red, 120 for green and 240 for blue
– Saturation S is the amount of gray added to the color and ranges from 1
for saturated colors to 0 for white
– Value V indicates level of illumination on the color and ranges from 0 for
black to 1 for white
– HSV model appears as an inverted cone, derived from the RGB cube
– H is measured along circumference of the cone base
– S is measured radially from center to periphery of the base
– V is measured vertically from apex to base of cone
– RGB colors can be converted to HSV and vice versa
– Associated MATLAB commands : rgb2hsv, hsv2rgb


HSL
• HSL
– HSL (hue saturation lightness) model is similar to HSV but
instead of an inverted cone, it looks like a double cone
– Hue H is the actual color measured in angles on a circular
surface, and ranges from 0 for red, 120 for green and 240 for
blue
– Saturation S ranges from 1 for saturated colors to 0 for gray
– Lightness L ranges from 0 for black, 0.5 for saturated colors and
1 for white
– Conceptually HSL is considered more improved than HSV as it is
symmetrical with respect to saturation and lightness


• Indexed Mode Image
– Indexed image has a data matrix X and color matrix M
– RGB values are inserted in a color map and data matrix contains index value of each color in map
– The first image contains 2 colors, 0 and 1, whose distribution is given in XI and actual values in MI
– The second image contains 3 colors, 0, 1 and 2, whose distribution is given in XJ actual values in MJ
– The color map, also called CLUT (color look up table) is represented by 8-bit index values, and hence
can compress a 24-bit image by about 3 times
– Associated MATLAB commands : rgb2ind


• Color transformations
– An RGB image can be separated into constituent
color channels, each channel requiring 8-bit
information
– When converting an RGB image to indexed
mode, the total number of colors can be
specified
– Associated MATLAB commands : rgb2ind
– Pre-defined color maps can be used to change

the color combinations of an existing image
– Pre-defined color maps include : hot, bone,
copper, pink, flag, colorcube, jet, prism, cool,
autumn, winter, summer


• Color transformations
– An RGB image can be converted to a grayscale image by
combining the individual R, G, B values to a single value within
range [0, 255]
– The simplest way is to use the average of the three values as

value of the gray shade i.e. Y = (R+G+B)/3
– However sensitivity of human eye is different for different colors

and a more accurate representation is Y = 0.3R + 0.6G + 0.1B
– When an indexed image is converted to grayscale,
corresponding to each color in its color map, a gray shade is
computed
– Associated MATLAB commands : rgb2gray


• Color transformations (contd.)
– A grayscale image is converted to binary mode by specifying a threshold
– If the original pixel value is less than the threshold, it is assigned value 0, otherwise value 1
– Larger thresholds results in darker images
– Color images are first converted to grayscale and then they are converted to binary images
– Associated MATLAB commands : rgb2gray, im2bw


• Arithmetic operations
– On color images arithmetic operations work the same way as grayscale or binary images, with the
difference that all three color matrices are affected
– Linear combination of color images can produce new colors not present in original images


• Logical Operations
– On color images logical operations work the same way as
grayscale or binary images, with the difference that all three
color matrices are affected


• Intensity transformations
– On color images work the same way as
grayscale or binary images but all three
• Noise modeling
– On color images work the same way as
grayscale or binary images, but all three


• Edge Detection
– Done by convolving with a mask similar to a grayscale
image
– A color image when convolved with a Laplacian mask
produce an edge detected image
– This when subtracted from the original image produce a
sharpened image with well defined edges
– This process can be repeated for more sharpened looks

Image Output on Monitors

• Display Considerations
– Size of an image on screen is determined by pixel dimensions of the image and the size and settings
of the monitor
– Color-depth supported by the monitor determines the total numbers of colors viewable on screen
– Monitor resolution determines whether the image on screen looks bigger, smaller or the same size
as the original image
– Viewing mode determines what part of the screen is occupied by the image


• Gamma correction
– A perfectly linear gradient from black to white is distorted by the monitor because of its non-linear
characteristics
– Equal increments in pixel values do not result in equal increments in screen brightness e.g. 50%
increase in pixel brightness produces 20% increase in screen brightness
– This can be represented by a gamma function whose value is around 2.5
– Output pixel Po is changed from the input pixel Pi by a gamma factor γ


• Gamma correction
– To prevent pictures from being excessively dark, a gamma correction is applied
– Value of input pixel is increased by (1/γ) which is then reduced by the CRT by factor γ to arrive
at the desired value
– Physically gamma correction is applied through a CLUT between the image and monitor
– A full correction of 2.5 makes the image excessively bright hence a partial correction of 1.7 is
actually applied


• Color management
– Color of images are device dependent and hence varies from monitor to monitor
– A color management system (CMS) is a set of software tools used to maintain consistent color
throughout the print production process
– ICC (International Color Consortium) established a standard by which device profiles are stored in
ICC files and a CMM (color management module) uses these profiles to make color corrections
– A device color space is first translated to a device-independent color space like CIE LAB
– Then it is translated back to another device space to determine what changes in color values are
needed to maintain the same color shade

Image Output on Printers

• LASER printer
– Consists of a photoconductor drum on which a charging roll applies uniform negative charge
– A LASER beam creates a charge image on the photoconductor drum
– The developer roll applies powdered toner on charge image
– The transfer roll attracts toner particles onto the paper
– The hot roll heats the toner particles to melt them
– The pressure roll fuses the melted toner with the paper
– The cleaning blade removes the residue and prepares the drum for the next cycle
– Colored printing is produced using cyan, magenta, yellow and black toners


• Inkjet printer
– In thermal type, ink emission is initiated by heating liquid ink in a reservoir
– Expansion forces ink out of a nozzle onto the paper
– Limitations : ink should not decompose on heating, heating cooling cycle impose speed restriction
– Used by Canon and HP
– In alternative piezo-electric type, a piezo crystal is used to force ink out of reservoir
– Electric current through piezo crystal force it to oscillate and create pressure on ink reservoir
– Advantages : no heating required, ink can be manufactured with more flexibility, no speed
restrictions, more control over sizes of ink droplets by varying current through crystal


• Adjusting print resolutions
– Let w and h be width and height of image in pixels
– Let R be the resolution in dpi
– Printed dimensions W and H of image is given by following
– To reduce W and H to W’ and H’ (W’ < W, H’ < H) but keep w and h intact
– Resolution R to be increased to R’ (R’ > R) given by

Image File Formats

• BMP
– Native uncompressed format for Window, supports 24-bit images
• JPEG
– 24-bit lossy compressed format based on Transform coding, for viewing photographic images
• GIF
– 8-bit format based on CLUT, supports transparency, suitable graphics, maps, logo etc.
• TIFF
– 24-bit format based on lossless compression like LZW, for printing and archiving images
• PNG
– 24-bit lossless compression for Web applications, supports transparency

Image Processing Software

• Major Features
– Object selection
– Color selection
– Painting and Drawing
– Anti-aliasing and Dithering
– Gradients
– Text
– Transformations
– Tonal adjustments and Color adjustments
– Retouching
– Layers
– Channels
– Cloning
– Masks
– Erase and Move
– Thresholding
– Filters

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RANJAN PAREKH Principles of MULTIMEDIA, 2E © 2013 Tata McGraw-Hill Education

INSTRUCTOR'S MATERIALS Chapter – 3 : 2

Image Data Representation

CONTENTS INSTRUCTOR'S MATERIALS Chapter – 3 : 3

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– Associated MATLAB commands : imadd, imsubtract, imabsdiff, immutiply, imdivide, imlincomb

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Binary Image Processing

– Associated MATLAB commands : im2bw, bwmorph, imdilate,

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Binary Image Processing

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Grayscale Image Processing

– Prewitt masks for detecting horizontal and vertical edges

– Roberts masks for detecting horizontal and vertical edges

– Associated MATLAB commands : rgb2gray, edge, fspecial, imfilter

CONTENTS INSTRUCTOR'S MATERIALS Chapter – 3 : 16

Grayscale Image Processing

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Grayscale Image Processing

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Grayscale Image Processing

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Grayscale Image Processing

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Grayscale Image Processing

– The inverse transform depicts conversion of frequency domain signal back to

– Magnitude and phase angle of transform is

– Associated MATLAB commands : fft2, fftshift

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Grayscale Image Processing

– The inverse transform depicts conversion of frequency domain signal back to

– Associated MATLAB command : dct2

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Grayscale Image Processing

– B : blur or approximation coefficient, represents average value of A

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Grayscale Image Processing

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Grayscale Image Processing

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Grayscale Image Processing

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Color Image Processing

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Color Image Processing

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Color Image Processing

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Color Image Processing

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Color Image Processing

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Color Image Processing

Chromacity Red Green Blue White

Chromacity Red Green Blue White