UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.

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UNIT
GENERAL CONCEPTS

1 SIA GROUP

PART-A
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
Q1. Explain the various factors affecting the distribution system planning.
Ans: Model Paper-IV, Q1(a)
1. The most important factor affecting the distribution system planning is the load forecasting of electric power utility
2. Substation site selection and expansion
3. Physical size and land availability
4. Number of feeder circuits and selection of feeder conductor size
5. Design of overhead and underground transmission lines
6. The rates that are charged to the customer
7. Power loss and economic factors
8. Rating limitations
9. Availability of spare transformers, mobile substations etc
10. The overall cost of the distribution system, i.e., capital cost, installation cost, maintenance and operating cost etc.
Q2. Write short notes on (i) economic factor and (ii) demographic factor.
Ans:
(i) Economic Factor
There are several economic factors which has an impact on distribution system planning. The first factor is inflation. Due
to energy shortages, cost of energy conversion, environmental concerns and over expense of government, the inflation is rising
up which is a major factor.
The second important factor is increase in expenses to gain capital. As the inflation rises up, the supply of money will be
less which in turn will increase the competition for buying the capital for the expansion of distribution systems.
The third factor is the difficulty in raising customer rates. As the rates are increasing “Inertia” also rises up which usually
arrived from inflation.
(ii) Demographic Factor
Increase in population will effect the distribution system planning in the future. The important consideration in this is
that the migration of population from the rural areas to the urban areas. The number of large families from rural move towards
the metropolitan areas and there are no forces to stop them. The main consideration of distribution planners is that, as the rural
population migrate to urban areas, the population must also leave the small towns which are dependent on rural areas. Thus, the
migration of population from rural areas to urban areas result in the energy shortage.
Q3. Write short notes on Load Duration Curve.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(a)
Load Duration Curve
A curve which is plotted by taking per unit peak load on y-axis and per unit time on x-axis is known as load duration curve.
In this curve, the maximum peak points of the daily demand variation. Curve are selected and then joined together.
In this curve, the magnitudes of the loads are in decreasing order. Therefore, the maximum load is represented to the left
and the decreasing loads are represented to the right of the curve.
Depending upon the time period of operation of loads, load-duration curves can be daily, weekly, monthly or annual.

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1.2 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Load-duration curve is shown in figure.

Figure: Load Duration Curve

Q4. Explain the following,
(i) Coincidence factor
(ii) Loss factor.
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(a)
(i) Coincidence Factor
It is defined as the ratio of coincidence maximum demand to the sum of individual maximum demand.
Coincident maximum demand
i.e., Coincidence Factor (CF) =
Sum of individual maximum demand

Dg
CF = n

∑D
i =1
i

(ii) Loss Factor

It is defined as the ratio of the average power loss to the peak – Load power loss during a specified period of time.

Average power loss

i.e., Loss factor, fLS =
Power loss at peak load

Q5. Define coincidence factor and write its significance on distribution system.
Ans: Nov.-16, Set-4, Q1(a)

Coincidence Factor
For answer refer Unit-I, Q4, Topic: Coincidence Factor
Significance of Coincidence Factor
Generally, the individual maximum demands of loads occur at different time intervals. Hence, the sum of individual
maximum demands is higher than the maximum demand on the power system. Therefore, the coincidence factor is always less
than 1.
The coincidence factor plays a significant role on a distribution system. It affects the cost of generation in a power system,
i.e., lesser the coincidence factor, lesser will be the cost of generation. On the other hand, for high value of coincidence factor the
cost of generation will be high. But it is always economical to have less cost of generation. Hence, lesser values of coincidence
factor are preferred.
Q6. Write the significance of load factor?
Ans: Nov.-16, Set-1, Q1(a)

The load factor plays a key role in determining the overall cost per unit generated. To supply the maximum energy
requirements of consumers, it is necessary to install a power plant whose installed capacity should meet its maximum demand.
If the average load of consumers is equal to the maximum demand of the generating station, then the load factor will be equal
to its maximum value of 1 i.e., 100% and the consumer will make use of the total installed capacity all the time, due to which
the cost of energy per unit generated will be minimum. This can be explained better with the help of an example. Suppose a

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.3
consumer has a peak demand of x kW and uses (24 × 30 × x) kWhr/month = 720x kWhr/month i.e., monthly load factor which
is 100% and consider another consumer whose peak demand is 2x kW and he uses same kWhr/month as the previous consumer,
then his monthly load factor will be 50% due to which the generating plant needs twice the generating capacity and also twice
transmission and distribution capacity and hence, the cost of energy per unit generated will be increased. Therefore, higher the
load factor i.e., more the units used lesser will be the cost per unit generated. Hence, generating plants are always installed with
higher load factor.
Q7. Define the following,
(i) Load factor
(ii) Contribution Factor.
Ans:
(i) Load Factor
It is defined as the ratio of average load to the peak load.
Average load
i.e., Load factor =
Power load
(ii) Contribution Factor
It is defined as the contribution of the load to the group maximum demand.

i.e., Contribution factor, fC =

If the contributed load = C1 × D1 + C2 × D2 + C3 × D3 +....Cn × Dn and group of demand,

DG = D1 + D2 + D3 + ..... + Dn
n
DG = ∑D
i =1
i

C1D1 + C2 D2 + C3 D3 + ..... + DnCn

∴ Contribution factor, fC = n

∑D
i =1
i

∑C D i i
=i =1n
∑D
i =1
i

Q8. Explain the following terms,

(i) Maximum demand
(ii) Coincident demand
(iii) Non-coincident demand.
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q1(a)

(i) Maximum Demand

Maximum demand is defined as the greatest demand occurring in a system during a given period of time.
(ii) Coincident Demand
Coincident demand is defined as the demand of a composite group of the loads which are not related, during a given period
of time. It is also known as diversified demand.
(iii) Non-coincident Demand
Non-coincident demand is defined as the total sum of the individual demands of the group of loads. Here, the time period
is not specified. Hence, the demand intervals of the loads are considered without any restrictions.

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1.4 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q9. Explain the following factors,
(i) Contribution factor
(ii) Load diversity
(iii) Loss factor.
Ans:
(i) Contribution Factor
For answer refer Unit-I, Q7(ii).
(ii) Load Diversity
Load diversity is defined as the difference between the sum of individual maximum demands of two or more loads and
the overall peak load. Load diversity is denoted by L.D.
n
L.D = ∑D
i =1
i
– Dg

Where,
Di = Individual maximum demand of ith consumer
n = Total number of loads
Dg = Peak load.
(iii) Loss Factor
For answer refer Unit-I, Q4(ii).
Q10. What is meant by the term load? How loads can be classified?
Ans:
The term load means an entity, when operated, draws power from a system.
Loads are classified into the following,
(i) Domestic loads
(ii) Commercial loads
(iii) Industrial loads
(iv) Agricultural loads or irrigation loads
(v) Municipal or common loads
(vi) Traction loads.
Q11. The average load factor of a substation is 0.65. Determine the average loss factor at
(i) Urban area
(ii) Rural area.
Ans: Nov.-16, Set-2, Q1(a)

Given that,
Average load factor of a substation, FLD = 0.65
To determine,
(i) Average loss factor at urban area.
(ii) Average loss factor at rural area.
(i) Average loss factor at urban area is given by,
2
FLS = 0.3 FLD + 0.7 F LD
= 0.3(0.65) + 0.7 (0.65)2

= 0.491
(ii) Average loss factor at rural area is given by,
2
FLS = 0.16 FLD + 0.84 F LD
= 0.16(0.65) + 0.84 (0.65)2

= 0.459

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.5
Q12. Define hot reserve and spinning power.
Ans: Nov.-16, Set-3, Q1(a)

Hot Reserve
The reserve generating capacity which is in operation but not in service is called hot reserve.
Spinning Power
The generating capacity which is connected to the bus bars and prepared for getting the load is called spinning reserve (or)
spinning power.
Q13. Discuss the characteristics of Industrial.
Ans:
Loads used in industries are called industrial loads. The industries uses the loads depending on the type of the industry,
i.e., for a cottage industry the load required is less about 5 kW.
For small scale industries the load requirement is of about 5 to 25 kW. For medium it is about 25-100 kW and for large
scale and heavy industries the load requirement is 100 to 500 kW and greater than 500 kW. The demand factor and load factor
for large scale industries are 70 to 80% and 60 to 65% respectively. Similarly, the demand factor and load factor for heavy scale
industries is given by 85 to 90% and 70 to 80% respectively. These loads are independent of weather i.e., the load required is
same irrespective of the climatic conditions. The load curve for an industrial load is shown in figure.

Figure: Load-curve for Industrial Load

Characteristics of Industrial Load
(i) From figure it can be seen that the load is not utilized during the period 0 to 5 hours, i.e., during this period the industries
uses minimum amount of load. In figure, the minimum portion is given by AB.
(ii) Most of the industries uses load from 5 to 20 hours, which is clear from the figure i.e., during this time the industries utilize
maximum load. This portion is represented by “BC” in figure.
(iii) Again after the time period i.e., 20th hour the industries uses less load. During this period the industries are shut-downed
which is given by the portion ‘CD’ in figure.
Q14. The load of 120 kW is connected at the substation. The 30 min weekly maximum demand is given by
85 kW and the weekly energy consumption is 4300 kWh. Consider a week is 7 days. Determine the
demand factor and the 30 min weekly load factor of the substation
Ans:
Given that,
Load, P = 120 kW
Maximum Demand = 85 kW
Energy consumed, E = 4300 kWh
Consider a week = 7 days (given)
Demand factor = ?
Load factor = ?

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1.6 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
We have, (i) The Average Annual Power Loss
The demand factor is given by, We know that,
Maximum demand
Demand factor = FLS =
Total connected load
85 Average power loss = FLS × Power loss at peak load
=
120 = 0.15 × 80 kW
= 0.708
= 12 kW
Load factor is given by,
(ii) Total Annual Energy Loss
Energy consumed in T hours
Load factor, L.F = Total annual energy loss = Average power loss × 8760 hrs
Maximum demand × T
4300 = 12 kW × 8760 hrs
=
85 × 7 × 24 = 105120 kWh
= 0.301 = 105.12 MWh.
Q15. The annual input to a sub-transmission system Q17. A generating station supplies four feeders with
is 87600 MWh. On the peak load day of the year, the maximum demands of 16 MW; 10 MW; 12
the peak is 25 MW and the energy input on that MW and 7 MW. The overall maximum demand
day is 300 MWh. Find the load factor for the year on the station is 20 MW and the annual load
and for the peak load day. factor is 45%. Find the diversity factor and the
Ans: number of units generated annually.

Given that, Ans: Oct./Nov.-17, Set-4, Q2(b)

Given that,
Annual input = 87600 MWh
Load supplied = 16 MW, 10 MW, 12 MW and 7 MW
Maximum demand = 25 MW
Maximum demand on station = 20 MW
Energy input on peak day = 300 MWh
Annual load factor = 45%
Load factor = To determine,
Diversity factor = ?
87600
∴ Load for the year = = 0.4 Number of units generated annually = ?
25 × 8760
300 Diversity Factor
Load factor for the peak load day =
25 × 24 Sum of maximum demands
Diversity factor =
= 0.5 Station maximum demand
Q16. Assume that the annual peak load of a primary 16 + 10 + 12 + 7
feeder is 2000 kW, at which the power is =
20
80 kW per three-phase. Assuming an annual
loss factor of 0.15. Determine, = 2.25

(i) The average annual power loss Number of Units Generated Annually
The load factor is given as,
(ii) The total annual energy loss due to the
copper losses of the feeder. Number of units generated annually
Annual load factor =
Maximum demand × 24 × 365
Ans: Nov.-16, Set-3, Q2(b)

Given that, Number of units generated annually,

= Annual load factor × Maximum demand × 24 × 365
Annual peak load = 2000 kW
= 0.45 × 20 × 24 × 3
Peak load power loss = 80 kW
= 78840
Annual loss factor, FLS = 0.15
= 0.7884 × 105 units

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.7
Q18. The load curves of two different categories of Q20. A feeder supplies 2 MW to an area. The
loads and system peak load are as follows: total losses at peak load are 100 kW and
Peak load for industrial load: 2000 kW, Peak units supplied to that area during a year are
load for residential load: 2000 kW, System 5.61 millions. What is the loss factor and
peak load: 3000 kW. What is diversity factor average power loss?
and coincidence factor of the system?
Ans: Oct./Nov.-17, Set-3, Q1(a)
Ans: Oct./Nov.-17, Set-1, Q1(a)
Given that, Given that,
Industrial peak load = 2000 kW Feeder input = 2 MW = 2 × 103 kW
Residential peak load = 2000 kW Total peak load losses = 100 kW
System peak load = 3000 kW
Units supplied to the feeder area during a year,
To determine,
= 5.61 × 106 units
Diversity factor = ?
Coincidence factor = ? Required to determine,
We have, Loss factor, FLS = ?
The diversity factor, Average power loss, PLoss = ?
Sum of peak loads 2000 + 2000 4 Using the relation of load factor and loss factor, we have,
= = = = 1.33
System peak load 3000 3 2
FLS = 0.3FLD + 0.7 FLD
We know that,
Where,
System peak load 3000
Coincidence factor = = FLD = Load factor
Sum of peak loads 2000 + 2000
Total units supplied in a year
3 Annual Load factor, FLD =
= Annual peak load × 8760 hours
4
5.61× 10 6
= 0.75 =
2 × 10 3 × 8760
Q19. Find the annual load factor and average demand
given that peak load is 3.5 MW and energy ∴ FLD = 0.32
supplied is 10 million units (107 kWh). Peak 2
∴ Annual loss factor, FLS = 0.3FLD + 0.7 FLD
demand was recorded during April-June.
= 0.3(0.32) + 0.7(0.32)2
Ans: Oct./Nov.-17, Set-2, Q1(a)

Given that, = 0.168

Annual peak load = 3.5 MW = 3500 kW Average power loss,
Annual energy supplied = 10 million units Ploss = Annual loss factor × Power loss at peak load
= –107 kWh
= 0.168 × 100
To find,
Annual load factor = ? = 16.8 kW
Average demand = ? Q21. A substation has a connected load of 45 MW
We have, and a maximum demand of 22 MW, the units
supplied being 60 × 106 per annum. Determine
The annual load factor is given by,
the load factor and demand factor.
Total annual energy
Load factor = Ans: Oct./Nov.-17, Set-4, Q1(a)
Annual peak load × 8760 hrs
107 Given that,
= = 0.326
3500 × 8760 Load, P = 45 MW = 45 × 103 kW

Average demand = Maximum demand = 22 MW = 22 × 103 kW

Units supplied = 60 × 106 per annum
107
= Load factor = ?
8760
= 1141.55 kW Demand factor = ?

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1.8 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
We have,
Average demand
Load factor =
Maximum demand
Where,
Units supplied/annum
Average demand =
8760
60 ×106
=
8760
= 6849.32

Then,

Average demand
Load factor =
Maximum demand
6849.32
=
22 × 103
= 0.31
Maximum demand
Demand factor =
Connected load
22
=
45

=
0.49

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.9

PART-B
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Q22. Explain how the load growth in a distribution system can be obtained?
Ans:
With the increase in population, there will be a growth in residential and commercial areas. Due to this growth, new loads
are added in the distribution system to obtain load growth, these loads must be properly optimized.
The load growth of the geographical area plays an important role in the expansion of the distribution system. Hence, load
forecasting of the increased loads is customary for the planning in a distribution system.
The data that is pertaining to the growth in load can be represented by a logarithmic function as specified by the exponential
trend.
z
yl = cd ... (1)
The above equation is sometimes referred to as load growth equation, as it is used to explain the changes occurring in load
for a given time.
If the rate of load growth is known, then the load at the end of ith year is given by,
pi = po (1 + g)i
Where, ... (2)
pi = Load at the end of i year
th

po = Initial load
g = Annual growth rate
i = Total number of years.
Hence, in this way load growth is obtained.
If in the equations (1) and (2), the values are set such that,
yl = pi, po = c, 1 + g = d and i = z, then, we get,
yl = cd z i.e., equation (2) is similar to that of equation (1).
Q23. List out and explain the various functions in distribution automation.
Ans:
The various control functions used in distribution automation are classified into three types. They are,
1. Load management functions
2. Real-time operational management functions
3. Remote meter reading functions.
1. Load Management Functions
These functions are used to control the loads at the consumer terminals. The loads are controlled by the remote control
present at the centre of the distribution automation.
Load management functions are further classified as follows,
(a) Discretionary load switching
(b) Peak-load pricing
(c) Load shedding
(d) Cold load pick up.
(a) Discretionary Load Switching
This function is also known as customer load management function. It controls the loads of the individual consumers from
a remote central location. The loads that can be controlled by this function are water heaters, air conditioners, space heaters,
thermal storage heaters etc. In this control function, the load is controlled not only by the meters but also by the dispatching
centres.

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1.10 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The two main purposes of this control function are,
(i) To reduce the peak load of the entire system and
(ii) To reduce the load on a particular distribution
substation or feeder when it is overloaded.
(b) Peak-load Pricing
This function is similar to that of discretionary load
switching control function, except that the loads in this
function are controlled only by the meters. The main
purpose of peak-load pricing is to obtain the time of day
metering. Therefore, it employs automatic switching of
meter registers for implementing peak-load pricing
programs.
(c) Load Shedding
This function helps in rapid dropping of large blocks of
load, under certain conditions, according to a priority that
is established.
(d) Cold Load Pick Up
The load that is dropped by the load shedding must be
picked up by this function. Hence, this function can be
termed as a corollary of load shedding.
2. Real-time Operational Management Functions
These functions are used to control the equipment
installed by the remote control of switches and breakers.
Real-time operational management functions are further
classified as follows,
(a) Load reconfiguration
(b) Voltage regulation
(c) Transformer load management
(d) Feeder load management
(e) Capacitor control
(f) Dispersed storage and generation
(g) Fault detection, location and isolation
(h) Load studies
(i) Condition and state monitoring.
(a) Load Reconfiguration
This function allows the daily, monthly and seasonal
load reconfiguration of feeders or feeder segments by
the remote control of switches and circuit breakers.
The main purpose of this function is to serve the larger
loads effectively without any feeder reinforcement or
new construction. It considers the advantage of load
diversity among feeders, for achieving its purpose.
(b) Voltage Regulation
This function involves the remote control of selected
voltage regulators along with the network capacitor
switching within the distribution network. When the
voltage regulators and network capacitor switching are
controlled, it results in effective coordination of voltage
control from a central facility.
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(c) Transformer Load Management (TLM)
This function manages the transformer loading data and
core temperature of the transformer by monitoring and
reporting it continuously. Hence, the main purpose of
this function is to avoid overload burnouts or abnormal
operation of transformer by reinforcement, replacement
or reconfiguration.
(d) Feeder Load Management (FLM)
The functions of Feeder Load Management (FCM) are
similar to that of Transformer Load Management (TLM).
But in this, the loads on the feeders are measured and
monitored instead of the loads of transformers. This
function allows the equalization of loads over several
feeders.
(e) Capacitor Control
Using this function, the distribution capacitors in the
distribution networks are controlled by remote control
switching of the capacitors.
(f) Dispersed Storage and Generation
This function exercises control over the storage and
generation equipment located at the strategic places
throughout the distribution system. These equipments
may be used for peak shaving. The main purpose of this
function is to coordinate the sites where these equipments
are located, by the remote control.
(g) Fault Detection, Location and Isolation
This function permits the dispatcher to send the repair
crews faster to the place where the fault is located. By
doing so, the service interruption time of the consumers
can be reduced. The faults are detected by the sensors
present throughout the distribution network. Hence,
when the faults are detected, the information regarding
the abnormal conditions is reported. This information is
used to locate the faults and to isolate the faulty portion
from the distribution network with the help of protective
devices and by circuit reconfiguration.
(h) Load Studies
This function involves the load data to be gathered and
recorded automatically on-line. This data is used for
special off-line analysis. This gathered data may be
located at the collection point, at the substation or it can
be transmitted to a dispatch center. The main purpose of
this function is to provide accurate and timely data for the
planning, designing of power systems to the distribution
engineers.
(i) Condition and State Monitoring
This function permits the gathering of real-time data
and reporting it. The main purpose of this function is to
known the status of the power system at every minute
of time.
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UNIT-1 General Concepts
3. Remote Meter Reading Functions
These functions are used to allow the remote reading of
the consumers. By doing so, the total consumption of the load,
peak demand, time of consumption for the whole day can be
determined. With the help of meter reading of the consumers,
the unnecessary man-hours can be saved.
These functions are classified as,
 Remote Service Connect or Disconnect
This function helps in remote control of services
by connecting and disconnecting the switches of an
individual consumer a central control located in the
distribution systems.
Q24. What is a distribution system? How is it
subdivided to cater the needs of the consumers?
Ans: (Nov./Dec.-14, Set-1, Q2(a) | Model Paper-I, Q2(a))
Distribution System
Distribution system is the part of power system which
distributes power to the consumer for utilization. It is the final
stage in the delivery of electric-power from transmission system
to individual consumer premises. This system is mainly fed
between substation transmission system and consumer meters.
Classification of Distribution Systems
A distribution system can be classified according to,
(i) Nature of Current
According to the nature of current distribution system
may be classified as D.C.distribution system, A.C distribution
system. Nowadays, A.C. system is universally adopted
for distribution of electric power as it is simpler and more
economical than direct current method.
(ii) Type of Construction
According to type of construction, distribution system
may be classified as overhead system, underground system.
The overhead system is generally employed for distribution
as it is 5 to 10 times cheaper than the equivalent underground
system. In general, the underground system is used at places
where overhead construction is impracticable or prohibited by
the laws.
(iii) Scheme of Connection
According to scheme of connection, the distribution
system may be classified as,
(a) Radial system
(b) Ring main system
(c) Interconnected system
A.C. Distribution System
Electrical energy is generated, transmitted, distributed
in the form of A.C. current. A.C distribution system is mainly
used because alternating voltage can be easily changed in
magnitude by the means of a transformer. High transmission and
distribution reduces the current in the conductor which reduces
line losses. A.C distribution is further divided into two types
i.e., primary distribution and secondary distribution system.
1.11
D.C Distribution System
D.C supply is used for instance operation of variable
speed machinery such as, D.C motors in storage battery reserves
areas etc, For this purpose, A.C power is converted into D.C
power by means of rotary converter and motor generator sets.
The D.C. supply from substations can be done by two ways
2-wire and 3-wire distribution.
Need of Distribution System
A good distribution system will maintain the power
supply with in the need or requirement of consumers. The
following are some of the requirements of distribution systems
for various type of consumers.
1. Proper Voltage
One important requirement of a distribution system is
that voltage variations at consumers terminals should be as
low as possible. Due to the variations of a load on the system
it will cause the changes in voltages. Low voltage cause loss
of revenue, inefficient lighting and possible burning out of
motors. Lamps burn out due to the high voltages and also high
voltage will effect other appliances. Therefore to maintain
voltage variations at consumer terminals voltages are within
the limits. If the voltage is declared 230 V, the stationary limit
is 244 V, while the lowest voltage of the consumer should not
be less than 216 V. There should be no power failures. If at all
there is a power failure it should be for minimum possible time
at all cost.
2. Availability of Power or Efficient Power on Demand
The distribution system must be capable of supplying
load demands of the consumers. Power must be provided to the
consumers when they want. For example, motors may be started
or shutdown and fans, heaters, lights like home appliances
may be turned-on or off without any complaint to the electric
supply company, power must be provided to the consumers.
This necessitates that operating staff must continuously study
load patterns to predict in advance those major load changes
that follow the known schedules,
3. Reliability
Every industry is almost dependent on electric power,
Homes, offices and Schools are lighted, heated, cooled by
electric power without that power they can`t do anything. The
reliability can be improved by,
(a) Interconnected system.
(b) Reliable automatic control system.
(c) Providing additional reserve facilities.
4. The efficiency of the lines should be maximum say about
90%.
5. The transmission lines should not be overloaded.
6. The insulation resistance of the whole system should be
high.
7. The system must be most economical.
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1.12 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q25. Draw a block diagram in flow chart form for a
typical distribution system planning process and
explain the techniques for distribution planning.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-4, Q1
In the electrical distribution system, planners uses a
variety of computer programs such as load flow programs,
radial or loop load flow programs, short circuit and fault current
calculation programs, voltage drop calculation programs and
total system impedance calculation programs including other
tools such as, load forecasting, voltage regulation, regulator
setting, capacitor planning, reliability and optimal siting and
sizing algorithm. The concept of using output of each program
as the input for another program is not used. Computers makes
calculations very quickly and thus engineers start reviewing the
calculations rather than making them. The above mentioned
tools and programs are truly operated by the judgement of the
distribution planner and overall company operating policy.
The block diagram of distribution system planning
process is as shown in following figure,
Figure: Block Diagram of a Typical Distribution System Planning
Process
This process is repeated each year for about 20 years of
planning period. In the block diagram, four major activities are
shown i.e., load forecasting, distribution system, configuration
design, substation expansion and substation site selection. The
design configuration starts at the customer level. The type of
L o o k f o r t h e SIA GROUP LOGO
distribution system required is directed by the characteristics of
demand type, load factor and other customer load. As soon as
the customer loads are found, the secondary lines are defined,
which are then connected to the distribution transformers. The
loads of these transformers are now combined to determine the
demands on the primary distribution system. The substations
which are step down from subtransmission lines voltages are
assigned to primary distribution system. From the distribution
system loads, the size and location of the substation as well as
the route and capacity of assigned subtransmission lines can
be found out. In the distribution planning process each step is
provided with input for the steps that follows.
In practice, this procedure is impossible to follow. On
receiving the relevant load projection data, system calculations
are made to check whether the present system is capable of
handling the new increased load or not. These steps constitute
the second stage which requires the use of tools such as
distribution load flow program, a voltage profile and a regulation
program.
In order to successfully implement the above procedure,
the acceptability criteria, company policies, obligations to the
consumers and additional constraints includes,
1. Supplying the maximum peak voltage drop to the last
customer on the secondary
2. Continuity of service
3. The maximum value of allowed peak load
4. Service reliability
5. Power losses.
From the block diagram, if the analysis shows that the
present system is not upto the mark to meet the future demand,
then the present system is needed to be replaced by the new,
relatively minor, system additions or a new substation may be
installed to meet the future loads. If the present system is to be
expanded with minor additions, then the additional network
configuration is designed and checked for satisfactory operation.
At this instant, the cost of each configuration is calculated. If the
configuration is expensive or satisfactory operation is not possible,
then the previous original network computation is re-evaluated
with some changes in it. If not the decision is to build a new
substation, then new site has to be selected. If furthermore, the
cost of new site is high then this process is again re-evaluated.
Thus, in this way all the operations are carried out by computer
aided programs until a satisfactory operation is achieved
providing a solution to existing future problems at a reasonable
cost.
1.2 LOAD MODELLING AND
CHARACTERISTICS
Q26. Discuss about the load modeling.
Nov.-16, Set-1, Q2(a)
OR
What is meant by load modeling and explain
their characteristics.
Nov.-16, Set-4, Q2(a)
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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.13
Discuss the different load modelling and explain Let,
with their characteristics.
SR, SY, SB be the apparent powers of R, Y and B phases
Nov./Dec.-14, Set-1, Q1 respectively.
OR
θR, θY, θB be the power factor angles of R, Y and B phases
Explain the importance of load modelling and respectively.
its characteristics in distribution systems.
PR, PY, PB be the real powers of R, Y and B phases
(Nov.-11, Set-4, Q1(a) | Model Paper-I, Q2(b)) respectively.
OR VRN, VYN, VBN be the phase voltages of R, Y and B phases
Explain load modelling and its characteristics. respectively.

Ans: Nov.-10, Set-1, Q1(a)

SR, SY, SB be the load angles of R, Y and B phases
respectively.
Load Modelling
ILR, ILY, ILB be the line currents of R, Y and B phases
Preparing models of the electrical loads on the respectively.
distribution system is called “load modelling”. Load models QR, QY, QB be the reactive powers of R, Y and B phases
are descriptions of behaviour and response of electrical loads. respectively.
Load models are used in steady state analysis and planning. ZR, ZY, ZB be the phase impedances of R, Y and B phases
Load modelling plays a major role in modelling the voltage respectively.
sensitivities of load correctly. Under constant voltage the load Let us consider the load is star connected, then the
is constant. However, the load changes when there is a change complex power is given by,
in supply voltage. At phase R : | SR | ∠θR = PR + jGR
At phase Y : | SY | ∠θY = PY + jGY
Mathematically the model is given by,
At phase R : | SB | ∠θB = PB + jGB
K1
 P  V  Similarly the respective voltages is given by,
 0 =  0
 P  V 
At phase R : VRN = | VRN | ∠δR
V 
K1
At phase Y : VYN = | VYN | ∠δY
⇒ P = P0  0  and
V  At phase B : VBN = | VBN | ∠δB
K2 Now the line currents are given by,
Q V 
=   At Phase R
Q0  V 0 
 SR 
V 
K2 ILR =  

⇒ Q = Q0  0   VRN 
V 
| S R | ∠θ R
Where, K1, K2 represents the different kinds of load. =
| VRN | ∠δ R
Depending upon the demand variations, loads are divided | SR |
into three categorized as a function of voltage. They are, = ∠θR – δR = ILR ∠αR
| VRN |
1. Constant power model At Phase Y
2. Constant current model | SY |
ILY =
| VYN |
3. Constant impedance model.
1. Constant Power Model  | SY | ∠θY 

= 
In constant power model the load representation is most  | VYN | ∠δY 
severe when the system stability is considered, which is due to
| SY |
affect in amplifying voltage oscillations, i.e., a drop in voltage = ∠θY – δY
| VYN |
will cause increase in load current resulting a further voltage
drop. = ILY ∠αY

SIA GROUP
1.14 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
At Phase B Now the load currents are given by,
S V VRN
ILB = B ILR = RN = (δR – θR) = | ILR | ∠αR
VBN ZR ZR
VYN VYN
 | S | ∠θ B 
=  B  ILY =
ZY
=
Z Y (δY – θY) = | ILY | ∠αY
 | VBN | ∠δ B 
VYB VYB
| SB | ILB = = (δB – θB) = | ILB | ∠αB
= ∠θB – δB ZB ZB
| VBN |
The phase voltages in constant impedance model will
= ILB ∠αB change during each iteration but the impedances will remain
constant.
2. Constant Current Model
Characteristics of Load Models
In constant current model the magnitude of currents are
kept constant and the voltage angle (δ) is changed, which results Characteristics of a load model gives response to all loads
in a change of current angle to keep the power factor constant. as a function of voltage. It is the combination of constant power,
If the load is star connected, then the line currents are given by, constant current and constant impedance. The characteristics of
a load model are shown in figure (1).
ILR = | ILR | ∠δR – θR
ILY = | ILY | ∠δY – θY
ILB = | ILB | ∠δB – θB

3. Constant Impedance Model

In constant impedance model the load impedance is
calculated from the specified complex power and by assuming
the phase voltages. Now the impedances at the respective phases
is given by,
At Phase R
| VRN |2 Figure (1): Load Current Vs Node Voltage
ZR =
S R*

| VRN |2
= ∠θR
| SR |

= ZR ∠θR
At Phase Y

| VYN |2
ZY =
SY*

| VYN |2
Figure (2): MVA Vs Node Voltage
=
| SY | ∠θY
Q27. Discuss about the three factors which affect the
= ZY ∠θY distribution system planning in the near future.
At Phase B Ans: Nov.-10, Set-3, Q1(b)
The three factors which affects the distribution system
| VBN |2 planning in the near future are,
ZB =
S B* (i) Economic factor
(ii) Demographic factor
| VBN |2
= ∠θB (iii) Technological factor.
| SB |
(i) Economic Factor
= ZB ∠θB For answer refer Unit-I, Q2, Topic: Economic Factor

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UNIT-1 General Concepts
(ii) Demographic Factor
For answer refer Unit-I, Q2, Topic: Demographic Factor.
(iii) Technological Factor
This is an important factor for the distribution planners
which has resulted from technological advances. The first among
these is the improvement in fuel cell technology. The output
power of these fuel cells is so large that it can significantly
supply the total power require for a large populated areas. The
other alternative sources might appear at the customer level.
Solar and wind driven generators are the example of other non-
conventional energy sources. The consumer opt for these sources
for using it in the distribution network. If these phenomenon
continues, then it would drastically change the entire scenario
of distribution system.
Q28. Define demand, load duration curve and annual
load duration curve.
Ans:
Demand
Demand is defined as the average load present at the
receiving terminals in a system during a specified interval of
time.
The load may be in kilowatts, kilovoltamperes, kilovars,
kiloamperes or amperes.
In general, maximum demand and the average demand
are the two demands which are mostly encountered in a
distribution system.
Maximum demand is defined as the greatest demand of
load in the distribution systems and average demand is defined
as the average load occurring on the system during a given
period of time.
The daily demand variation curve is plotted by taking
as per the unit values of peak load on y-axis and time on x-axis
as shown in figure.
Figure: Daily Demand Variation Curve
Load Duration Curve
For answer refer Unit-I, Q3
Annual Load Duration Curve
This curve is plotted by taking total number of hours,
i.e., 8760 hours (365 × 24) on x-axis and per unit peak load on
y-axis.
If the load-duration curve is plotted by taking total hours
in an year, then annual load duration curve is obtained.
1.15
1.3 COINCIDENCE FACTOR – CONTRIBUTION
FACTOR – LOSS FACTOR
Q29. Discuss the effect of load factor and diversity
factor on the cost of generation in a power
system.
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q2(a)
Load factor and diversity factor depends on the maximum
demand of the system. Hence, maximum demand decides the
cost of generation in a power system.
Effect of Load Factor on Cost of Generation
Load factor is defined as the ratio of average load to the
maximum demand during a given period of time.
FLD =
If the plant is in operation for a period T,
Average load × T
Load factor, FLD =
Maximum demand × T
Units served
⇒ FLD =
Maximum demand × T
The load factor can be daily load factor, monthly load
factor or annual load factor if the time period T is considered
for a day, month, year respectively.
If the load factor is high, then more number of units will
be served, due to which the cost of generation in a power system
is less, i.e., the cost per unit generated will be less.
In general, load factor is always less than one because
average load in a power system is less than the maximum
demand.
Hence, the effect of load factor on the cost of generation
in a power system is that, for higher values of the load factor,
the cost of generation will be less. On the other hand, for low
values of the load factor, the cost of generation will be high.
But, it is economical when the cost of generation is less. Hence,
the higher values of load factor are always preferred.
Effect of Diversity Factor on Cost of Generation
Diversity factor is defined as the ratio of sum of the
individual maximum demands in a system to the maximum
demand of the entire system.
FD =
n
∑D
i =1
i
FD =
Dg
SIA GROUP
1.16 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
If the diversity factor is high, then the cost of generation in a power system is less.
Here, the individual maximum demands of loads, occurs at different time intervals. Hence, the sum of the individual
maximum demands is higher than maximum demand of the overall system. Hence, diversity factor is always greater than one.
Therefore, the effect of diversity factor on the cost of generation in a power system is that, higher the diversity factor,
lesser will be the cost of generation on the other hand, for low value of diversity factor the cost of generation will be high. But it
is always economical to have less cost of generation. Hence, higher values of diversity factor are preferred.
Q30. A distribution substation experiences an annual peak load of 3,500 kW. The total annual energy supplied
to the primary feeder circuits is 107 kWh. Find,
(i) The annual average power
(ii) The annual load factor.
Ans: Oct./Nov.-17, Set-3, Q2(b)

Given that,
Annual peak load = 3,500 kW

Annual energy supplied = 107 kWh

(i) Annual Average Power

Annual average power =

10 7 kWh
= = 1141.55 kW
365 × 24 hours
(ii) Annual Load Factor
Total annual energy
Annual load factor, FLD =
Annual peak load × 8760 hours
10 7 kWh
FLD = = 0.326
3500 kW× 8760 hours
Q31. A 120 MW substation delivers 120 MW for 3 hours 60 MW for 8 hours and shutdown for rest of each day.
It is also shutdown for the maintenance for 15 days each year. Calculate its annual load and annual loss
factor.
Ans: Nov.-16, Set-4, Q2(b)

Given that,
120 MW substation delivers load,
Load (MW) Time (Hours)
120 3
60 8
Maximum demand = 120 MW
Substation shutdown for maintenance = 15 days each year
To determine,
Annual load factor = ?
Annual loss factor = ?
Power delivered for 3 hr = 120 MW × 3 hr
= 360 MWh
Power delivered for 10 hr = 60 MW × 8 hr
= 480 MWh

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.17
Total power delivered for each day
= (Power delivered for 3 hr) + (Power delivered for 10 hr)
= 360 + 480 = 840 MWh
Number of days substation work in each year
= Number of days a year – Number of days shutdown for maintenance
= 365 – 15 = 350 days each year
Energy delivered/annum = Total power delivered for each working day × Number of working days of substation
= 840 MWh × 350
= 294000 MWh

∴ Annual load factor =

294000
= 120× (350×24)

= 0.2916 (or) 29.16 %

The relation between loss factor and load factor is given as,
Annual loss factor = 0.3 (Annual load factor) + 0.7 (Annual load factor)2

= 0.3(0.2916) + 0.7 (0.2916)2

= 0.0875 + 0.0595
= 0.1470 (or) 14.7%
Result
Annual load factor = 0.2916 (or) 29.16 %
Annual loss factor = 0.1470 (or) 14.7 %
Q32. Determine,
(a) The contribution factor for each of load cases
(b) The diversified maximum demand of the load group
(c) The coincidence factor of the load group for the load data.
Time 6 a.m 9 a.m - 12 noon- 1 p.m- 6 p.m- 8 p.m- 11 p.m
9 a.m 12 noon 1 p.m 6 p.m 8 p.m 11 p.m 6 a.m
Residential, kW 400 300 300 300 400 300 200
Commercial, kW 100 500 550 600 900 400 100
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q2(b)

Given that,
Time 6 a.m 9 a.m - 12 noon- 1 p.m- 6 p.m- 8 p.m- 11 p.m
9 a.m 12 noon 1 p.m 6 p.m 8 p.m 11 p.m 6 a.m
Residential, kW 400 300 300 300 400 300 200
Commercial, kW 100 500 550 600 900 400 100
(a) The contribution factor for each of load cases,
Cresidential = ?
Ccommercial = ?
(b) Diversified maximum demand of load group, Dg = ?
(c) The coincidence factor of the load group for the load data, Fc = ?

SIA GROUP
1.18 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
(a) The contribution factor for each of load cases,
Demand at the time of system peak
Ci =
Non coincident maximum demand
For residential load,
Here, system peak occurs between 6 p.m to 8 p.m
400 kW
∴ Cresidential = = 1.0
400 kW
For commercial load,
900 kW
Ccommercial = = 1.0
900 kW
(b) The diversified maximum demand of load group is given by,
n
Σ Di
i =1
Dg =
FD
Where,
Di = Maximum demand of load
FD = Diversity factor.
Diversity factor (FD) is given as,
n
Σ Di
i =1
FD = n [ n = Number of loads]
Σ Ci × Di
i =1

2
Σ Di 400 + 900
i =1
∴ FD = =
2 (1 × 400) + (1 × 900)
Σ Ci × Di
i =1

1300
FD = = 1.0
1300
∴ Diversified maximum demand of the load group is,
2
Σ Di 400 + 900
i =1
Dg =
=
FD 1.0

= 1300 kW
(c) The coincidence factor of the load,
Dg
FC = n
Σ Di
i =1

1300 × 103
=
400 × 103 + 900 × 103
=1
Alternate Method
1 1
FC = =
FD 1
=1

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.19
Q33. At the end of a power distribution system, a certain feeder supplies three distribution transformer, each
one supplying a group of customers whose connected loads are as under,
Transformer Load Demand factor Diversity factor
No. 1 10 kW 0.65 1.5
No. 2 12 kW 0.6 3.5
No. 3 15 kW 0.7 1.5
If the diversity factor among the transformers is 1.3, find the maximum load on the feeder.
Ans:
Given that,
Number of distribution transformer supplied by the feeder = 3
For Transformer 1
Load, P1 = 10 kW
Demand factor, D1 = 0.65
Diversity factor, FD1 = 1.5
For Transformer 2
Load, P2 = 12 kW
Demand factor, D2 = 0.6
Diversity factor, FD2 = 3.5
For Transformer 3
Load, P3 = 15 kW
Demand factor, D3 = 0.7
Diversity factor, FD3 = 1.5
The diversity factory among all the three transformers, FD = 1.3
Maximum load on the feeder = ?
We know that
Diversity factor,

FD =

Here demand refers to load.

Therefore for transformer 1,
P1 × D1
FD1 = [Where (Dmax)1 is the maximum demand of transformer 1]
(Dmax )1
3
⇒ (D ) = P1 × D1 = (10 × 10 ) × 0.65
max 1 FD1 1.5

= 4.333 × 103
∴ Maximum demand on transformer 1,
(Dmax)1 = 4.333 kW
Maximum demand on transformer 2,
P2 × D2 (12 × 103 ) × 0.6
(Dmax)2 = =
FD 2 3.5
= 2.057 kW

SIA GROUP
1.20 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Maximum demand on transformer 3,
P3 × D3
(Dmax)3 =
FD 3
(15 × 103 ) × 0.7
=
1.5

= 7 × 103 Watts
= 7 kW
The expression for the diversity factor is also given as,

Diversity factor, FD =

⇒ Maximum demand of the system,

Sum of individual maximum demand
=
Diversity factor
( D ) + ( Dmax ) 2 + ( Dmax ) 3
= max 1
FD

(4.333 × 103 ) + (2.057 × 103 ) + (7 × 103 )

=
1.3
(4.333 + 2.057 + 7) × 103
=
1.3

13.39 × 103
=
1.3
= 10.3 × 103 Watts
= 10.3 kW
∴ Maximum load on the feeder is 10.3 kW

1.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD FACTOR AND LOSS FACTOR

Q34. Prove that approximate formula for loss factor (FLS) = 0.3 FLD + 0.7 FLD2, where FLD = load factor.
Oct./Nov.-17, Set-4, Q2(a)

OR
Explain the relationship between the load factor and loss factor.
Nov./Dec.-14, Set-2, Q1(a)

OR
Derive the relation between load factor and loss factor with a simplified approach.
Dec.-13, Set-2, Q1(a)

OR
Define and derive the relationship between load and loss factors.
(Nov.-11, Set-1, Q1(b) | Nov.-11, Set-2, Q1(a) | Model Paper-II, Q2(a))

OR
Obtain the relation between the load factor and loss factor.

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.21
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-1, Q1(b)

An exact relation between the load factor and loss factor cannot be obtained. However, an approximate relation between
the load factor and loss factor is developed by Buller and Woodrow.
Consider a primary feeder connected to a variable load as shown in figure (a). An ideal load curve is plotted between the
load and time as shown in figure (b).

Figure (a): Primary Feeder Connected to a Variable Load

Let, PLS, 1 be the off-peak loss at off-peak load PLD, 1
PLS, 2 be the peak loss at peak load PLD, 2
PLS, avg be the average loss at average load PLD, avg
t1 be the duration of the peak load
t2 – t1 be the duration of off-peak load.

Figure (b): Load Curve

The load factor, FLD is defined as the ratio of average load to the peak load during certain period of time.

SIA GROUP
1.22 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]

FLD =

PLD, avg
FLD = ... (1)
PLD, 2

The loss factor, FLS is defined as the ratio of average power loss to the peak power loss during certain period of time.
Average power loss
FLS =
Peak load power loss
PLS , avg
FLS = ... (2)
PLS , 2
As the copper losses are present in the given loads, they can be expressed as,
2
PLS, 1 = K × PLD , 1 ... (3)
2
PLS, 2 =K × PLD, 2 ... (4)
From the load curve in figure (b), PLD, avg can be calculated as,
PLD , 2 × t1 + PLD ,1 × (t 2 − t1 )
PLD, avg = ... (5)
t2
Substituting equation (5) in equation (1), we get,
PLD, 2 × t1 + PLD,1 × (t 2 − t1 ) / t 2
FLD =
PLD , 2
PLD , 2 × t1 + PLD ,1 × (t 2 − t1 )
=
PLD , 2 × t 2
PLD, 2 × t1 PLD ,1 × (t 2 − t1 )
= +
PLD, 2 × t 2 PLD , 2
t1 PLD,1 t 2 − t1
= + × ... (6)
t2 PLD, 2 t1

From figure (b), PLS, avg is obtained as follows,

PLS , 2 × t1 + PLS ,1 × (t 2 − t1 )
PLS, avg = ... (7)
t2
Substituting equation (7) in equation (2), we get,
PLS , 2 × t1 + PLS ,1 × (t 2 − t1 ) / t 2
FLS =
PLS , 2
PLS , 2 × t1 + PLS ,1 × (t 2 − t1 )
= ... (8)
PLS , 2 × t 2
Substituting equation (3) in equations (4) and (8), we get,
2 2
( K × PLD , 2 ) × t1 + ( K × PLD ,1 ) × (t 2 − t1 )
FLS = 2
( K × PLD ,2 ) × t2
2 2
( K × PLD , 2 ) × t1 ( K × PLD ,1 ) × (t 2 − t1 )
= 2 + 2
( K × PLD ,2 ) × t2 ( K × PLD ,2 ) × t2
2
t1  PLD,1  t −t 
= +   ×  2 1  ... (9)
  t1 
t2  PLD, 2 

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.23
Hence, with the help of equations (6) and (9) the relation between the load factor and loss factor can be obtained by
considering three different cases.
Case I: If Off-peak Load is Zero
As off-peak load is zero, the off-peak power loss is also zero.
So, substituting PLD, 1 = 0 in equations (6) and (9), we get,

t1  t 2 − t1  t
FLD = + 0   = 1 and
t2  2 t t 2

t1  t 2 − t1  t
FLS = + 0   = 1
t2  t1  t 2
Therefore, when off-peak load is zero,
t1
FLD = FLS =
t2

Hence, load factor and loss factor are equal to t1 , when PLD, 1 is zero.
t2
Case II: If the Peak Load Exists for a Very Short Duration
As the peak load exists for a short duration of time, the time period t1 at which peak load occurs tends to approach zero
i.e., t1 ~ 0.
So, substituting t1 = 0 in equations (6) and (9), we get,
PLD,1 (t 2 − 0) PLD,1
FLD = 0 + = and
PLD, 2 (t 2 ) PLD, 2
2 2
 PLD,1   t 2 − 0   PLD,1 
FLS = 0 +  

  =  
P
 LD, 2   t 2   PLD, 2 

So, FLS = (FLD)2

Hence, when peak load exists for a short duration of time, FLS ~ (FLD)2. Therefore, the loss factor approaches to square of
the load factor as ‘t1’ approaches zero.
Case III: If the Load Connected is Steady
As the load connected remains steady without any fluctuations, the duration for which off-peak load exists approaches the
peak-load duration. It means that the difference between off-peak load and peak load is negligible, i.e., t1 ~ t2.
So, substituting t1 = t2 in equations (6) and (9), we get,

t2 PLD,1  t2 − t2  t2
FLD = + ×   =
t2 PLD, 2  t2  t2

FLD = 1
2
t2  PLD,1   t2 − t2 
FLS = +   ×  t 
t2 P   
 LD, 2  2

t
=2
t2
FLS =1
So, when the load connected is steady i.e., as t1 → t2, the loss factor value approaches the load factor value.

SIA GROUP
1.24 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Hence, from the three different cases considered, it can be concluded that an exact relation between loss factor and load
factor cannot be obtained but an approximate relation can be obtained.
2
In practice, it is observed that the square of the load factor ( FLD ) is less than that of loss factor FLS and also the loss factor
2
value (FLS) is less than that of load factor value (FLD). Hence, FLS lies between FLD and FLD.
2
FLD < FLS < FLD
Note
The loss factor cannot be determined directly from the load factor the reason is that the loss factor is determined from
losses as a function of time which inturn are proportional to the time function of the square load.
However, Buller and Woodrow developed and approximate formula to relate the loss factor to the load factor as,
FLS = 0.3FLD + 0.7 FLD
2 ... (10)

Figure (c): Loss Factor Curves as a Function of Load Factor

Where,
FLS = Loss factor, P.U
FLD = Load factor, P.U
Equation (10) gives a reasonably close result. Above figure gives three different curves of loss factor as a function of load
factor.
Q35. Assume that the annual peak load input to a primary feeder is 2000 kW. The total copper cost at the
time of peak load is 100 kW. The total annual energy supplied to the sending end of the feeder is
5.61 × 106 kWh. Then,
(i) Determine the annual loss factor
(ii) Calculate the total annual copper loss energy and its value at `1.5 kWh
(iii) Calculate load factor of the primary feeder.
Model Paper-II, Q2(b))
OR
Annual peak load input to a primary feeder is 2000 kW at which the power loss is total copper loss at the
time of peak load is ΣI2R = 100 kW. The total annual energy supplied to the sending end of the feeder
is 5.61 x 106 kWh. Determine,
(i) Annual loss factor
(ii) Total annual copper loss energy and its value ` 1.50 per kWh.
Ans:
Given that,
Total annual energy = 5.61 × 106 kWh
Annual peak-load = 2000 kW
Total copper loss at peak-load = 100 kW

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.25
(i) Annual Loss Factor (FLS)
We know that,
2
FLS = 0.3FLD + 0.7 FLD
FLD is the load factor.

Annual load factor =

5.61× 106 kWH

So, FLD =
2000 kW× 8760 hours/year
FLD = 0.32
2
So, annual loss factor, FLS = 0.3FLD + 0.7 FLD

= 0.3(0.32) + 0.7(0.32)2
= 0.16768
0.16768
Annual loss factor = 0.16768
(ii) Total Annual Copper Loss Energy and its Value at ` 1.5 per kWH
We know that,

Average power loss

FLS =
Power loss at peak load
Average power loss = FLS × Power loss at peak load
= 0.16768 × 100 kW
= 16.768 kW
Total annual loss = Average power loss × Number of hours in a year
= 16.768 kW × 8760 hrs
= 146887.68 kWh
The total value of annual copper loss energy at ` 1.5 per hour = 146887.68 kWh × 1.5 = ` 220331.52
(iii) Load Factor of the Primary Feeder
The load factor,
FLD = 0.32
Q36. The annual peak load input to a primary feeder is 1300 kW. The voltage drop and losses shows that the
total loss at the time of peak load is 120 kW. The total annual energy supplied to the sending end of the
feeder is 5.8 × 106 kWh.
(i) Determine the annual loss factor
(ii) Calculate the total annual energy loss and the annual cost if the unit charge is ` 5.0.
Ans: (Oct./Nov.-17, Set-2, Q2(b) | Dec.-13, Set-2, Q1(b))

Given that,
Annual peak load = 1300 kW
Peak load loss = 120 kW
Total annual energy supplied to the sending end of the feeder = 5.8 × 106 kWh
To determine,
(i) Annual loss factor
(ii) Total annual energy loss and the annual cost if the unit charge is ` 5.0

SIA GROUP
1.26 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
(i) Annual Loss Factor
We know that,
Annual loss factor,

FLS = 0.3 FLD + 0.7 FLD

2

Where,
FLD = Load factor
Total annual energy
Annual load factor, FLD =
Annual peak load × 8760 hrs

5.8 × 10 6 kWh
=
1300 kW × 8760 hrs/year

= 0.50
2
∴ Annual loss factor, FLS = 0.3FLD + 0.7 FLD

= 0.3 × 0.5 + .7(0.5)2

= 0.325
(ii) Total Annual Energy Loss and the Annual Cost if the Unit Charge is Rs. 5.0
We know that,
Average power loss
Annual loss factor, FLS =
Power loss at peak load
∴ Average power loss = FLS × Power loss at peak load
= 0.325 × 120 kW
= 39 kW
Total annual loss = Average power loss × Number of hours in a year
= 39 kW × 8760 hrs
= 341640 kWh
∴ The total cost of annual loss at Rs. 5.0
= Total annual loss × Rs. 5.0
= 341640 × 5.0
= Rs. 17,08,200
Q37. The input to a sub transmission system is 87.6 × 106 kWh annually. On the peak load day of the year,
the peak is 25,000 kW and the energy input that day is 3 × 105 kWh. Find the load factors for the year
and for the peak-load day.
Ans: Nov.-11, Set-2, Q1(b)

Given that,
Total annual energy = 87.6 × 106 kWh
Annual peak load = 25,000 kW
Energy input on peak day = 3 × 105 kWh
To find,
Annual load factor = ?
Daily load factor = ?

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.27
We have,
Total annual energy
Annual load factor =
Annual peak load × 8760 hours

87 .6 × 10 6
= = 0.4
25000 × 8760

∴ Annual load factor = 0.4

Energy input on peak day

Daily load factor =
Annual peak load × 24 hours

3 × 10 5
=
25000 × 24
= 0.5
∴ Daily load factor = 0.5

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS (RESIDENTIAL, COMMERCIAL, AGRICULTURAL AND

INDUSTRIAL)
Q38. Explain in detail about residential and industrial loads and their respective characteristics.
(Refer Only Topic: Domestic Loads and Industrial Loads). Oct./Nov.-17, Set-3, Q2(a)

OR
Why loads are classified in distribution systems and how they are classified? Explain their different
characteristics.
Ans: Model Paper-IV, Q2(a)
The loads on the distribution system are of various types. The density of certain loads is different from the other. All the
loads are not in use through out the day. Hence, the load density, thus the demand varies with time. So, for proper planning of
distribution system the classification of loads is necessary.
In distribution system the loads are classified according to the types of consumers like irrigation, manufacturing, produc-
tion etc. Depending upon the type of usage the loads are classified or divided into five types. They are,
1. Domestic loads
2. Industrial loads
3. Agricultural loads
4. Commercial loads
5. Municipal loads.
The characteristics of load is studied in terms of demand factor, load factor, diversity factor, utilization factor and power factor.
1. Domestic Loads
Loads used for household purposes are called domestic loads. It involves domestic appliances such as lights, fans,
refrigerators, mixers, washing machines, radio’s, ovens, television etc. For these loads the demand factor will be in the range of
70 to 100 percent, the diversity factor is 1.2 to 1.3 and the load factor is in the range of 10 to 15 percent. A typical load-curve for
domestic loads is shown in figure (1).

Figure (1): Load-curve for Residential Load

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1.28 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Characteristics of Domestic Loads
(i) From figure (1) it is clear that, during the morning hours the load requirement is very less. Hence, the load utilized
is very less.
(ii) During evening hours the load requirement is very high and is maximum during the time period of 6 PM to 10 PM.
Hence, the load utilized is very high.
2. Industrial Loads
For answer refer Unit-I, Q13.
3. Agricultural Loads
Loads used for irrigation purpose are called agricultural loads. In fields, the water is supplied with the help of electric
motors. For these type of loads the diversity factor is 1 to 1.5 load factor is 20 to 15% and the demand factor is 90 to 100%.
4. Commercial Loads
Loads used for commercial purpose like lighting for shops, advertisements and fans and electric appliances used in shopping
malls, restaurants etc., are called commercial loads. For these loads the load factor is 25 to 30%, diversity factor is 1.2 to 1.2 and
the demand factor 90 to 100%. The load curve of commercial loads is shown in figure (2).

Figure (2): Load-curve for Commercial Loads

Characteristics of Commercial Load
(i) From the load curve of commercial loads, it can be explained that during the time period 4 to 8 hours the maximum
load is used and is continuous for the whole day.
(ii) The minimum load is used during the time period 0 to 4 hours because at that time almost an commercial shops and
restaurants are closed.
5. Municipal Loads
Loads like street lighting, power required for water supply and drainage purpose etc., comes under municipal loads. For
street lighting the diversity factor is unity and the demand factor is 100%. The load factor is considered in the range of 25 to 30%
for these loads.
Apart from the above loads there are some other loads such as textile, paper industries, bulk suppliers etc., which have
their own peculiar characteristics.
Q39. Classify the types of loads and draw their characteristics in detail.
Ans: Nov.-16, Set-2, Q2

Depending upon the usage, the loads are classified into five types. They are,
1. Domestic loads
2. Industrial loads
3. Agricultural loads
4. Commercial loads
5. Municipal loads

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.29
The characteristics of load is studied in terms of demand-factor, load factor, utilization factor and power factor.
1. Domestic Loads
For answer refer Unit-I, Q38, Topic: Domestic Loads.
2. Industrial Loads
For answer refer Unit-I, Q13.
3. Agricultural Loads
For answer refer Unit-I, Q38, Topic: Agricultural Loads

Figure: Load Curve for Rural Commercial Loads

Characteristics of Rural Commercial Loads
(i) From above figure it can be seen that, the load is not utilized during the period of 0 to 4 hours and is shown as AB in figure.
(ii) In figure, BC represents the portion where maximum load is utilized i.e., from 4 to 20 hours.
(iii) Again after the time period 20th hour, the load utilized is very less.
4. Commercial Loads
For answer refer Unit-I, Q38, Topic: Commercial Loads.
5. Municipal Loads
For answer refer Unit-I, Q38, Topic: Municipal Loads.

Figure
Characteristics of Municipal Loads
(i) From above figure, it can be seen that the load requirement is maximum during the period of 0 to 7 hours. Hence, the load
utilized is maximum and constant.
(ii) During the time period 7 to 18 hours, there is no load required. Hence, the load is not utilized.
(iii) Again after the time period i.e., 18th hour the load requirement is high and constant. Hence maximum load utilized.
Q40. A power supply is having the following loads:

Type of load Maximum Demand Diversity of group Demand Factor

Domestic 1500 kW 1.2 0.80
Commercial 200 kW 1.1 0.80
Industrial 10000 kW 1.25 1.0
If the overall system diversity factor is 1.35, determine (i) maximum demand (ii) connected load of
each type.

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1.30 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Ans: Oct./Nov.-17, Set-1, Q2(b) Industrial Customers
Given that, Sum of maximum demands = Maximum demand × Diversity
factor
Type of Load Max Diversity Demand = 10000 × 1.25
Demand of Group Factor
= 12500 kW
(kW)
∴ Connected industrial load
Domestic 1500 1.2 0.80
Commercial 2000 1.1 0.80 =
Industrial 10000 1.25 1.0
12500
Overall diversity factor = 1.35 =
1.0
To find,
= 12500 kW
(i) Maximum demand on supply system
Q41. A power supply system is having the following
(ii) Connected load of each type.
loads,
(i) Maximum Demand on Supply System
The sum of maximum demands of all three types of
loads,
= 1500 + 200 + 10000
= 11700
∴ Maximum demand on supply system
Sum of maximum demands
=
Overall system diversity factor
11700 If the overall system diversity factor is 1.5,
= = 8666.67 kW
1.35 determine the following,
(ii) Connected Load of Each Type Domestic Customers (i) Maximum demand on supply system
Sum of maximum demands = Maximum demand ×
(ii) Connected load of each type.
Diversity factor
= 1500 × 1.2 Ans: Nov.-11, Set-4, Q1(b)

= 1800 kW Given that,

∴ Connected domestic load
Sum of maximum demands
=
Demand factor
1800
= 0.8

= 2250 kW
Commercial Customer
Sum of maximum demands = Maximum demand ×
Diversity factor
Overall diversity factor = 1.5
= 200 × 1.1
To find,
= 220 kW
(i) Maximum demand on supply system
∴ Connected commercial load (ii) Connected load of each type.
Sum of maximum demands (i) Maximum Demand on Supply System
=
Demand factor The sum of maximum demands of all three types of
220 loads,
=
0.8 = 15000 + 25000 + 50000
= 275 kW = 90000

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.31
∴ Maximum demand on supply system
Sum of maximum demands
=
Overall system diversity factor
90000
= = 60000 kW
1.5
(ii) Connected Load of Each Type
Domestic Customers
Sum of maximum demands = Maximum demand × Diversity factor
= 15000 × 1.25
= 18750 kW

∴ Connected domestic load =

18750
= = 26785.71 kW
0.7
Commercial Customer
Sum of maximum demands = Maximum demand × Diversity factor
= 25000 × 1.2
= 30000 kW
Sum of maximum demands
∴ Connected commercial load =
Demand factor
30000
= = 33333.33 kW
0.9
Industrial Customers
Sum of maximum demands = Maximum demand × Diversity factor
= 50000 × 1.3
= 65000 kW
∴ Connected industrial load
Sum of maximum demand
=
Demand factor
65000
= = 66326.53 kW
0.98
Q42. The power supply has the following loads.

Type of load Maximum demand (kW) Diversity of group Demand group

Domestic 1500 1.2 0.8
Commercial 2000 1.1 0.8
Industrial 10000 1.25 0.9
If the overall diversity factor is 1.35, determine maximum demand and connected load for each of above
loads.
Ans: (Dec.-13, Set-1, Q1(b) | Model Paper-IV, Q2(b))
Given that,
Type of load Maximum demand (kW) Diversity of group Demand group
Domestic 1500 1.2 0.8
Commercial 2000 1.1 0.8
Industrial 10000 1.25 0.9

Overall diversity factor = 1.35

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1.32 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
To find,
Maximum demand = ?
Connected load of each type = ?
Maximum Demand
The sum of maximum demands of all three types of loads,
= 1500 + 2000 + 10000
= 13500 kW

Sum of maximum demand

∴ Maximum demand =
Overall system diversity factor

13500
= = 10000 kW
1.35
Connected Load of Each Type
Domestic Customers
Sum of maximum demands,
= Maximum demand × Diversity factor
= 1500 × 1.2
= 1800 kW
∴ Connected domestic load,
Sum of maximum demands
=
Demand factor
1800
= = 2250 kW
0.8
Commercial Customers
Sum of maximum demands,
= Maximum demand × Diversity factor
= 2000 × 1.1
= 2200 kW
∴ Connected commercial load,
Sum of maximum demands
=
Demand factor
2200
=
0.8
= 2750 kW
Industrial Customers
Sum of maximum demands,
= Maximum demand × Diversity factor
= 10000 × 1.25
= 12500 kW
∴ Connected industrial load,
Sum of maximum demands
=
Demand factor
12500
=
0.9
= 13888.888 kW

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UNIT-1 General Concepts 1.33
Q43. The daily demands of three-consumers are given below

Time Consumer 1 Consumer 2 Consumer 3

12 midnight to 8 am No load 200 W No load
8 am to 2 pm 600 W No load 200 W
2 pm to 4 pm 200 W 1000 W 1200 W
4 pm to 10 pm 800 W No load No load
10 pm to 12 midnight No load 200 W 200 W

Plot the load curve and find

(i) Maximum demand of individual consumer
(ii) Load factor of individual consumer
(iii) Diversity factor and
(iv) Load factor of the station.
Ans: Nov.-16, Set-1, Q2(b)
The daily demands of three consumers are,

Time Consumer 1 Consumer 2 Consumer 3

12 midnight to 8 am No load 200 W No load
8 am to 2 pm 600 W No load 200 W
2 pm to 4 pm 200 W 1000 W 1200 W
4 pm to 10 pm 800 W No load No load
10 pm to 12 midnight No load 200 W 200 W
Plot the load curve,
(i) Maximum demand of individual consumer = ?
(ii) Load factor of individual consumer = ?
(iii) Diversity factor = ?
(iv) Load factor of the station = ?
The load curve is as shown in figure.
Load
(W)
2400 W
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800 W 800 W
800
600
400 W
400
200 W
200
0
Midnight 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 Time
(hours)
A.M P.M

Figure: Load Curve

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1.34 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [JNTU-KAKINADA]
For Consumer 1
(i) Maximum demand = 800 W
Energy consumed during the day
(ii) Load factor = Maximum demand × Hours in a day ×100

0 + (600×6) + (200×2) + (800×6) + 0

= 800 ×24 ×100

= 45.83%
For Consumer 2
(i) Maximum demand = 1000 W
Energy consumed during the day
(ii) Load factor = Maximum demand × Hours in a day ×100

0 + (200×8) + 0 + (1000×2) + 0 + (200×2)

= 1000 ×24 ×100

= 16.67%
For Consumer 3
(i) Maximum Demand = 1200 W
0 + (200×6) + (1200×2) + 0 + (200×2)
(ii) Load factor = 1200 ×24 ×100

= 13.89%
Sum of all maximum demands
(iii) Diversity factor = Maximum demand of whole plant

800 + 1000 + 1200

= 2400
= 1.25

(iv) Load factor of the station

0 + (600×6) + (200×2) + (800×6) + 0 + (200×8) + 0 + (1000×2) + 0 + (200×2) + 0 + (200×6) + (1200×2) + 0 + (200×2)

= 2400×24 ×100
= 29.167%

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