Part 1: English Phonetics And Phonology

A, Consonant and Vowel

C1, What is a consonant? How are consonants classified?
* A consonant is a sound in producing it the airstream coming from the lungs is
stopped, impeded, constricted or otherwise interfered with in its passage to the
outside air.
* Consonants are classified according to these 4 standards:
A, Places of Articulation:
1, Bilabial: 2 lips are pressed together. e.g.: /p, b, m, w/
2, Labio-dental: The upper teeth and the lower lip come close together. e.g.: /f, v/
3, Dental: The tip of the tongue is between the upper and lower teeth. e.g.: /θ, ð /
4, Alveolar: The tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. e.g.: /t, d, 1, n, s, z/
5, Palato-alveolar: The front of the tongue touches the part between the alveolar ridge
and the hard palate. e.g.: /r, tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/
6, Velar: The back of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum. e.g.: /k, g, ŋ/
7, Palatal: The front of the tongue touches the hard palate. e.g.: /j/
8,. Glottal: The sound is produced with a friction noise in the glottis between the
vocal cords. The glottis opens wide and the sound is voiceless. e.g.: /h/
B, Manner of Articulation: (trùng c15)
1, Plosive/ stop: The air is stopped, then released with an explosive sound. e.g.: /p, b,
t, d, k, g/
2, Fricative: The air is constricted, causing friction when passing through the organs
of speech e.g.: / f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/
3, Affricate: It is the combination of the plosive and fricative. The air stream is
stopped, then released slowly with friction. e.g.: /tʃ, dʒ/
4, Nasal: The air passes through the nose when the uvula is lowered. e.g.: /m, n, ŋ/
5, Lateral: The air passes out at both sides of the tongue. Eg: /l/
6, Gliding or semi-vowel (consonant) or approximant: There is a gliding from one to
another with little or no obstruction of the air stream. The tip of the tongue
approaches alveolar ridge. e.g.: /w, r, j/
C, Voicing:
1, Voiced sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.
2, Voiceless sounds are produced without the vibration of the vocal cords. e.g.:
/p,t,k,s,∫,f,θ,t∫/
D, Aspiration
1, Aspirated: A sound is aspirated when it is at the beginning of a word or in a
stressed syllable. e.g.: paper, pen, people.
2, Unaspirated: A sound is unaspirated when it is before an unstressed syllable,
before another stop sound or after /s-/. e.g.: paper, spy.
C2, What is a vowel? How are vowels classified?
* Vowels are classified according to these 5 standards:
1, Tongue Height
- According to the height of the tongue, vowels are divided into:
+ High vowels: /i:, i, u:, ʊ /
+ Mid vowels: /e, ә, ɔ:/
+ Low vowels: /æ, a:, ɔ/
2, Tongue Position:
- According to the position of the tongue, vowels are divided into:
+ Front vowels: /i:, i, e, æ/
+ Central vowels: /ә:, ә, /
+ Back vowels: /ʊ, u:, a:, ɔ, ɔ:/
3, Lip Rounding:
- According to the lip position, vowels are divided into:
+ Rounded vowels: /ɔ:, ɔ, u:/
+ Unrounded vowels: /i:, i, e, a:, æ, ә/
4, Muscle Tension:
- According to the muscle tension, vowels are divided into:
+ Lax vowels: /i, e, ә,../
+ Tense vowels: /æ, ei, ai, ɔi,.../
5, Vowel Length: is based on the duration of the air-stream to produce vowels
- There are 5 long vowels: /i:, u:, ɔ:, ə: a:/ and 7 short vowels: /i, u, ɔ, ə, e, æ, ʌ/

Place later
stop affricate nasal fricative approximant
Manner approximant

bilabial p b m w
labiodental f v
dental θ ð
alveolar t d n s z l
Palato-
t∫ dʒ ∫ ʒ r
alveolar
palatal j
velar k g ŋ
glotal h
(underlined is voiceless, not underlined is voiced)
B, Stress
C3, Stress? Rules applied for affix-words; 2-syllable Vs; 3-syllable Ns?
* Stress is the prominence given to the syllable. The prominence is made up of 4
factors: clearer, longer, higher and louder.
* Rules:
- Simple 2 or 3 syllables words:
+ In 2-syllable root words if the second syllable doesn’t contain a long vowel or
dipthong (except for /əu/) or end with 2 consonants, stress will fall on the first
syllable.
E.g.: decide /dɪˈsaɪd/, correct /kəˈrekt/, naive /naɪˈiːv
window /ˈwɪn.dəʊ/, follow /ˈfɒl.əʊ/
+ In 3-syllable root words if the final syllable doesn’t contain a long vowel or
dipthong or end with 2 consonants, stress fall on the preceding, if the preceding is the
same, stress falls on the first syllable.
E.g.: tomorrow /təˈmɒr.əʊ/, potato /pəˈteɪ.təʊ/
- Pre-fix words
+ Pre-fixes cause no change to the stress placement of the root words though some
prefixes have their own stress (anti-semi-pseudo)
e.g.: ˈanti-smoking
- Suffix words
+ Suffixes have their own stress: ese, ette, esque
e.g.: Jaˈpan- Japanˈese; ˈCigar- Cigarˈette; ˈpicture- pictureˈsque
+ Suffixes that cause the change of stress to the preceding: ic, ity, tion, tial
e.g.: eˈconomy- ecoˈnomic; ˈpossible- possiˈbility; ˈpresident- presiˈdential
+ Suffixes that cause no change: ly, fy, ment, less, ness, hood,..
e.g.: ˈcareful- ˈcarefully; ˈclass- ˈclassify; deˈvelop- deˈvelopment
- Compound words
+ In compound words, stress mainly falls on the first element though some have
double stress
e.g.: ˈboy friend, ˈschool year
ˈbread and ˈbutter, forˈget ˈme ˈnot
C4: Weak and Strong form of a word
All grammatical words often have weak form; however, they take strong form in
following cases:
- at the end of an utterance.
- quoted/cited: She said a book.
- contrasted: This letter is to him, not from him.
- stressed to emphasize: Look at him.
C, Aspects of connected speech
C5: Cases and types of assimilation
* Cases:
- Regressive assimilation: consonant final (Cf) → consonant initial (Ci)
E.g. one more /wʌn mɔː/ → /wʌm mɔː/
cooked meal /kʊkt mɪəl/ → /kʊkm mɪəl/
wind mill /ˈwɪnd mɪl/ → /ˈwɪnm mɪl/
- Progressive assimilation: (Cf ← Ci)
E.g. in the /in ðә/ → /in nә/
* Types:
- Assimilation of place of articulation
/t/ /p/
/d/ + /p,b,m/ /b/
/n/ /m/

/t/ /k/
/d/ + /k,g/ /g/
/n/ /ŋ/

/s/ + /∫,j/ /∫/

 /z/ /dʒ/
- Assimilation of manner of articulaiton
/t/
+ /s,z,n/ /s,z,n/
/d/
C6, Elision
a, Vowel elision
- /ə/: is elided within words in the sequence of |ə| + |r| + weak vowel after a
consonant: e.g.: 'secretary /'sekrət(e)ri/; 'history /ˈhɪst(ə)ri/
- /i/: is elided within words in the following cases
+ following a consonant and preceding /l/: e.g.: 'similar /'sɪm(ɪ)lə/
+ following a consonant in a post-nuclear position: e.g.: 'cabinet /'kæb(ɪ)nət/
b, Consonant elision
- /t/,/d/ in the middle of a cluster of 3 consonants:
e.g.: exactly /ɪɡ'zæk(t)li/; ground /ɡraʊn(d)z/
- /θ/, /ð/ in a cluster of 3 consonants:
e.g.: months /mΛn(θ)s/; fifths /fif(θ)s/; clothes /klәu(ð)z/
- /h/ in he, his, her, had (aux), has (aux), have (aux) when these words are unstressed
and do not begin a sentence.
e.g.: Wouldn't he come? /ˌwudnt (h)iː 'kʌm?/
I want her to park that car over there /aɪ ˌwɔnt (h)ə tə ˌpɑːk ðæt ˌkɑ:r əʊvə 'ðeə /
C7, Linking
- We can link:
+ Vowel to vowel: Very interesting, the story is
+ Stop-to-stop consonants: That's a bad dog /ðæts ə ˌbæd ˈdɒɡ/
Put ten in the box /pʊten ɪn ðə ˈbɒks/
+ Consonant-to-vowel: Drink a cup of tea /drɪŋk ə kʌp əv tiː/
D, Intonation
C8, How are tones used in different kinds of sentences according
communicative functions?
1, Falling tune (glide down) (6)
- Complete and definite statement: e.g.: //it wəz 'kwait `gud//
- Wh-question: business like: e.g.: //'hu: ɔn 'ə: wəz `ðæt//
- Short yes/no question: e.g.: // `did ju:?//
- “Not” occurs in either the statement or the tag question
e.g.: //ju: ˏwəunt ˏwʌri/ `wil ju://
- Strong command: e.g.: //'hæv səm `ʧi:z//
- Strong exclamation: e.g.: //wɔt ə 'veri 'priti `dres//
2, Rising tune (glide up) (6)
- Smoothing/encouraging statement: e.g.: //ai 'wəunt 'draiv 'tu: ˏfa:st//
- Statement as a question : e.g.://ju: ˏlaik it?//
- Wh-question show interest: e.g.: //'hauz jɔ: ˏdɔ:tə //
- All other yes/no question: e.g.: //'kæn ai ˏsi: it?//
- Greeting/ goodbye exclamation: e.g.: //'gud ˏmɔ:niŋ //
- Unexpected exclamation: e.g.: // ˏ θæŋk ju://
3, Fall-rise (dive) (6)
- Not complete statement: e.g.: //hi: 'tu:k ˇka:// (and do smt else)
- Statement show reservation: e.g.: //ai 'laik jɔ: ˇhæt// (I must admit)
- Statement is a correction: e.g.: //'fɔ:ti ˇsiks// (He’s forty five)
- Statement is a warning: e.g.: //ju: l bi: ˇleit//
- Statement has 2 parts: e.g.: //ai 'went tə `lʌndən / ɔn ˏmʌndei//
- Pleading request: e.g.: // `dəunt ˏmeik mi: ˏæŋri //
4, Take-off (6)
- Grumble statement: e.g.: //ai didn’t ˏhə:t ju://
- Repetition-quetions: e.g.: //ˏwen did ai gəu//
- Tag question after command: e.g.: //'kʌm əuvə `hiə / ˏwil ju:?//
- Have or don’t have“not” in both statement and the tag question:
e.g.: //ju: `laik it / ˏdid ju:?//
- Not in either (+answer): e.g.: //hi: ˏdidnt ˏluk ˏil/ ˏdid i://
- Exclamation is questioning: e.g.: //ˏriəli?//
Part 2:Lexicology-semantics
C1, Word formation?
* There are 7 ways of word formation
- Affixation: building new words by adding an affix to the front of the root.
e.g.: honest-> dishonest, happy-> unhappy,...
boy-> boylish, woman-> womanlize, man-> manly,...
- Compounding: building new words by combining at least 2 root Ms.
e.g.: man-in-street, lotus-eater, mother-in-law, passer-by, handwash, meantime,
somebody, middle-aged,...
- Shortening: building new words by reducing the root.
e.g.: October-> oct, World Tourism Organization-> WTO, television-> TV, save our
souls-> SOS,...
- Conversion: building new words by changing the part of speech of the root word.
e.g.: native (a) speaker-> a native (n), gold (n)-> gold (a) chain,
wide (a,adv)-> widely (adv), to look-> to have a look
- Sound and stress interchange: building new words by changing phonetic nature of
the root word.
e.g.:
+ sound interchange: goose/uː/-> geese/iː/, blood/ʌ/(n)-> bleed/iː/(v), speak/k/(v)->
speech/tʃ/(n),...
+ stress interchange: 'minute (n)-> mi'nute(a), 'rebel(n)-> re'bel(v), 'subject(n)->
sub'ject(v),...
- Sound imitation: is a way of word formation, building new words by imitating the
sound.
e.g.:
+ Sound and movement of water: babble, blob, flush, bubble, gush,splash,..
+ Sound and movement of things: bang, boom, bump, clash, crash,smack,...
+ Sound expressing human feelings: babble, chatter, coe, jabber,..
+ Sound produced by animal: bee-buzz, roar-lion, frog-croak, crow-croak
- Back formation/ back derivation: building new words by subtracting the real or
supposed affix of the root.
e.g.: beggar-> to beg, baby-sister -> to baby-sit, air-conditioner -> to air-condition,...
C2: Difference between compound word and a free group word
* A compound word differs from a free-word group in 4 aspects:
- Phonological aspect: compound words often have stress on the first component.
e.g.: 'blue bottle - blue 'bottle; man'kind (loài người)- 'mankind (nam giới),...
- Structural integrity: it is impossible to insert any other words among them. Endings
are added to the whole word.
e.g.: black-markets, blackbirds, blackmail, blacklist,…
- Semantic integrity: the meaning of compound words is often idiomatic
e.g.: dirty work (dishonorable proceedings), slow-coach (person who thinks and acts
slowly),…
- Graphic/spelling aspect: compound words can be spelt in 3 ways: with hyphen, with
break (separation), and without break (separation)
e.g.: boyfriend, boy-friend, boy friend; passersby, passers-by, passer by,....
C3: Classification of compound words
* Compound words are classified based on 3 criteria:
1, Structural classification
a, According to the structure of the immediate components
- Simple stems: handbag, film-star,..
- Derived stems: skyscraper, teenager, passer-by,…
- Abbreviated stems: maths-teacher, X-ray, H-bomb,…
- At least one compound stem: aircraftcarrier, waste paper basket,..
- v+adv: break-down, cut-back,..
b, According to the part of speech
- Compound nouns: playtime, hairnet, blackboard, overcoat
- Compound adjectives: oil-rich, red-hot, overactive
- Compound verbs: stir-fry, hand-wash, dry-clean, outrun
- Compound adverbs: whole-heartedly, somewhere, all along, over and over,…
- Compound prepositions: onto, into, hereafter, inside out,…
c, According to the type of composition
- Compound formed by juxtaposition: blackache,heart-broken, railroad,…
- Compound formed by morphological means (with an infix): spokesman,
speedometer,…
- Compound formed by syntactical means: up-to-date, forget-me-not, cash-and-carry,
…
- Compound formed by morphological and syntactical means: kind-hearted, blue-
eyed, teenager,..
d, According to the relation between components
- Coordinative components (both are independent): socio-economical, brainmaster,
mother-earth, parent-teacher, brain master…
- Subordinative components (one component dominated over the other): wrist-watch,
gate-keeper, spaceship
2, Semantic classification
- Non-idiomatic: door-handle, headache, rose-bush, bedroom, life-boat, dancing hall,
sunlight..
- Idiomatic: topbrass, lip-service, night-mare, eyewash, horse-sense, hot dog, trolley
bus, air lift, editor-in-chief, man-of-war, sweetheart, red-tape,...
3, Phonetic classification
e.g.: fifty-fifty, win-win, zig-zac, walkie-talkie, lovey-dovey,...
C4: Types of shortening
* Types:
a, Abbreviation
- Acronym: is the formation of a word from the initials letters of a word combination.
+ Monograms: TV (television), VIP (very important person) , GDP (gross domestic
product),…
+ Homonymy-based acronyms: G9 = good night, B4 = before, N = and,…
- Clipping: involves the shortening of a longer word, often reducing it to 1 syllable.
+ Initial clipping: car (motor car), plane (air plane), phone (telephone),…
+ Final clipping: exam (examination), lab (laboratory),..
+ Medial clipping: maths (mathematics), Mr. (mister), Dr (doctor),…
+ Inito-final clipping: fridge (refrigerator), tec (detective), flu (influenza),..
b, Blending: the parts of the 2 words merge into a new word including the letters or
sounds they have in common as a connecting element.
e.g.: smog + fog → smog, breakfast + lunch → brunch, spoon + fork → spork,
camera + recorder → camcorder, ….
C5: Types of conversion
* Types:
- Substantivation of Adjs and Vs: a native, a female, a relative, the blind, the rich, a
go, a find, take-over,…
- Adjectivization of Ns: a sliver cup, a gold ring, an iron knife,…
- Verbalization of Ns or Adjs: to hand, water, star, better, cool, clear,…
- Adverbalization of Adjs: fast, long, high, pretty, hard, wrong, dead,...
- Partial conversion: to look → to have a look, to kiss → to give a kiss,....
C6: What is metaphor? State the types of similarities?
* a figure of speech based on a similarity between object or notion.
* Types:
- Similarity of Appearance (like part of the body): leg of a table, needle's eye, arm of
a chair/ a river, mouth of a river,....
- Similarity of Shape: wings of a bird, wing of a house, head of cabbage, nose of a
plane, bottle neck,...
- Similarity of Size: midget submarine, elephantine task, jumbo jetplane,...
- Similarity of Color: rosycheeks, green with envy, an orange coat,...
- Similarity of Quality: golden age, fruitful effort, a lion, a fox,...
- Similarity of Function: keyboard, key to a problem, head of
school/army/delegation,...
- Similarity of Position: foot of the mountain/hill/page, head/tail of
pocession/demonstration, bottom of a page,..
- Similarity of Movement: caterpillar of a tank, to worm, foxtrot,....
- Similarity of Sound: the room rang, the hall roared with laughter,...
- Similarity of Behaviour: a snake, crocodile's tears, an angel, a bookworm, a
wirepuller,...
C7: What is metonymy? State the cases of relation?
* a figure of speech based on contiguity (proximity) or close relation between 2
objects or notions.
* Cases:
- Relation between container and the thing contained
e.g.: The coffee bot/kettle is boiling
He drank two glasses
- Relation between parts and the whole
e.g.: Two heads are better than one
He is a good hand in this factory
Income per head, Stand on your own foot,…
- Relation between the notion and its symbol
e.g.: Grey hair should be respected
She gave her heart to a grocer's son
She's an apple in her mother's eye
- Relation between the place and its inhabitants
e.g.: the Wall Street, the House of Lords, the House of Commons
- Relation between the material and the thing made of it
e.g.: an iron, eye glasses, the silver, the brass
- Relation between the instrument and its function
e.g.: During the fight he was knifed in the back.
- Relation between proper names and common names
+ Name of place and name of products made there
e.g.: china, champagne, havana, bikini, morocco,...
+ Name of inventor and name of the invention
e.g.: sandwich, mackintosh, pullman, volt, ampere, ohm,...
+ Name of the author and name of his works
e.g.: Have you ever read Dickens
C8: Difference between poly-semantic and homonym
- In term of semantics; homonyms have more synonyms
e.g.: bay= gulf/ barking
- In term of derivation: homonyms have more derivatives
e.g.: long (adj) - longer, longest
long (v) - longed, longing
- In term of semantic relation: homonyms are not semantically related
e.g.: page: part of a book/ a boy who worked as a servant for knight
- In term of combinability: homonyms have more combination
e.g.: in spring/ spring from
 Part C:
A, Noun phrase
C1: Syntactic functions of Noun phrase:
- As S: The cat chased the mouse./ The birds fly in the sky.
- As Od: They like my toy./ Cong enjoys British music.
- As Oi: I saw the book on the table./ We gave our friend a book.
- As Cs: My Dad is a university lecturer.
- As Co: They elected him their chairman.
- As Cprep: On the way, we looked at it.
- As Cadj: The game isn’t worth the candle.
- As Appositive: My friend, a talented athlete, is coming to visit.
- As Adverbial: Next week, she will go camping./ Last week we telephoned him.
C2: Difference between a basic and a complex NP
- A basic noun phrase and a complex noun phrase differ in that while a basic noun
phrase needs premodifier of closed system items.
+ For example: All the two students/ Both of my brothers/ The first two books,...
- A complex noun phrase needs premodifier of both closed system items and open
class items.
+ For example: The beautiful girl sitting in the corner.
The English Grammar book there which I bought two years ago.
- Besides, a complex noun phrase also needs postmodifier.
+ E.g.. The man in the car
B, Verb phrase
C4, On the basis of sentence elements, there are 7 types of sentence in E:
SV, SVA, SVC, SVO, SVOO, SVOC, SVOA
C5: There are 5 kinds of verb based on the verb form: base form, s/es
form, ing form, ed form, past participle form
C6: On the basis of ability ti be used in progressive form, the Verb in E
can be classified into:
- Stative: see, have, smell..
- Dynamic: do, work, have,...
e.g.: Taste: this soup taste delicious (S)/ He is tasting soup (D)
We have E lesson on week days (S)/ We are having lunch (D)
C7: Syntactic functions of non-finite VP
- To infinitive VP: S, O, C
+ A: To get more money, he took an extra-job
+ App: His dream, to conquer her heart, has never been materialized
+ Cadj: It is important to be there on time
+ Post-modifier of NP ( The man walking over there is my brother)
- Ving VP: S, O, C
+ A: Her hobby, listening to music, makes me surprised/curious.
+ App: Her hobby, listening to music, makes me surprised/curious.
+ Cprep: They are thinking of cheating her./ I am fond of reading science- fiction
book
C, Adj phrase
C8: Classification of adj
a, According to syntactic function
- Central: hungry, good, bad, happy,....
- Attributive (=modifier): utter, political, former, real,...
- Predicative (=complement): alive, afraid, tantamount,...
b, According to semantic:
- Stative and dynamic:
+ Stave: good, old, beautiful
+ Dynamic: abusive, foolish, careful, careless, reasonable, jealous, friendly
- Gradable and non-gradable
+ Gradable: young- younger- youngest; very useful; so plain; rather old
+ Non-gradable: atonic, hydracholoric, British,...
C9: Syntactic function of Adj.P
- Modifier: good students, students good at E
- Cs: My students are very dynamic
- Co: Foreign languages will make us more dynamic
- Head N (S): The rich are helping the poor
C10: The adj in E can be post positive sometimes
E.g.: There is nothing new./ There is no one absent today.
D, Adverb phrase
C11, Syntactic function
- A: we are here/ at home./ They are waiting outside/ Frankly, I’m tired
- Modifier of Adj: Your pronunciation is very good.
- Mod of Adv: These problems are rather more difficult than those problems.
- Mod of determiner: About ten people will join the party.
- Mod of NP: It is such a big family
- Mod of Prep: The sound of the music blasted right through the wall.
The smell of the delicious food wafted right through the wall.
- Cprep: John has become a successful entrepreneur since then.
The company has experienced significant growth since then
C12: Difference between adjunct, disjunct, conjunct
Adjunct, disjunct and conjunct are kinds of adverbial, however, they are different in
some ways. While adjunct is integrated, disjunct and conjunct are peripheral.
e.g.: Cactus normally grow well on poor soil
Normally, cactus grow well on poor soil
All in all, cactus grow well on poor soil
E, Prepositional phrase
C13: Syntactic function
- A: we went to school on foot/ To a certain extent, rice is now replaceable/ In the
end, they seperated.
- Complements of verb: we decide on taking revenge
- Complementation of adj: good at, tired of
- post modifier of NP: A man of some wealth/ four children, a problem of great
importance.
F, Nominal relative clauses:
a, S
- “That” clause: That he is the best student of this group is widely accepted.
- “Wh-” clause: Who will go there is a question.
- Nominal rel.cl. Whoever went there was given a small book.
- Yes/no interr. Whether he’ll help us or not is not certain yet.
- “To” infinitive: It is easy to learn grammar.
- Bare infinitive: Run away was what we could do then.
-Ing participle: It is no use crying over the milk spilt.

b. Od
- “That” clause: We know that you are rich.
- “Wh-” clause: I didn’t know why you didn’t love me.
- Nominal rel.cl. I can’t understand whatever he says.
- Yes/no interr. Do you know if he can swim?
“To” infinitive: She likes to dance then.
- -Ing participle: We like singing the song in the group.

c. Oi
- Nominal rel.cl: They gave whoever went there a present.

d. Cs:
- “That” clause: The question is that he is still single.
- “Wh- ” interr.cl.: The question is where we will go after the class.
- Nominal rel.cl.: What he likes is not whatever I like.
- Yes/no interr.: The question is If he can cope with the situation.
- “To” infinitive: My job was to remind him of his duty.
- Bare infinitive: What we ought to do is repeat what he says.
-Ing participle: Her dream was becoming a good translator.

e. Co
- Nominal rel. cl.: You can paint it whichever colour you like.
- “To” infinitive: We wanted him to keep silent.
- Bare infinitive: We heard him murmur something.
-Ing participle: I saw him driving a new Dream.

f. App
- “That” clause: His hope, that he’ll become a teacher of English, will soon come
true.
- “Wh-” clause: The question how we deal with the situation has not been answered.
Nominal rel.cl.: We want to know her permanent address, that is where she is living
most of her time.
- Yes/no interr.: Our problem whether he’ll be able to come over this difficulty is a
great significant.
- “To” infinitive: His desire, to become famous throughout the country, comes true.
- Ing participle: Her dream, becoming the Queen, was reliased at last.

g. Cadj
- “That” clause: I’m sure that he’ll get married soon.
- “Wh-” clause: I’m not certain who helped him over the difficulty.
- Yes/no interrogative: I’m not sure whether he’ll succeed or not.
- “To” infinitive: He is easy to deal with.
- Ing participle: She was busy making up all day.

h. Cprep
- “Wh-” clause: It depends on what he will say at the meeting.
- Nominal rel. cl: I don’t believe in whatever he says.
- Yes/no interr: It depends on whether he can bring in this list.
Ing participle: They are thinking of cheating her.
G, Clauses
C14: Clauses in E can be classified on the basis of
- Structure:
+ Finite: When I last saw you, you lived in New York
I lent him the money because he badly needed it
+ Non- finite: Being a man of ingenuity, he soon repaired the car
Wherever known, such facts have been reported.
+ Verbless: When in Rome, do as Rome does.
While in London, he enjoyed himself greatly.
- Semantic:
+ Nominal: I’m sure that he’ll get married soon.
+ Adverbial: Rather than to their by car, I’d take the slowest train
+ Comment: At that time, I believe, labour was cheap.
I’m a pacifist, as you know.
+ Relative: He failed the exam, which made his parent unhappy