HANSA-3 Modification

Carpet plot:
A carpet plot is any of a few different specific types of plot. The more common plot referred to as a carpet
plot is one that illustrates the interaction between two or more independent variables and one or more
dependent variables in a two-dimensional plot.
Center-of-Gravity Limits
Center of gravity (CG) limits are specified longitudinal (forward and aft) and/or lateral (left and right)
limits within which the aircraft's center of gravity must be located during flight. The CG limits are
indicated in the airplane flight manual. The area between the limits is called the CG range of the aircraft.
Reference Datum
The reference datum is a reference plane that allows accurate, and uniform, measurements to any point on
the aircraft. The location of the reference datum is established by the manufacturer and is defined in the
aircraft flight manual. The horizontal reference datum is an imaginary vertical plane or point, placed
along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, from which all horizontal distances are measured for weight
and balance purposes. There is no fixed rule for its location, and it may be located forward of the nose of
the aircraft. For helicopters, it may be located at the rotor mast, the nose of the helicopter, or even at a
point in space ahead of the helicopter. While the horizontal reference datum can be anywhere the
manufacturer chooses, most small training helicopters have the horizontal reference datum 100 inches
forward of the main rotor shaft centerline. This is to keep all the computed values positive. The lateral
reference datum is usually located at the center of the helicopter.
Arm
The arm is the horizontal distance from the reference datum to the center of gravity (CG) of an item. The
algebraic sign is plus (+) if measured aft of the datum or to the right side of the center line when
considering a lateral calculation. The algebraic sign is minus (−) if measured forward of the datum or the
left side of the center line when considering a lateral calculation.
Moment
The moment is the moment of force, or torque, that results from an object's weight acting through an arc
that is centered on the zero point of the reference datum distance. Moment is also referred to as the
tendency of an object to rotate or pivot about a point (the zero point of the datum, in this case). The
further an object is from this point, the greater the force it exerts. Moment is calculated by multiplying the
weight of an object by its arm.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
A specific chord line of a tapered wing. At the mean aerodynamic chord, the center of pressure has the
same aerodynamic force, position, and area as it does on the rest of the wing. The MAC represents the
width of an equivalent rectangular wing in given conditions. On some aircraft, the center of gravity is
expressed as a percentage of the length of the MAC. In order to make such a calculation, the position of
the leading edge of the MAC must be known ahead of time. This position is defined as a distance from
the reference datum and is found in the aircraft's flight manual and also on the aircraft's type certificate
data sheet. If a general MAC is not given but a LeMAC (leading edge mean aerodynamic chord) and a
TeMAC (trailing edge mean aerodynamic chord) are given (both of which would be referenced as an arm
measured out from the datum line) then your MAC can be found by finding the difference between your
LeMAC and your TeMAC.
What determines fuselage station zero on an aircraft? Often in aircraft design, the horizontal
coordinate system will start some distance before the nose. Why isn't the so station at the nose?
The coordinate system convention used for most vehicles, including aircraft and automobiles, is based on
an XYZ system originally developed for ships and boats. The X-axis of this system is positive pointing
aft and is typically called the fuselage station (FS) in the case of an aircraft. The Z-axis is positive
pointing upward and is known as the water line (WL). To complete a right-handed coordinate system,
the Y-axis is positive pointing along the plane's right wing. The Y-axis is usually called the butt line
(BL) but is sometimes referred to as the wing station (WS) as well. The latter name is probably less
common since it can be confusing for military aircraft where pylons and other hardpoints are often called
weapon stations.
Coaming is any vertical surface on a ship designed to deflect or prevent entry of water. It usually consists
of a raised section of deck plating around an opening
Coaming assy:
Coaming assembly

Foam sandwich cable tray: rigid polyurethane foam between two layers of metal sheets. The panels
comprise of top surface and a ribbed liner tray on the underside and a sandwiched insulation.
Monolithic Power Systems (MPS): Single-Cell Switching Charger is a highly-integrated, flexible,
switch-mode battery-charging, power-path management device. The MPS is designed for a single-cell Li-
ion and Li-polymer battery to be used in a wide range of portable applications. Using an I2C interface, the
host can flexibly program the charge and boost parameters. The device's operating status can also be read
in the registers.
Bidirectional glass layers: In the present study, continuous bi-directional woven glass fiber layers of
200GSM were used as reinforcement in the epoxy resin matrix
Material Classification
1. Isotropic Orthotropic: Iso- same, Tropic - directions Properties independent of direction/axes
2. Ortho Tropic: Ortho-three Tropic - directions Different properties along 3 axes
3. Anisotropic: Different properties along crystallographic plane
4. Laminates Two or more materials bonded together in layers.
PCOM: NASTRAN these equivalent entries are given in the database definition section of the Model
Results Output File and in the translated Bulk Data Output File.
The von Mises stress is used to predict yielding of materials under complex loading from the results of
uniaxial tensile.
Battery capacity increase: add batteries in parallel to increase the capacity if voltage of a single cell is
adequate for the load. Connecting batteries in series increases voltage, but does not increase overall amp-
hour capacity.

 All batteries in a series bank must have the same amp-hour rating.
 Connecting batteries in parallel increases total current capacity by decreasing total resistance, and
it also increases overall amp-hour capacity.
 All batteries in a parallel bank must have the same voltage rating.
 Batteries can be damaged by excessive cycling and overcharging.
 Single Cell Applications
 The single-cell configuration is the simplest battery pack; the cell does not need matching and the
protection circuit on a small Li-ion cell can be kept simple. Typical examples are mobile phones
and tablets with one 3.60V Li-ion cell. Other uses of a single cell are wall clocks, which typically
use a 1.5V alkaline cell, wristwatches and memory backup, most of which are very low power
applications.

The nominal cell voltage for a nickel-based battery is 1.2V, alkaline is 1.5V; silver-oxide is 1.6V
and lead acid is 2.0V. Primary lithium batteries range between 3.0V and 3.9V. Li-ion is 3.6V; Li-
phosphate is 3.2V and Li-titanate is 2.4V.
 Li-manganese and other lithium-based systems often use cell voltages of 3.7V and higher. This
has less to do with chemistry than promoting a higher watt-hour (Wh), which is made possible
with a higher voltage. The argument goes that a low internal cell resistance keeps the voltage high
under load. For operational purposes these cells go as 3.6V candidates. (See BU-303 Confusion
with Voltages)

Series Connection
 Portable equipment needing higher voltages use battery packs with two or more cells connected
in series. Figure 2 shows a battery pack with four 3.6V Li-ion cells in series, also known as 4S, to
produce 14.4V nominal. In comparison, a six-cell lead acid string with 2V/cell will generate 12V,
and four alkaline with 1.5V/cell will give 6V.


 Figure 2: Series connection of four cells (4s).
Adding cells in a string increases the voltage; the capacity remains the same.
Courtesy of Cadex


If you need an odd voltage of, say, 9.50 volts, connect five lead acid, eight NiMH or NiCd, or
three Li-ion in series. The end battery voltage does not need to be exact as long as it is higher
than what the device specifies. A 12V supply might work in lieu of 9.50V. Most battery-operated
devices can tolerate some over-voltage; the end-of-discharge voltage must be respected, however.
 High voltage batteries keep the conductor size small. Cordless power tools run on 12V and 18V
batteries; high-end models use 24V and 36V. Most e-bikes come with 36V Li-ion, some are 48V.
The car industry wanted to increase the starter battery from 12V (14V) to 36V, better known as
42V, by placing 18 lead acid cells in series. Logistics of changing the electrical components and
arcing problems on mechanical switches derailed the move.

Some mild hybrid cars run on 48V Li-ion and use DC-DC conversion to 12V for the electrical
system. Starting the engine is often done by a separate 12V lead acid battery. Early hybrid cars
ran on a 148V battery; electric vehicles are typically 450–500V. Such a battery needs more than
100 Li-ion cells connected in series.

High-voltage batteries require careful cell matching, especially when drawing heavy loads or
when operating at cold temperatures. With multiple cells connected in a string, the possibility of
one cell failing is real and this would cause a failure. To prevent this from happening, a solid state
switch in some large packs bypasses the failing cell to allow continued current flow, albeit at a
lower string voltage.

Cell matching is a challenge when replacing a faulty cell in an aging pack. A new cell has a
higher capacity than the others, causing an imbalance. Welded construction adds to the
complexity of the repair, and this is why battery packs are commonly replaced as a unit.

High-voltage batteries in electric vehicles, in which a full replacement would be prohibitive,

divide the pack into modules, each consisting of a specific number of cells. If one cell fails, only
the affected module is replaced. A slight imbalance might occur if the new module is fitted with
new cells. (See BU-910: How to Repair a Battery Pack.)

Figure 3 illustrates a battery pack in which “cell 3” produces only 2.8V instead of the full
nominal 3.6V. With depressed operating voltage, this battery reaches the end-of-discharge point
sooner than a normal pack. The voltage collapses and the device turns off with a “Low Battery”
message.


 Figure 3: Series connection with a faulty cell.

Faulty cell 3 lowers the voltage and cuts the equipment off prematurely.
Courtesy of Cadex


Batteries in drones and remote controls for hobbyist requiring high load current often exhibit an unexpected voltage drop if one cell in a string is weak. Drawing
maximum current stresses frail cells, leading to a possible crash. Reading the voltage after a charge does not identify this anomaly; examining the cell-balance or
checking the capacity with a battery analyzer will.


Tapping into a Series String

 There is a common practice to tap into the series string of a lead acid array to obtain a lower
voltage. Heavy duty equipment running on a 24V battery bank may need a 12V supply for an
auxiliary operation and this voltage is conveniently available at the half-way point.
 Tapping is not recommended because it creates a cell imbalance as one side of the battery bank is
loaded more than the other. Unless the disparity can be corrected by a special charger, the side
effect is a shorter battery life. Here is why:

When charging an imbalanced lead acid battery bank with a regular charger, the undercharged
section tends to develop sulfation as the cells never receive a full charge. The high voltage section
of the battery that does not receive the extra load tends to get overcharged and this leads
to corrosion and loss of water due to gassing. Please note that the charger charging the entire
string looks at the average voltage and terminates the charge accordingly.

Tapping is also common on Li-ion and nickel-based batteries and the results are similar to lead
acid: reduced cycle life. (See BU-803a: Cell Matching and Balancing.) Newer devices use a DC-
DC converter to deliver the correct voltage. Electric and hybrid vehicles, alternatively, use a
separate low-voltage battery for the auxiliary system.

Parallel Connection
 If higher currents are needed and larger cells are not available or do not fit the design constraint,
one or more cells can be connected in parallel. Most battery chemistries allow parallel
configurations with little side effect. Figure 4 illustrates four cells connected in parallel in a P4
arrangement. The nominal voltage of the illustrated pack remains at 3.60V, but the capacity (Ah)
and runtime are increased fourfold.

Figure 4: Parallel connection of four cells (4p).

With parallel cells, capacity in Ah and runtime increases while the voltage stays the same.
Courtesy of Cadex


A cell that develops high resistance or opens is less critical in a parallel circuit than in a series
configuration, but a failing cell will reduce the total load capability. It’s like an engine only firing
on three cylinders instead of on all four. An electrical short, on the other hand, is more serious as
the faulty cell drains energy from the other cells, causing a fire hazard. Most so-called electrical
shorts are mild and manifest themselves as elevated self-discharge.

A total short can occur through reverse polarization or dendrite growth. Large packs often include
a fuse that disconnects the failing cell from the parallel circuit if it were to short. Figure 5
illustrates a parallel configuration with one faulty cell.
Figure 5: Parallel/connection with one faulty cell.
A weak cell will not affect the voltage but provide a low runtime due to reduced capacity. A
shorted cell could cause excessive heat and become a fire hazard. On larger packs a fuse
prevents high current by isolating the cell.
Courtesy of Cadex


Series/parallel Connection
 The series/parallel configuration shown in Figure 6 enables design flexibility and achieves the
desired voltage and current ratings with a standard cell size. The total power is the sum of voltage
times current; a 3.6V (nominal) cell multiplied by 3,400mAh produces 12.24Wh. Four 18650
Energy Cells of 3,400mAh each can be connected in series and parallel as shown to get 7.2V
nominal and a total of 48.96Wh. A combination with 8 cells would produce 97.92Wh, the
allowable limit for carry on an aircraft or shipped without Class 9 hazardous material. (See BU-
704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air) The slim cell allows flexible pack design but
a protection circuit is needed.

Figure 6: Series/ parallel connection of four cells (2s2p).

This configuration provides maximum design flexibility. Paralleling the cells helps in voltage
management.
Courtesy of Cadex


Li-ion lends itself well to series/parallel configurations but the cells need monitoring to stay
within voltage and current limits. Integrated circuits (ICs) for various cell combinations are
available to supervise up to 13 Li-ion cells. Larger packs need custom circuits, and this applies to
 e-bike batteries, hybrid cars and the Tesla Model 85 that devours over 7000 18650 cells to make
up the 90kWh pack.

 Terminology to describe Series and Parallel Connection

 The battery industry specifies the number of cells in series first, followed by the cells placed in
parallel. An example is 2s2p. With Li-ion, the parallel strings are always made first; the
completed parallel units are then placed in series. Li-ion is a voltage based system that lends itself
well for parallel formation. Combining several cells into a parallel and then adding the units
serially reduces complexity in terms of voltages control for pack protection.
 Building series strings first and then placing them in in parallel may be more common with NiCd
packs to satisfy the chemical shuttle mechanism that balances charge at the top of charge. “2s2p”
is common; white papers have been issued that refer to 2p2s when a serial string is paralleled.

Safety devices in Series and Parallel Connection
 Positive Temperature Coefficient Switches (PTC) and Charge Interrupt Devices (CID) protect the
battery from overcurrent and excessive pressure. While recommended for safety in a smaller 2- or
3-cell pack with serial and parallel configuration, these protection devices are often being omitted
in larger multi-cell batteries, such as those for power tool. The PTC and CID work as expected to
switch of the cell on excessive current and internal cell pressure; however the shutdown occurs in
cascade format. While some cells may go offline early, the load current causes excess current on
the remaining cells. Such overload condition could lead to a thermal runaway before the
remaining safety devices activate.

Some cells have built-in PCT and CID; these protection devices can also be added retroactively.
The design engineer must be aware than any safety device is subject to failure. In addition, the
PTC induces a small internal resistance that reduces the load current.

Bonding: A guideline as far as a good RF bond is concerned is a de resistance value of between

0.25 and 2.5 milliohm (0.25Ω>R>2.5×10-3Ω)

Bonding, Grounding and Earthing:

Ground or earth in a mains electrical wiring system is a conductor that provides a low
impedance path to the earth to prevent hazardous voltages from appearing on equipment. Earthing
is more commonly used in Britain, European and most of the commonwealth countries standards
(IEC, IS), while Grounding is the word used in North American standards (NEC, IEEE, ANSI,
UL).We understand that Earthing and Grounding are necessary and have an idea how to do it but
we don’t have crystal clear concept for that. We need to understand that there are really two
separate things we are doing for same purpose that we call Grounding or Earthing.
The grounded circuits of machines need to have an effective return path from the machines to the power
source in order to function properly (Here by Neutral Circuit).
The earthing connection to switchboard rear door (metal parts)
In addition, non-current-carrying metallic components in a System, such as equipment cabinets,
enclosures, and structural steel, need to be electrically interconnected and earthed properly so voltage
potential cannot exist between them. However, troubles can arise when terms like “bonding”,
“grounding”, and “earthing” are interchanged or confused in certain situations.

In TN Type Power Distribution System, in US NEC (and possibly other) usage: Equipment is earthed to
pass fault Current and to trip the protective device without electrifying the device enclosure. Neutral is the
current return path for phase. These Earthing conductor and Neutral conductor are connected together and
earthed at the distribution panel and also at the street, but the intent is that no current flow on earthed
ground, except during momentary fault conditions.

Bonding
Bonding is simply the act of joining two electrical conductors together. These may be two wires, a wire
and a pipe, or these may be two Equipments. Bonding has to be done by connecting of all the metal parts
that are not supposed to be carrying current during normal operations to bringing them to the same
electrical potential.

Bonding ensures that these two things which are bonded will be at the same electrical potential. That
means we would not get electricity building up in one equipment or between two different equipment. No
current flow can take place between two bonded bodies because they have the same potential.

Bonding itself, does not protect anything. However, if one of those boxes is earthed there can be no
electrical energy build-up. If the grounded box is bonded to the other box, the other box is also at zero
electrical potential.
It protects equipment and person by reducing current flow between pieces of equipment at different
potentials.

The primary reason for bonding is personnel safety, so someone touching two pieces of equipment at the
same time does not receive a shock by becoming the path of equalization if they happen to be at different
potentials. The Second reason has to do with what happens if Phase conductor may be touched an
external metal part.

The bonding helps to create a low impedance path back to the source. This will force a large current to
flow, which in turn will cause the breaker to trip.
Earthing
Earthing means connecting the dead part (it means the part which does not carries current under normal
condition) to the earth for example electrical equipment’s frames, enclosures, supports etc.

The purpose of earthing is to minimize the risk of receiving an electric shock if touching metal parts when
a fault is present. Generally green wire is used for this as a nomenclature.
Under fault conditions the non-current carrying metal parts of an electrical installation such as frames,
enclosures, supports, fencing etc. may attain high potential with respect to ground so that any person or
stray animal touching these or approaching these will be subjected to potential difference which may
result in the flow of a current through the body of the person or the animal of such a value as may prove
fatal.

To avoid this non-current carrying metal parts of the electrical system are connected to the general mass
of earth by means of an earthing system comprising of earth conductors to conduct the fault currents
safely to the ground.

Earthing has been accomplished through bonding of a metallic system to earth. It is normally achieved by
inserting ground rods or other electrodes deep inside earth.

Grounding
Grounding means connecting the live part (it means the part which carries current under normal
condition) to the earth for example neutral of power transformer. It is done for the protections of power
system equipment and to provide an effective return path from the machine to the power source.

For example grounding of neutral point of a star connected transformer.

Grounding refers the current carrying part of the system such as neutral (of the transformer or generator).
Because of lightening, line surges or unintentional contact with other high voltage lines, dangerously high
voltages can develop in the electrical distribution system wires. Grounding provides a safe, alternate path
around the electrical system of your house thus minimizing damage from such occurrences.

Generally Black wire is used for this as a nomenclature.

All electrical/electronic circuits (AC & DC) need a reference potential (zero volts) which is called ground
in order to make possible the current flow from generator to load. Ground is May or May not be earthed.
In Electrical Power distribution it is either earthed at distribution Point or at Consumer end but it is not
earthed in Automobile( for instance all vehicles’ electrical circuits have ground connected to the chassis
and metallic body that are insulated from earth through tires).

There may exist a neutral to ground voltage due to voltage drop in the wiring, thus neutral does not
necessarily have to be at ground potential.
NB In the TT Type Power Distribution System (in India) Neutral is only earthed (here it is actually called
Grounding) at distribution source (at distribution transformer) and Four wires (Neutral and Three Phase)
are distributed to consumer. While at consumer side all electrical equipment body are connected and
earthed at consumer premises (here it is called Earthing).

Load analysis:
The two batteries are connected in parallel to meet the minimum emergency time requirement of
30 minutes as per FAA FAR 23.1353(h). The emergency load on main battery requirement under
all internal and external generator failure is approximately 31.42 amp. The following
assumptions are made in the battery load analysis:
 Battery with at least 80% of full charge is installed in aircraft
 1 Ah capacity is used for engine starting including one aborted start.
 A factor of 0.9 is considered for temperature variation
 Actual battery capacity installed = 31.2 Ah × 80 %=31.2× 0.8=24.96 Ah
 Capacity available with a design factor 0.9 = 24.96× 0.9 = 22.464 Ah
 Net Ah available after one start = 22.464−¿1 = 21.464 Ah
 The time available for all the loads connected to the bus bar is

( net Ah available after 1 start )

( load on main battery requirement under all internal∧external generator failure )
×60 minutes=
21.464
31.42( )
× 60=40