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Ivan B. Djordjevic
Advanced Optical
and Wireless
Communications
Systems
Advanced Optical and Wireless Communications
Systems
Ivan B. Djordjevic
Advanced Optical
and Wireless
Communications Systems
Ivan B. Djordjevic
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ, USA
ISBN 978-3-319-63150-9 ISBN 978-3-319-63151-6 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-63151-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017947898
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with
regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
In memory of my father Blagoje V. Djordjevic
Preface
The purpose of this book is to introduce the reader to most advanced topics of
(i) wireless communications, (ii) free-space optical (FSO) communications, (iii)
indoor optical wireless (infrared, IR) communications, and (iv) fiber-optics com-
munications. So far these different types of communication systems have been
considered as separate disciplines. However, the fundamental concepts, such as
propagation principles, modulation formats, channel coding, diversity principles,
MIMO signal processing, multicarrier modulation, equalization, adaptive modula-
tion and coding, detection principles, and software-defined transmission, are com-
mon. The key idea of this book is to consider these different types of
communication systems in a unified fashion. The fundamental concepts, listed
above, are described first, followed by a detailed description of each particular
system. The book is self-contained and structured to provide straightforward
guidance to readers looking to capture fundamentals and gain theoretical and
practical knowledge about wireless communications, free-space optical communi-
cations, and fiber-optics communications, which can be readily applied in their
research and practical applications.
This book unifies wireless, free-space optical, IR, and fiber-optics communica-
tions. Unique features of the book include as follows:
• This book integrates wireless communications, free-space optical communica-
tions, indoor IR (optical wireless) communications, and fiber-optics communi-
cation technologies.
• This book does not require prior knowledge in communication systems.
• This book does not require any prerequisite material except basic concepts on
vector algebra at undergraduate level.
• This book offers in-depth exposition on propagation effects in different media
(free space, fiber optics, atmospheric turbulence channels), channel impairments
in these media, noise sources, key components and modules enabling wireless
and optical communications, channel capacity studies, advanced modulation and
multiplexing techniques, advanced detection and channel compensation
vii
viii Preface
techniques, OFDM for wireless and optical communications, diversity tech-

niques, MIMO techniques, advanced coding and coded modulation techniques,
spread spectrum techniques, CDMA systems, multiuser detection, and ultra-
wideband communications, to mention a few.
• Multiple courses can be offered: advanced wireless communications, advanced
fiber-optics communications, advanced free-space optical communications,
advanced indoor IR (wireless optical) communications, and advanced wireless
and optical communication systems.
This book is intended for a very diverse group of readers in communications
engineering, optical engineering, wireless communications, free-space optical commu-
nications, optical wireless communications, mathematics, physics, communication
theory, information theory, device electronics, photonics, as well as computer science.
The book is organized into ten chapters. In the introductory chapter (Chap. 1),
we provide a historical perspective of both wireless and optical communication
systems, describe their fundamental concepts, identify various noise sources and
channel impairments, and briefly explain how to deal with them, with full details
provided in incoming chapters. Chapter 2 is devoted to the detailed description of
propagation effects, noise sources, and channel impairments for wireless commu-
nications, free-space optical communications, and fiber-optics communications. In
Chap. 3, the basic components, modules, and subsystems relevant in both optical
and wireless communications are described. Chapter 4 is devoted to both wireless
channel and optical channel capacities. Both memoryless channels and channels
with memory are considered. Chapter 5 is related to advanced modulation and
multiplexing techniques suitable for both wireless and optical communication
systems. Chapter 6 is related to advanced detection and channel impairment
compensation techniques applicable to both wireless and optical communication
systems. Chapter 7 is devoted to OFDM fundamentals and applications to wireless
and optical communications. In Chap. 8, various diversity and MIMO techniques
are described, capable of improving single-input single-output system performance,
applicable to both wireless and optical communication systems. Chapter 9 is related
to the advanced channel coding and coded modulation techniques, relevant to
optical and wireless communication systems. Finally, Chap. 10 is devoted to spread
spectrum (SS), CDMA, and ultra-wideband (UWB) communication systems. The
detailed description of chapters is described in the introduction.
The author would like to thank his colleagues and current/former students, in
particular Yequn Zhang, Tao Liu, Ding Zou, Changyu Lin, Zhen Qu, and Xiaole
Sun. Further, the author would like to thank his NEC Labs collaborators Ting
Wang, Shaoliang Zhang, and Fatih Yaman.
Finally, special thanks are extended to Mary E. James and Zoe Kennedy of
Springer USA for their tremendous effort in organizing the logistics of the book, in
particular promotion and edition, which is indispensable to make this book happen.
Tucson, AZ, USA Ivan B. Djordjevic

Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Historical Perspective of Optical and Wireless
Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Wireless Communication Historical Perspective . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Optical Communication Historical Perspective . . . . . . 6
1.2 Optical Communication Systems and Networks Fundamentals . . . . 8
1.3 Wireless Communication Systems Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Organization of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2 Propagation Effects in Optical and Wireless Communications
Channels, Noise Sources, and Channel Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1 Electromagnetic Field and Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.1 Vector Derivatives (Grad, Div, and Curl)
in Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinate System . . . . . . . 34
2.1.2 Vector Derivatives (Grad, Div, and Curl)
in Cylindrical Polar and Spherical
Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.1 Propagation of Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.2 Vectorial Nature of the Light, Snell’s Law
of Refraction, Reflection Coefficients,
and Total Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.3 Electromagnetic Potentials and Electromagnetic
Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.2.4 Interference, Coherence, and Diffraction in Optics . . . . 70
2.2.5 Laser Beam Propagation over the Atmospheric
Turbulence Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
ix
x Contents
2.3 Propagation Effects in Wireless Communication Channels . . . . . 116

2.3.1 Path Loss and Shadowing Propagation Effects
in Wireless Communication Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.3.2 Statistical Multipath Wireless Communication
Channel Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.4 Signal Propagation in Optical Fibers and Corresponding
Channel Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2.4.1 Fiber Attenuation and Insertion Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2.4.2 Chromatic Dispersion Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.4.3 Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
2.4.4 Fiber Nonlinearities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
2.4.5 Generalized Nonlinear Schr€odinger Equation . . . . . . . . 180
2.5 Noise Sources in Optical Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.5.1 Mode Partition Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.5.2 Reflection-Induced Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
2.5.3 Relative Intensity Noise (RIN) and Laser
Phase Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
2.5.4 Modal Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
2.5.5 Thermal Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
2.5.6 Spontaneous Emission Noise and Noise
Beating Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
2.5.7 Quantum Shot Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
2.5.8 Dark Current Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
2.5.9 Crosstalk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
2.6 Indoor Optical Wireless Communication Channels . . . . . . . . . . 195
2.6.1 Infrared Optical Wireless Communications . . . . . . . . . 196
2.6.2 Visible Light Communications (VLCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3 Components, Modules, and Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.1 Key Optical Components, Modules, and Subsystems . . . . . . . . 210
3.1.1 Optical Communications Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
3.1.2 Optical Transmitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
3.1.3 Optical Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
3.1.4 Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
3.1.5 Optical Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.1.6 Optical Processing Components and Modules . . . . . . . 233
3.1.7 Principles of Coherent Optical Detection . . . . . . . . . . . 238
3.1.8 Optical Hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
3.1.9 Coherent Optical Balanced Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
3.2 Modules/Components Relevant to Wireless
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
3.2.1 DSP Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
3.2.2 Direct Digital Synthesizer (DDS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Contents xi
3.2.3 Multirate DSP and Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

3.2.4 Antenna Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
3.2.5 Automatic Gain Control (AGC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
4 Wireless and Optical Channels Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
4.1 Mutual Information, Channel Capacity, and Information
Capacity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
4.1.1 Mutual Information and Information Capacity . . . . . . . 273
4.1.2 Capacity of Continuous Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.2 Capacity of Flat-Fading and Frequency-Selective
Wireless Fading Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
4.2.1 Flat-Fading Channel Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
4.2.2 Frequency-Selective Fading Channel Capacity . . . . . . 290
4.3 Capacity of Channels with Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
4.3.1 Markov Sources and Their Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
4.3.2 McMillan Sources and Their Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
4.3.3 McMillan-Khinchin Model for Channel
Capacity Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
4.4 Calculation of Information Capacity by the Forward
Recursion of the BCJR Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
4.5 Information Capacity of Systems with Coherent
Optical Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
4.6 Hybrid Free-Space Optical (FSO)-RF Channel Capacity . . . . . . 308
4.6.1 Hybrid FSO-RF System Model Description . . . . . . . . . 308
4.6.2 Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC)
in Hybrid FSO-RF Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
5 Advanced Modulation and Multiplexing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 323
5.1 Signal Space Theory in Wireless Communications . . . . . . . . . . 324
5.1.1 Geometric Representation of Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
5.1.2 Modulators and Demodulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
5.1.3 Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
5.1.4 M-Ary Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) . . . . . . . . 332
5.1.5 Passband Digital Wireless/Optical Transmission . . . . . 335
5.2 Multilevel (Two-Dimensional) Modulation Schemes . . . . . . . . 337
5.2.1 Two-Dimensional Signal Constellations
for Wireless Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
5.2.2 M-ary PSK Transmitters for Optical
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
5.2.3 Star-QAM Transmitters for Optical
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
5.2.4 Square- and Cross-QAM Transmitters
for Optical Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
xii Contents
5.3 Multicarrier Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

5.3.1 Multicarrier Systems with Nonoverlapping
Subcarriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
5.3.2 Multicarrier Systems with Overlapping
Subcarriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
5.3.3 Dealing with Fading Effects on Subcarrier Level . . . . . 356
5.4 MIMO Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
5.5 Polarization-Division Multiplexing (PDM)
and 4-D Signaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
5.6 Spatial-Division Multiplexing and Multidimensional
Signaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
5.6.1 SDM in Wireless Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
5.6.2 SDM and Multidimensional Signaling
in Fiber-Optics Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
5.6.3 SDM and Multidimensional Signaling
in Free-Space Optical (FSO) Communications . . . . . . . 370
5.7 Optimum Signal Constellation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
5.7.1 Iterative Polar Modulation (IPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
5.7.2 Signal Constellation Design for Rotationally
Symmetric Optical Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
5.7.3 Energy-Efficient Signal Constellation Design . . . . . . . 377
5.7.4 Optimum Signal Constellation Design (OSCD) . . . . . . 378
5.8 Nonuniform Signaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
6 Advanced Detection Techniques and Compensation
of Channel Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
6.1 Detection and Estimation Theory Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
6.1.1 Geometric Representation of Received Signals . . . . . . 388
6.1.2 Correlation and Matched Filter-Based Receivers
Maximizing the Signal-to-Noise Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
6.1.3 Optimum and LLR Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
6.1.4 Symbol Error Probability Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
6.1.5 Estimation Theory Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
6.2 Wireless Communication Systems Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
6.2.1 Outage Probability Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
6.2.2 Average Error Probability Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
6.2.3 Combined Outage and Average Error Probability
Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
6.2.4 Moment-Generating Function (MGF)-Based
Approach to Average Error Probability
Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
6.2.5 Performance Evaluation in the Presence
of Doppler Spread and Fading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Contents xiii
6.3 Channel Equalization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

6.3.1 ISI-Free Digital Transmission
and Partial-Response Signaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
6.3.2 Zero-Forcing Equalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
6.3.3 Optimum Linear Equalizer in MMSE Sense . . . . . . . . 427
6.3.4 Wiener Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
6.3.5 Adaptive Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
6.3.6 Decision-Feedback Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
6.3.7 MLSD (MLSE) or Viterbi Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
6.3.8 Blind Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
6.4 Synchronization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
6.5 Adaptive Modulation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
6.5.1 Variable-Power Variable-Rate Modulation
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
6.5.2 Adaptive Coded Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
6.6 Volterra Series-Based Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
6.7 Digital Backpropagation in Fiber-Optics
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
6.8 Optical Communication Systems with Coherent
Optical Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
6.8.1 Balanced Coherent Optical Detection
for 2-D Modulation Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
6.8.2 Polarization Diversity and Polarization-Division
Demultiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
6.8.3 Homodyne Coherent Optical Detection Based
on PLLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
6.8.4 Phase Diversity Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
6.8.5 Dominant Coherent Optical Detection
Noise Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
6.9 Compensation of Atmospheric Turbulence Effects . . . . . . . . . . 479
6.9.1 Adaptive Optics Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
6.9.2 SLM-Based Backpropagation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
7 OFDM for Wireless and Optical Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
7.1 Introduction, OFDM Basics, and Generation
of Subcarriers Using Inverse FFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
7.1.1 Introduction to OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
7.1.2 OFDM Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
7.1.3 Generation of OFDM Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
xiv Contents
7.2 Guard Time, Cyclic Extension, and Windowing . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

7.2.1 Guard Time and Cyclic Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
7.2.2 Windowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
7.3 Bandwidth Efficiency of OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
7.4 OFDM Parameters Selection, OFDM Building Blocks,
Parallel Channel Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
7.4.1 OFDM Parameters Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
7.4.2 OFDM Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
7.4.3 OFDM Parallel Channel Decomposition
and Channel Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
7.5 CO-OFDM Principles, DFT Windowing, Frequency
Synchronization, Phase Estimation, and Channel
Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
7.5.1 Principles of Coherent Optical
OFDM (CO-OFDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
7.5.2 DFT Window Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
7.5.3 Frequency Synchronization in OFDM Systems . . . . . . 518
7.5.4 Phase Estimation in OFDM Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
7.5.5 Channel Estimation in OFDM Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
7.6 Differential Detection in OFDM Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
7.7 OFDM Applications in Wireless Communications . . . . . . . . . . 528
7.7.1 OFDM in Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) . . . . . . . 528
7.7.2 Coded OFDM in Digital Video
Broadcasting (DVB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
7.8 OFDM for WiFi, LTE, and WiMAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
7.9 OFDM in Ultra-Wideband Communication (UWC) . . . . . . . . . 549
7.10 Optical OFDM Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
7.10.1 Optical OFDM Systems Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
7.10.2 High-Speed Spectrally Efficient
CO-OFDM Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
7.10.3 OFDM in Multimode Fiber Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
8 Diversity and MIMO Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
8.1 Diversity Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
8.1.1 Basic Diversity Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
8.1.2 Receiver Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
8.1.3 Transmitter Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
8.2 MIMO Optical and Wireless Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
8.2.1 MIMO Wireless and Optical Channel Models . . . . . . . 596
8.2.2 Parallel Decomposition of Optical and Wireless
MIMO Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
8.2.3 Space-Time Coding: ML Detection, Rank
Determinant, and Euclidean Distance Criteria . . . . . . . 604
Contents xv
8.2.4 Relevant Classes of Space-Time Codes (STCs) . . . . . . 611

8.2.5 Spatial Division Multiplexing (SDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
8.2.6 Linear and Decision-Feedback MIMO Receivers
for Uncoded Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
8.2.7 Suboptimum MIMO Receivers for Coded Signals . . . . 628
8.3 Iterative MIMO Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
8.3.1 Factor Graphs Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
8.3.2 Factor Graphs for MIMO Channels and Channels
with Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
8.3.3 Sum-Product Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
8.3.4 Sum-Product Algorithm for Channels
with Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
8.3.5 Iterative MIMO Receivers for Uncoded Signals . . . . . . 639
8.3.6 Factor Graphs for Linear Block and Trellis
Channel Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
8.3.7 Iterative MIMO Receivers for Space-Time
Coded Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
8.4 Broadband MIMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
8.4.1 MIMO-OFDM Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
8.4.2 Space-Frequency Block Coding-Based MIMO . . . . . . . 649
8.5 MIMO Channel Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
8.5.1 Capacity of Deterministic (Static)
MIMO Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
8.5.2 Capacity of Random MIMO Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
8.6 MIMO Channel Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
8.6.1 Maximum Likelihood (ML) MIMO
Channel Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
8.6.2 Least Squares (LS) MIMO Channel Estimation . . . . . . 661
8.6.3 Linear Minimum Mean-Square Error (LMMSE)
MIMO Channel Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
8.6.4 Selection of Pilot Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
9 Advanced Coding and Coded Modulation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 669
9.1 Linear Block Codes Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
9.2 BCH Codes Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
9.3 Trellis Description of Linear Block Codes and Viterbi
Decoding Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
9.4 Convolutional Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
9.5 RS Codes, Concatenated Codes, and Product Codes . . . . . . . . . 695
9.6 Coding with Interleaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
9.7 Codes on Graphs Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
9.8 Turbo Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
9.9 Turbo Product Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
xvi Contents
9.10 LDPC Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714

9.10.1 Binary LDPC Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
9.10.2 Decoding of Binary LDPC Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
9.10.3 FPGA Implementation of Binary LDPC Decoders . . . . 720
9.10.4 Decoding of Nonbinary LDPC Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
9.10.5 Design of LDPC Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
9.10.6 Rate-Adaptive LDPC Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
9.10.7 Rate-Adaptive Coding Implementations
in FPGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
9.11 Coded Modulation and Unequal Error Protection . . . . . . . . . . . 741
9.11.1 Coded Modulation Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
9.11.2 Trellis-Coded Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
9.11.3 Multilevel-Coded Modulation and Unequal Error
Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
9.11.4 Bit-Interleaved Coded Modulation (BICM) . . . . . . . . . 754
9.11.5 Turbo Trellis-Coded Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
9.12 Hybrid Multidimensional Coded Modulation Scheme
for High-Speed Optical Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
9.12.1 Hybrid Coded Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
9.12.2 Multilevel Nonbinary LDPC-Coded Modulation
(ML-NB-LDPC-CM) for High-Speed Optical
Transmissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
9.13 Multidimensional Turbo Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
9.13.1 Nonlinear Channels with Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
9.13.2 Nonbinary MAP Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
9.13.3 Sliding-Window Multidimensional Turbo
Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
9.13.4 Nonlinear Propagation Simulation Study
of Turbo Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
9.13.5 Experimental Study of Time-Domain
4-D-NB-LDPC-CM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
9.13.6 Quasi-Single-Mode Transmission over
Transoceanic Distances Using Few Mode Fibers . . . . . 782
9.14 Optimized Signal Constellation Design and Optimized
Bit-to-Symbol Mappings-Based-Coded Modulation . . . . . . . . . 786
9.14.1 Multidimensional Optimized Signal
Constellation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
9.14.2 EXIT Chart Analysis of OSCD Mapping Rules . . . . . . 789
9.14.3 Nonlinear-Optimized Signal Constellation
Design-Based Coded Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
9.14.4 40 Tb/s Transoceanic Transmission Enabled
by 8-Ary OSCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
9.15 Adaptive Coding and Adaptive Coded Modulation . . . . . . . . . . 798
9.15.1 Adaptive Coded Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
Contents xvii
9.15.2 Adaptive Nonbinary LDPC-Coded Multidimensional

Modulation for High-Speed Optical
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
9.15.3 Adaptive Hybrid FSO-RF-Coded Modulation . . . . . . . 802
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
10 Spread Spectrum, CDMA, and Ultra-Wideband
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
10.1 Spread Spectrum Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
10.1.1 Spread Spectrum System Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
10.1.2 Direct Sequence-Spread Spectrum
(DS-SS) Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
10.1.3 Frequency Hopping-Spread Spectrum
(FH-SS) Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
10.2 Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Systems . . . . . . . . . . 842
10.2.1 Signature Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
10.2.2 Synchronous and Asynchronous CDMA Models . . . . . 848
10.3 Multiuser Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
10.3.1 Conventional Single-User Correlator Receiver . . . . . . . 857
10.3.2 Optimum Multiuser Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
10.3.3 Decorrelating and Linear MMSE Multiuser
Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
10.3.4 Decision-Driven Multiuser Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
10.4 Optical CDMA Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
10.5 Hybrid OFDM-CDMA Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
10.6 Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
A.1 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
A.2 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
A.3 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
A.4 Algebra of Finite Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
A.5 Pulse-Position Modulation (PPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
A.6 The z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
A.6.1 Spread Spectrum System Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
A.6.2 Properties of z-Transform and Common z-Transform
Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
A.6.3 The Inversion of the z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
Chapter 1
Introduction
Abstract In this introductory chapter, we first describe the historical perspective

related to both wireless and optical communication systems and describe various
generations, from early beginning until today. After that we describe the funda-
mentals of optical systems and networks, including WDM network architecture,
typical optical networking architecture, bit rates for synchronous/asynchronous
optical communication systems, and wavelength regions for fiber-optics commu-
nications. In the same section, we briefly describe various multiplexing schemes
such as time-division multiplexing (TDM), wavelength-division multiplexing
(WDM), frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), subcarrier multiplexing (SCM),
code-division multiplexing (CDM), polarization-division multiplexing (PDM), and
spatial-division multiplexing (SDM). We also identify the main noise sources and
optical channel impairments, in particular of importance for fiber-optics commu-
nications. After that the key optical devises and modules are identified and briefly
described. In section related to wireless communications fundamentals, we describe
a typical wireless communication point-to-point link and identify key devices/
subsystems with brief description of operational principles. The multiaccess com-
munications are then described with key problems being identified. Further, various
effects affecting the received power are described including path loss, shadowing,
and multipath fading. We also introduce various approaches to deal with multipath
fading including orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), diversity,
multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) signal processing, equalization, and adap-
tive modulation and coding. The MIMO operation principle is briefly described
next. Finally, the cellular concept is introduced. In section on organization of the
book, the detailed description of chapters is provided. Final section provides some
relevant concluding remarks.
1.1 Historical Perspective of Optical and Wireless

Communication Systems
The earliest optical and wireless communication systems consisted of fire or smoke
signals, signaling lamps, and semaphore flags to convey a single piece of informa-
tion [1–4]. For example, a relatively sophisticated ancient communication system,
along the Great Wall of China, was composed of countless beacon towers [5].
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

I.B. Djordjevic, Advanced Optical and Wireless Communications Systems,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-63151-6_1
2 1 Introduction
In this ancient communication system, the number of lanterns or the color of smoke
was used as a means to inform the size of an invading enemy, which represents a
crude form of simultaneously digital communication and multilevel signaling. By
using the beacon towers, with the guards in each tower positioned at regular
distances along the Great Wall, a message could be transmitted from one end of
the Great Wall to the other, more than 7300 km, in slightly more than 1 h
[5]. Therefore, this ancient communication system has many similarities with
today’s relay or regeneration systems, in which the beacon towers can be consid-
ered as relays. Relay or regeneration systems were further studied by Claude
Chappe in 1792 to transmit coded messages optically over distance of 100 km
[1]. In next two subsections, we describe the evolution of both wireless communi-
cation systems [2, 6–10] and optical communication systems [1, 3–5, 11–15].
1.1.1 Wireless Communication Historical Perspective
Electromagnetic wave propagation theory was developed in 1860s and summarized

by Maxwell and demonstrated later by Hertz. The first radio transmission was
demonstrated in the 1893 by Tesla, followed by Marconi in 1896. At that time,
however, the systems were of low frequency, high power, huge size, expensive, and
mostly mechanical. Interestingly enough, the telegraphic systems were digital,
based on Morse code (1837), and the early steps of electronic age were driven by
the need of wireless communications, rather than wired systems. Unfortunately,
with the invention of amplitude-modulated (AM) radio by Fessenden and de Forest
as well as invention of frequency-modulated (FM) radio by Armstrong and de
Forest, the era of analog communication started instead. The development of
communication systems was first boosted by the invention of vacuum tubes in
1906 by de Forest, which can be considered as the start of electronic age. Commu-
nication systems with vacuum tubes were huge, power hungry, and not stable. The
real engine of electronic age started with the invention of transistor by William
Shockley during 1948–1951, when the communication hardware get revolutionized
for the second time. Another relevant revolution came in the same time, namely, the
information theory, which was developed by Claude Shannon in 1948, and the
golden age of information theory was from 1948 to 1960s. Many sophisticated
military radio systems were developed during and after WW2. The third revolution
for communication hardware is the invention of integrated circuit (IC) in 1958 by
Jack Kilby (independently by Robert Noyce in 1959), which was developed in
1960s and enabled the exponential growth since then.
Another driving force of wireless systems was the invention of mobile phone,
with the first trial being in 1915, between New York and San Francisco. The
commercial networks started in 1946, while the takeoff was in the 1980s with the
introduction of the cellular concept. Many wireless communication systems were
proposed in 1990s, with great failures around 2000. The first generation (1G) of
cellular systems was introduced in the 1980s and was based analog, employing the
1.1 Historical Perspective of Optical and Wireless Communication Systems 3
frequency-division multiplexing access (FDMA). The most popular 1G cellular

systems were [2] advanced mobile phone service (AMPS) in North America and
Australia; total access communication system (TACS) in UK; Nordic mobile
telephone (NMT) in Nordic countries, Switzerland, Netherlands, Eastern Europe,
and Russia; and C-450 in West Germany, Portugal, and South Africa, to
mention few.
The second generation (2G) of cellular systems was introduced in 1991, based
on digital communication principles. In addition to voice, they supported the short
message service (SMS) as well as low data rate transmissions (including multime-
dia messaging service or MMS). The 2G technologies can be classified into two
broad categories, depending on the multiplexing method: time-division multiple
access (TDMA)-based and code-division multiple access (CDMA)-based stan-
dards. The most popular standards in 2G are (i) global system for mobile commu-
nications (GSM), which is TDMA based, originally used in Europe, but later in
most of the world except North America; (ii) IS-95, which was CDMA based,
invented by Qualcomm and later adopted by the Telecommunications Industry
Association (TIA); (iii) Japanese digital cellular (JDS or PDC), which was
TDMA based; and (iv) IS-136 (also known as digital AMPS or D-AMPS),
TDMA based. Regarding the data rates supported, (1) with general packet radio
service (GPRS), there is a theoretical maximum data rate of 50 kbit/s, and (2) with
enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE), there is a theoretical maximum
data rate of 1 Mbit/s.
The first 3G networks were introduced in 1998, and 3G technology is based on a
set of standards that comply with the International Mobile Telecommunications-
2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU). To meet the IMT-2000 standards, a 3G system is required to provide peak
data rates of at least 200 kb/s. However, many 3G systems provide higher data rates
than the minimum technical requirements for a 3G service. In particular, 3.5G and
3.75G releases provide mobile broadband access of several Mb/s to smartphones
and laptop mobile modems. The most relevant 3G standards are (1) universal
mobile telecommunications service (UMTS), standardized by 3GPP, used primar-
ily in Europe, Japan, and China as well as other regions predominated by GSM 2G
system infrastructure, and (2) the CDMA2000 system, standardized by 3GPP2,
used in North America and South Korea, sharing infrastructure with the IS-95 2G
standard. The UMTS can support the data rates up to 2 Mb/s for stationary/walking
users and 348 kb/s for moving vehicles. The high-speed packet access (HSPA)
technology specifications, representing an intermediate phase toward 4G, initially
supported increased peak data rates of up to 14 Mb/s in the downlink and 5.76 Mb/s
in the uplink. This technology contains two mobile protocols: High-Speed Down-
link Packet Access (HSDPA) and High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA).
The predecessors of 4G technology are (i) 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE)
offering 100 Mbit/s in the downlink and 50 Mbit/s in the uplink over 20 MHz,
(ii) mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e-2005) offering up to 128 Mb/s in the downlink
and 56 Mb/s in the uplink over 20 MHz of channel bandwidth, (iii) UMB (formerly
EV-DO Rev. C), and (iv) fast low-latency access with seamless handoff OFDM
4 1 Introduction
(also known as FLASH-OFDM). The bandwidth and location information available

to 3G devices give rise to some new applications including: global positioning
system (GPS), location-based services, mobile TV, telemedicine, video conferenc-
ing, and video on demand.
The fourth generation (4G) of mobile communication technologies provides a
comprehensive and secure all-IP-based solution, with current/potential applications
including: mobile Web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition
mobile TV, video conferencing, 3-D television, and cloud computing. ITU-R
specified in March 2008 the set of requirements for 4G standards, named Interna-
tional Mobile Telecommunications Advanced (IMT-Advanced) specification, set-
ting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100 Mbit/s for high-mobility
communication links (such as from trains and cars) and 1 Gbit/s for low-mobility
communication links (such as pedestrians and stationary users). IMT-2000 compli-
ant 4G standards are LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced (IEEE
802.16 m). The LTE Advanced is essentially an enhancement to LTE, with the
coordinated multipoint transmission that allows for higher system capacity and
helps handling the enhanced data speeds. The peak download data rate is 1 Gb/s,
while the peak upload data rate is 500 Mb/s. On the other hand, the IEEE 802.16 m
represents the evolution of 802.16e offering 1 Gb/s data rate for stationary reception
and 100 Mb/s for mobile reception. Principal 4G technologies can be summarized
as follows:
(i) Multi-antenna and multiuser (MIMO) concept.
(ii) Frequency-domain equalization and frequency-domain statistical
multiplexing.
(iii) Turbo codes are used as channel codes to reduce the required SNR at Rx side.
(iv) Channel-dependent scheduling is used to utilize the time-varying channel.
(v) Link adaptation is used based on adaptive modulation and error-correcting
codes.
(vi) Relaying is used including fixed relay networks (FRNs) and the cooperative
relaying concept.
The 5th generation (5G) wireless systems represent the proposed next genera-
tion wireless communication systems and standards, going beyond currently
existing 4G IMT-Advanced standards. The 5G standard should fulfill the following
Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance requirements [16, 17]:
1. Supporting tens of thousands of users with data rates of tens of Mb/s.
2. For metropolitan areas data rates of 100 Mb/s should be supported.
3. The workers located on the same floor should get 1 Gb/s simultaneously.
4. For wireless sensors networks, we should be able to establish several hundreds of
thousands of simultaneous connections.
5. Significantly higher spectral efficiency compared to 4G.
6. The coverage must be improved.
7. Latency must be reduced significantly compared to LTE.
8. The signaling efficiency must be improved.
Toward these goals, the FCC recently approved the new spectrum for 5G,
including the 28, 37, and 39 GHz bands [18]. Key enabling technologies for 5G
include [19]:
(i) The employment of a wireless software-defined network (WSDN).
(ii) The use of network function virtualization (NFV).
(iii) Introduction of massive MIMO.
(iv) Much higher network density.
(v) The utilization of the millimeter wave spectrum.
(vi) The breakthroughs in big data and mobile cloud computing.
(vii) High-mobility device-to-device connections.
(viii) Better energy efficiency communications.
(ix) The introduction of new radio access technologies.
(x) Scalable Internet of Things techniques.
Regarding the wireless LANs (WLANs), the most relevant is the IEEE 802.11
standard family, representing the set of MAC and PHY standards implementing
WLAN computer communications in 0.9, 2.4, 3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands
[20–25]. The first wireless networking standard from this family was 802.11–1997;
however, the 802.11b was widely accepted one, which was followed by 802.11a,
802.11g, 802.11n, and 802.11ac. Other standards in this family (such as c–f, h, j)
represent the service amendments to the existing ones that are used to extend the
scope, or eventually the amendments represent the corrections to the previous
specification. The IEEE 802.11 g PHY standard is very similar to 801.11a, except
that it is related to the 2.4 GHz unlicensed ISM band (2.4–2.497 GHz).
To increase the aggregated data rates in IEEE 802.11n and 802.11 ac PHY
standards, the MIMO-OFDM concept, explained in Chap. 8, is used. Namely,
through MIMO concept, several independent data streams can be simultaneously
transmitted increasing the aggregate data rates. The IEEE 802.11n PHY standard is
applicable to both 2.4 and 5 GHz bands, while 802.11ac to 5 GHz band only. In
IEEE 802.11n standard, the available channel bandwidths are {20 MHz, 40 MHz},
while in 802.11ac the available channel bandwidths are {20, 40, 80, 160} MHz. The
highest data rate in 802.11ac standard, for 160 MHz bandwidth, is 780 Mb/s.
The WiMAX represents one of the most popular broadband wireless access
(BWA) technologies, aiming to provide high-speed bandwidth access for wireless
MANs [22, 26–28]. The WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 set of standards, in
particular IEEE 802.16-2004 (fixed-WiMAX) and IEEE 802.16e-2005 (mobile-
WiMAX) standards, which provide multiple PHY and MAC options. The WiMAX
represents the last-mile wireless broadband access alternative to the cable and DSL
services, and it is a direct competitor to the LTE Advanced standard. The IEEE
802.16e-2005 provides several improvements compared to the IEEE 802.16-2004
including [26–28]:
1. Providing support for mobility by enabling the soft and hard handover between
base stations.
6 1 Introduction
2. Introducing the concept of scalable OFDM (SOFDM) by scaling the FFT to the
channel bandwidth to ensure that the carrier spacing is constant across different
channel bandwidths, ranging from 1.25 MHz through 5 MHz and 10 MHz all
way to 20 MHz, and thus improving the spectral efficiency.
3. Introducing the advanced antenna diversity schemes and hybrid automatic repeat
request (HARQ).
4. Introducing the adaptive antenna systems (AAS) and MIMO signal processing.
5. Providing the denser sub-channelization and therefore improving the indoor
penetration.
6. Introducing downlink sub-channelization, in order to trade the coverage for
capacity or vice versa.
7. Introducing the LDPC coding to improve the error-correction strength.
8. Introducing an extra QoS class for VoIP applications.
1.1.2 Optical Communication Historical Perspective
Thanks to the success of telegraphy, telephony, and radio communications in the

first half of the twentieth century, the optical communication systems were actually
forgotten. However, in the late twentieth century, different communication systems
came to saturation in terms of reach and capacity. For instance, a typical coaxial
cable-based transport system operating at 155 Mb/s requires the regeneration at
approximately every 1 km, which is costly to operate and maintain. The natural step
was to study the optical communication systems, which can dramatically increase
the total capacity. The research in optical communication was boosted upon
demonstration of a laser principle [29]. The first step was to fabricate an appropriate
optical transmission medium. Kao and Hockman [30] proposed to use the optical
fiber as the medium, although at the time it had unacceptable fiber loss. Their
argument was that attenuation mostly was coming from impurities, rather than any
fundamental physical effect such as Rayleigh scattering, which could be reduced by
improving the fabrication process. Their prediction was that an optical fiber with
attenuation of 20 dB/km should be sufficient for telecom applications, which
surprisingly was developed within 5 years since initial proposal, by researchers
from Cornell. This invention opens up opportunities for development of fiber-optics
communication systems. Since then several generations of optical communication
systems were developed. The optical communication evolution path can be sum-
marized as follows.
The first generation appeared in 1970s, and the operating wavelengths were
0.8 μm–0.9 μm with data rates ranging from 45 Mb/s to 500 Mb/s. Repeater spacing
was 10 km, which was much greater than that for comparable coax systems. Lower
installation and maintenance costs resulted from fewer repeaters.
The second generation, which was focused on a transmission near 1.3 μm to take
advantage of the low attenuation (< 1 dB/km) and low dispersion, was deployed
during the early 1980s. Sources and detectors were developed that use InGaAsP
semiconductor. The bit rate of these systems was limited to <100 Mb/s due to
dispersion in multimode fibers (MMFs). Single-mode fiber (SMF) was then incor-
porated. By 1987 the second generation systems were operating at 2.5 Gb/s at
1.3 μm with repeater spacing of 50 km.
The third generation systems were based on the use of 1.55 μm sources and
detectors and dominated in the first half of 1990s. At this wavelength the attenua-
tion of fused silica fiber is minimal. The deployment of these systems was delayed
however due to the relatively large dispersion at this wavelength. Two approaches
were proposed to solve the dispersion problem. The first approach was to develop
single-mode lasers, and the second was to develop dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF) at
1.55 μm. In 1990, 1.55 μm systems operating at 2.5 Gb/s were commercially
available and were capable of operating at 10 Gb/s for distances of 100 km [1, 3–
5, 11–13]. The best performance was achieved with DSFs in conjunction with
single-mode lasers. A drawback of these systems was the need for electronic
regeneration with repeaters typically spaced every 60–70 km. Coherent optical
detection methods were investigated in late 1980s and early 1990s to increase
receiver sensitivity. However, this approach was superceded by the development
of the optical amplifier.
The 3.5th generation systems are based on the use of optical amplifiers to
increase repeater spacing and wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) to increase
the aggregate bit rate. Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) were developed to
amplify signals without electronic regeneration during the 1980s [1, 3–5, 11–13]. In
1991 signals could be transmitted 14,300 km at 5 Gb/s without electronic regener-
ation [1, 3–5, 11–13]. The first transpacific commercial system went into operation
sending signals over 11,300 km at 5 Gb/s, and other systems are being deployed.
System capacity is increased through use of WDM. Multiple wavelengths can be
amplified with the same optical amplifier. In 1996 20 5 Gb/s signals were
transmitted over 9100 km providing a total bit rate of 100 Gb/s and a bandwidth-
length (B-L) product of 910 (Tb/s)-km. In these broadband systems, dispersion
becomes an important issue to be addressed.
In the 3.75th generation systems, the effort is primarily concerned with the fiber
dispersion problem. Optical amplifiers solve the loss problem but increase the
dispersion problem since dispersion effects accumulate over multiple amplification
stages. An ultimate solution is based on the novel concept of optical solitons [1, 31,
32]. These are pulses that preserve their shape during propagation in a loss less fiber
by counteracting the effect of dispersion through fiber nonlinearity. Experiments
using stimulated Raman scattering as the nonlinearity to compensate for both loss
and dispersion were effective in transmitting signals over 4000 km [1, 31,
32]. EDFAs were first used to amplify solitons in 1989 [1, 31, 32]. By 1994 a
demonstration of soliton transmission over 9400 km was performed at a bit rate of
70 Gb/s by multiplexing seven 10 Gb/s channels [1, 31, 32]. In parallel, dispersion
compensating fibers (DCFs) were invented to deal with chromatic dispersion, and
various dispersion maps were proposed [1, 31, 32]. The WDM channel count
increased to maximum 128, with data rates per single wavelength ranging from
2.5 Gb/s to 10 Gb/s. The operating wavelength region ranges from 1530 nm to
8 1 Introduction
1560 nm. Regarding the networking aspects, WDM multiplexers/demultiplexers as

well as optical add-drop multiplexers (OADMs) have been used. Regarding the
optical networking protocols, the following protocols have been used: SONET/
SDH/OTN, IP, ATM, ESCON/FICON, and Ethernet. The readers interested learn-
ing more about various optical networking protocols are referred to [33–47].
In the fourth generation systems, the efforts have been directed toward realizing
greater capacity of fiber systems by multiplexing a large number of wavelengths.
These systems are referred to as dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM)
systems, with corresponding channel spacing being either 100 GHz or 50 GHz.
Controlling wavelength stability and the development of wavelength
demultiplexing devices are critical to this effort. The maximum DWDM channel
count is 160, with the data rates per single wavelength being 10 Gb/s and/or 40 Gb/
s, and the corresponding lasers are tunable. In addition to EDFAs, the Raman
amplifiers have been used as well. Regarding the networking aspects, DWDM
multiplexers/demultiplexers, reconfigurable OADMs (ROADMs), and optical
cross-connects (OXCs) have been used. Additionally, the layered control plane is
introduced. Regarding the optical networking protocols, the following protocols
have been used: SONET/SDH/OTN, IP, MPLS, and Ethernet.
The fifth generation systems are related to optical transmission systems with data
rates per wavelength ranging from 100 Gb/s to 1 Tb/s, by employing various
multilevel modulation and channel coding schemes, polarization multiplexing,
digital signal processing (DSP), and coherent optical detection. The orthogonal
frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) appears to be an excellent candidate to
deal with chromatic dispersion and polarization-mode dispersion (PMD). Addition-
ally, the MIMO signal processing is applied as well. Regarding the optical net-
working protocols, the following protocols have been used: OTN, IP, MPLS, and
Ethernet. Regarding the standardization activities, ITU-T, IEEE 802.3ba, and OIF
have completed the work on 100 Gb/s Ethernet (100 GbE) [48, 49], while the
activities for adoption of 400 Gb/s Ethernet, 1 Tb/s Ethernet, and beyond are
currently underway.
The systems with channel rates beyond 10 Tb/s over SMFs, such as those
described in [50], can be placed into the sixth generation, and these systems are
currently in research phase. Finally, the systems based on spatial-division
multiplexing (SDM) [50, 51] (and references therein), employing various SDM
fibers including few-mode fiber (FMF), few-core fiber (FCF), few-mode-few-core
fiber (FMFC), to mention few, can be placed into the seventh generation.
1.2 Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Fundamentals
A generic WDM optical network, which can be used to identify the key optical
components, concepts, and system parameters is provided in Fig. 1.1. The end-to-
end optical transmission involves both electrical and optical signal paths. To
1.2 Optical Communication Systems and Networks Fundamentals 9
Optical cross-connect (OXS) /

ROADM
Client 1 Transmitter Txs/Rxs Receiver Data 1

Optical
data (Tx) 1 (Rx) 1
amplifier
…
demultiplexer
(OA)
Wavelength
Wavelength
Client 2 SMF Data 2
multiplexer
Tx 2 Rx 2
data ROADM OA OA
…
…
…
…
Client N Data N
Tx N Rx N
data
Fig. 1.1 A generic WDM optical network identifying key optical components, concepts, and
parameters
perform conversion from electrical to optical domain, the optical transmitters are
used, while to perform conversion in the opposite direction (optical-to-electrical
conversion), the optical receivers are used. The single-mode fiber (SMF) serves as a
foundation of an optical transmission system because the optical fiber is used as
medium to transport the optical signals from the source to destination. The optical
fibers attenuate the signal during transmission, and someone has to use optical
amplifiers, such as EDFAs, Raman amplifiers, or parametric amplifiers, to restore
the signal level. Unfortunately, the amplification process is accompanied with the
noise addition. For better exploitation of enormous bandwidth of SMF, the WDM
concept is introduced, which corresponds to the scheme with multiple optical
carriers at different wavelengths that are modulated by using independent electrical
bit streams, as shown in Fig. 1.1, and then transmitted over the same SMF. During
transmission of WDM signals, occasionally several wavelengths have to be added/
dropped, which is performed by the reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer
(ROADM), as shown in Fig. 1.1. The optical networks require the switching of
information among different fibers, which is performed by the optical cross-connect
(OXS). To combine several distinct wavelength channels into composite channel,
the wavelength multiplexers are used. On the other hand, to split the composite
WDM channel into distinct wavelength channels, the wavelength demultiplexers
are used. To impose the information signal and perform electro-optical conversion,
the optical modulators are used. The optical modulators are commonly used in
combination with semiconductor lasers.
The optical transmission systems can be classified according to different criteria.
When bit rate is used as classification criteria, the optical transmission systems can
be classified as low speed (tens of Mb/s), medium speed (hundreds Mb/s), high
speed (Gb/s), and ultra-high speed (tens of Gb/s). From application perspective
point of view, the systems can be either power budget (loss) limited or bandwidth
(transmission speed) limited. If transmission length is used for classification, we
can identify very short reach (hundreds of meters), short reach (from several
kilometers to several tens of km), long reach (hundreds of kilometers), and ultra-
long reach (thousands of kilometers) optical transmission systems.
To provide a global picture, we describe a typical optical network shown in
Fig. 1.2. We can identify three ellipses representing the core network, the edge
10 1 Introduction
Access network
EN
Edge node Core node
End
(EN) (CN)
node
CN EN
EN
EN
ENEN CN
EN CN
EN
Core network
EN
Edge network
Fig. 1.2 A typical optical networking architecture
network, and the access network [3, 4]. The long-haul core network interconnects
big cities, major communications hubs, and even different continents by means of
submarine transmission systems. The core networks are often called the wide area
networks (WANs) or interchange carrier networks. The edge optical networks are
deployed within smaller geographical areas and are commonly recognized as
metropolitan area networks (MANs) or local exchange carrier networks. The access
networks represent peripheral part of optical network and provide the last-mile
access or the bandwidth distribution to the individual end users.
The ultimate goal of an optical signal transmission system is usually defined as
achieving desired bit error rate (BER) performance between two end users or
between two intermediate nodes in network reliably and at affordable cost. In
order to achieve so, an optical transmission system needs to be properly designed,
which includes the management of key optical communication systems engineering
parameters. These parameters can be related to power, time, and wavelength or be
interrelated. The parameters related only to power are power level, fiber loss,
insertion loss, and extinction ratio (the ratio of powers corresponding to bit “1”
and bit “0”). The parameters related only to time are jitter, first-order PMD, and
bit/data rate. The parameters related to wavelength include optical bandwidth and
wavelength stability. The parameters, signal impairments, and additive/multiplica-
tive noise sources related to both power and wavelength are optical amplifier gain,
optical noise (such as amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) noise), different
crosstalk effects, four-wave mixing (FWM), and stimulated Raman scattering
(SRS). The parameters related to time and wavelength are laser chirp, second-
order PMD, and chromatic dispersion. The parameters related to power and time are
BER, modulation format, polarization-dependent loss (PDL), and quantum noise.
Finally, the channel impairments related to time, power, and wavelength simulta-
neously are self-phase modulation (SPM), cross-phase modulation (CPM), and
stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS). Any detection scenario must include elec-
tronic noise, such as thermal noise, which is associated with receiver design. These
different parameters, noise sources, and channel impairments are subject of inves-
tigation in Chap. 2.
Different high-speed optical transmission enabling technologies can be related
to the usage of novel/better devices, such as Raman and parametric amplifiers, PMD
and chromatic dispersion compensators, and modulators, or be related to the novel
methods, such as advanced modulation formats (various multilevel modulation
schemes with both direct and coherent optical detections and OFDM), forward
error correction (FEC), coded modulation, constrained (modulation/line) coding,
advanced detection schemes including maximum likelihood sequence detection/
estimation (MLSD/E) and maximum a posteriori probability (MAP) detection
(BCJR algorithm-based equalizers), and various multiplexing schemes including
polarization multiplexing, optical time-division multiplexing (OTDM), subcarrier
multiplexing (SCM), code-division multiplexing (CDM), OFDM, and spatial-
division multiplexing. These various enabling technologies will be described in
incoming chapters of the book.
An important concept to be introduced here is related to the so-called lightwave
path, which can be defined as the trace that optical signal passes between the source
and destination without experiencing any opto-electrical-opto (O-E-O) conversion
[3, 4]. Generally speaking, the lightwave paths may differ in lengths and in the
information capacity that is carried along and can traverse though different portions
of an optical network. The lightwave path can be considered as bandwidth wrapper
for lower-speed transmission channels, which form virtual circuit services
[3, 4]. The time-division multiplexing (TDM) technique is applied to aggregate
the bandwidth of virtual circuits before it is wrapped in the lightwave path. TDM of
virtual circuits can be either fixed (each circuit receives a guaranteed amount of the
bandwidth – a bandwidth pipe) or statistical (in packet switching, the data content is
divided into data packets, which can be handled independently). The fixed
multiplexing of virtual circuits is defined by SONET/SDH standards. Bit rates of
different bandwidth channels, for both synchronous and asynchronous transmis-
sion, are given in Table 1.1 based on [3, 4] (and references therein).
Optical fiber is the key ingredient of an optical transmission system because it
has much wider available bandwidth, lower signal attenuation, and smaller signal
distortions compared to any other wired or free-space physical media. The total
bandwidth is approximately 400 nm, or around 50 THz, when related to the
wavelength region with fiber attenuation being bellow 0.5 dB/km. The usable
optical bandwidth is commonly split into several wavelength bands, as summarized
in Table 1.2 based on refs [3, 4] and [13]. The bands around the minimum
attenuation point, usually referred to as C and L bands, are the most suitable for
high channel count DWDM transmission. The wavelength region around 1300 nm
is less favorable for optical signal transmission because signal attenuation is higher
than attenuation in S, C, and L bands. On the other hand, it is quite suitable for
CATV signals, and the course-WDM (CWDM) technique is usually employed in
this region.
12 1 Introduction
Table 1.1 Bit rates for different synchronous/asynchronous optical communication systems (both
introduced and envisioned)
TDM/synchronous channels Bit rate Data/asynchronous channels Bit rate
DS-1 1.544 Mb/s 10-BaseT Ethernet 10 Mb/s
E-1 2.048 Mb/s 100-BaseT Ethernet 100 Mb/s
OC-1 51.84 Mb/s FDDI 100 Mb/s
OC-3 , STM-1 155.52 Mb/s ESCON 200 Mb/s
OC-12 , STM-4 602.08 Mb/s Fiber Channel-I 200 Mb/s
Fiber Channel-II 400 Mb/s
Fiber Channel-III 800 Mb/s
Fiber Channel IV 4 Gb/s
OC-48 , STM-16 2.488 Gb/s 1 Gb Ethernet 1 Gb/s
100 Gb Ethernet 107–125 Gb/s
400 Gb Ethernet 428–500 Gb/s
1 Tb Ethernet 1.07–1.25 Tb/s
4 Tb/10 Tb Ethernet 4 Tb/s /
10 Tb/s
Table 1.2 The wavelength Wavelength band Descriptor Wavelength range (nm)
bands for fiber-optics
O-band Original 1260–1360
communications
E-band Extended 1360–1460
S-band Short 1450–1530
C-band Conventional 1530–1565
L-band Long 1565–1625
U-band Ultra-long 1625–1675
The key optical components, which will be described in the next chapter, can be
classified as follows:
(i) Semiconductor light sources including light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and
semiconductor lasers: Fabry-Perot (FP), distributed feedback (DFB), distrib-
uted Bragg reflector (DBR), vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL),
and tunable lasers (external cavity laser, multilaser chip, three-section tunable
laser).
(ii) Optical modulators including both direct optical modulators and external
modulators: Mach-Zehnder modulator (MZM), electro-absorption modulator,
and I/Q modulator.
(iii) Optical fibers (MMFs and SMFs).
(iv) Optical amplifiers such as semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA), EDFA,
Raman amplifiers, and parametric amplifiers.
(v) Photodiodes including PIN, avalanche photodiodes (APDs), and metal-semi-
conductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors.
(vi) Various optical components (optical isolators, optical circulators, optical

filters, optical couplers, optical switches, and optical multiplexers/
demultiplexers).
A monochromatic electromagnetic wave, which is commonly used as a signal
carrier, can be represented through its electric field as E(t) ¼ pAcos(ωt + ϕ)
(A amplitude, ω frequency, ϕ phase, p polarization orientation), for which each
parameter can be used to impose the message signal. If the message signal is analog,
corresponding modulation formats are amplitude modulation (AM), frequency
modulation (FM), phase modulation (PM), and polarization modulation (PolM).
On the other hand, when the modulating signal is digital, then the carrier signal
duration is limited to symbol duration, and corresponding modulation formats are
amplitude-shift keying (ASK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), phase-shift keying
(PSK), and polarization-shift keying (PolSK).
In order to better utilize the enormous bandwidth of the optical fiber, we have to
transmit simultaneously many channels over the same bandwidth through
multiplexing. The commonly used methods of multiplexing in optical communica-
tions are given below as follows:
• Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is already introduced above.
• Time-division multiplexing (TDM), in which many lower-speed signals are time
interleaved to generate a high-speed signal. The multiplexing can be performed
either in electrical domain, which is known as electrical TDM (ETDM), or in
optical domain, which is known as optical TDM (OTDM).
• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), in which continuous wave
(CW) modulation is used to translate the spectrum of the message signal into a
specific frequency slot of the passband of optical channel. The optical version of
FDM is commonly referred to as WDM.
• Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a particular version of
FDM in which the orthogonality among subcarriers is obtained by providing that
each subcarrier has exactly an integer number of cycles in the symbol interval.
The number of cycles between adjacent subcarriers differs by exactly one.
• Subcarrier multiplexing (SCM) is again a particular version of FDM in which
different independent data streams are first microwave multiplexed and then
transmitted using the same wavelength carrier.
• Code-division multiplexing (CDM) in which each message signal is identified by
a unique signature sequence (“code”), with signature sequences being orthogo-
nal to each other.
• Spatial-division multiplexing (SDM) in which independent signals excite differ-
ent spatial modes in FMFs/FCFs.
During the transmission over an optical fiber, the transmitted signal is impaired
by various noise sources and channel impairments. The noise sources can be
additive in nature (dark current noise, thermal noise, ASE noise, and crosstalk
noise) or be multiplicative in nature (mode partition noise (MPN), laser intensity
noise (RIN), modal noise, quantum shot noise, and avalanche shot noise). Different
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Labour Party Club, 281
Land, see Agrarian question
Landlords, condition subsequent to the land sales, 178–79
Landscape, a typical Russian, 144
Lansdowne, Lord, 284
Law and Order, party of, 153
“League of Liberation” formed by the Zemstvoists, 129
Lee, Vernon, 161
Leroy-Beaulieu, M., quoted, 270–71;
his book on Russia, 289
Letts, number of, in the Duma, 218
Li, Chinese measure, 12
Libau, the mutiny at, 98
Liberal Party, the—
Attitude towards the War, 128
Demands of, 36–38, 42
Manifesto, reception of the, 35, 133–34
Views of, 107–116, 303–7
Liberté de Mœurs, 234, 241
Liberty of the Press, see Press
Liberty, personal, in Russia, 242–45
Linievitch, 9
Ling Po, 15
Literature, amount of translations from English, read, 18–19
Lithuanians, number of, in the Duma, 218
Little Russians, 24
Loan, the Foreign—
Party opinions regarding, 174–77
Social Revolutionaries, attitude of the, 169–70
Lobkovski Pereoolok, the, Moscow, 56
London, a Russian’s opinion of, 266
Losev, peasant, his speech in the Duma, 215–17
Louis XVI., Prof. Aulard on, quoted, 222;
his policy, 258–59
Lvov, M., joins the Zemstvoists, 130, 220
Mæterlinck, 103
Manchuria, outbreak of typhus, 4;
chaos at the Railway Station, 7–8
Manège, the, Easter at, 165
Manifesto of December, 1904, 98
Manifesto of October 17, 1905—
Moscow, effect of publication in, 27–28, 31–38
Nature of the, 132–33
Party opinion on, 134–35
St. Petersburg, effect of publication in, 107–8
Trepoff, attitude towards the, 39
Manifestoes, party, after dissolution of the Duma, 289;
the two, of February 18, 1905, 98
Marlborough, Duke of, 106
“Marseillaise,” singing of the, 244
Martial Law enforced in Poland, 42, 99
Massacres, the, Prince Urussoff’s speech on the causes, 250–57
Maundy Thursday services, 163
Maupassant, Guy de, 264
Metrofan, porter, disappearance, 67;
death, 73
Métropole Restaurant, Moscow, 31
Milioukov, Prof., forms the “Union of Unions,” 130
Leader of Cadet party, 153, 218–19
Policy of, 208–9
Mill, John S., read in Russia, 93
Milton read in Russia, 93;
Paradise Lost, 147–50
Mirabeau, Walpole’s criticism, 117–18, 120;
quoted, 199–200, 210
Mirsky, Prince, his reforms, 98, 114, 119, 120
Moderates, the—
Criticism of Count Witte, 46
Number of, in the Duma, 218
Principles, 80
Monarchical party, the, 152
Monarchy, attitude of the political parties towards the, 152, 153
Mongols, manner of riding, 13–14;
dress of, in Jen-tzen-tung, 16
Morley, John, read in Russia, 93
Morning Post and the Censorship, 289
Morshansk, 151
Moscow—
After the Rising, 63–74;
after the dissolution of the Duma, 288
Christmas Day 1905 in, 59–61
Easter in, 162–69
Election results in, 154, 156–57
Hooliganism in, 49–50
Manifesto of October, effects of publication, 27–28, 31–38
Political parties in, 128–36
Strikes in, effects of, 50–62, 99
Suburbs of, 289–90
Town fairs of, 169
Witchcraft in, 292
Moscow Gazette, connection with the massacres, 253
Moscow River, the, 293
Moujik, the term, 298
Mukden, battle of, 9
Murders, political, prevalence of, 272
Muromtzeff, C. A., President of the Duma, 192, 196, 219
Musalmans, number of, in the Duma, 218
Mwilnikov, the, Moscow, 56
Nabokov, M., his speech replying to the Prime Minister, 213–14;

his style of oratory, 219
Name-day, observance of the, 265
Napoleon, his policy, 111
Nationalists, the reactionary, criticism of Count Witte, 46
Nazarenko, the peasant, sketch, 263–64, 273, 279;
returns to Finland, 281
Nebogatoff, Admiral, 291
Necker, M., Walpole’s criticism, 117
Neglinii Proiesd, the, Moscow, 59, 68
Nevsky Prospect, St. Petersburg, 281
New Year, Russian observance of the feast, 82–83, 89
Nicholas II.—
Absolute authority preserved by the October Manifesto, 132–33
Audience refused to President of Duma, 207–9
Knout, use of, abolished by, 270
Reign of, sketched, 172–73
Zemstvo deputation to, 98
Nikolaiev, Railway Station seized by the strikers, 57;
scene on Christmas Day, 1905, 60
Nikolaievitch, Dimitri, on the political outlook, 171–77
“Norodniu Dom,” the, St. Petersburg, 265–67
Novoe Vremya, the, 214
Octobrists, the—
Attitude towards the Manifesto, 108
Dissolution of the Duma, opinion regarding, 282
Election results, reception of the, 157
Moderate principles of the, 153, 156
“Old Souls,” arrangement for the purchase of land, 145–46
Opéra Bouffe, the, 44
Orleans, Duke of, Walpole’s criticism, 117
Ostrovski, Mr., 9
Ouida, 138
Oushitai, Chinese town, 12, 20
Palm Sunday in Moscow, 159–61

Paris, the street fighting of ’32, &c., 57, 69;
a Russian’s opinion of, 266
Pascha, 165, 166
Peace negotiations, the, popular opinion regarding, 1–3, 8–10, 15, 16
Peasants, the—
Character, 65, 143–44, 181–82
Condition, 1905–6, 88–89
Duma, opinion of the, 196–99;
their behaviour in the, 203–4, 209–10;
their politics in the, 221
Education and literary taste of, 147–51
Emigration, the question of, 181–83
Franchise, method of using the, 154
Land purchase, view of the, 145–47
Poverty of, 179–80
Speech of a peasant in the Duma, 215–17
People, the Russian, description, 141–44
Peter the Great, his policy, 229
Peterhof, suburb of, description, 204–5
Petrajitski, L., 220
Petruckin, peasant, his opinions, 267–270, 273, 274
Petrunkevitch, I., leader of the Zemstvoists, 129;
Cadet, 153;
his style, 219
Piensa, railway strike at, 25
Plehve, M., public opinion regarding, 47;
his régime, 119, 182
Poland—
Constitutional liberties delayed, 40–42
Duma, number of Poles in the, 218
Local autonomy for, desired by Cadets, 153
Martial law declared, 99
Police—
Abolition of the secret force, 36
Cadets opposed by, 157
December rising, non-preparedness for, 131–32
Massacres, connection with the, 250–56
Methods of the, 170, 201, 226
Shooting of, 78–79, 207, 261
Unlimited powers of the, 94
Withdrawal and restoration of, in Moscow, 28, 35
Politeness, Russian, 4–5
Political Parties, formation of the, 128–29, 152
Postal Strike, the, effects of, 44, 99;
arrest of the officials, 99
Presnaya, destruction of the factory at, 85
Press, the—
Censorship of, 95;
renewed after dissolution of the Duma, 289
English, accusations against, 79
Freedom of, 119
Massacres, connection with the, 250–56
Ministerial use of the, 234–35
Radical, attacks on Count Witte, 42–43;
on the Government, 119
Revolutionary spirit of, 237
Priests, a peasant’s opinion of the, 300–301
Printing-Press, discovery of the, 254–56
Prisoners, political, amnesty to, see Amnesty question;
deportment of, 6
Professional classes, parties formed among the, 130;
see also Intelligenzia
Public meetings, law forbidding, August 6, 1905, 98;
allowed by October Manifesto, 98–99
Public opinion on the situation, Dec., 1905,47–59
Punch sold in Moscow, 160
Railway travelling in Russia, 4, 8, 243, 296–97

Ravnienie or “levelling,” peasants’ view of, 145
Red Cross—
Abuse of the, 67
Encampments near Jen-tzen-tung, 12
Red Place, Palm Sunday fair at, 159–61
Reformkleider, use of, 245
Religion of the peasants, 268–69
Renan, quoted, 84–85, 103
Retch, the, 284
Revolution of December, 1905—
Account, 65–69
Causes, 69–74
Effect on nature of the people, 142–43
Revolutionaries, the—
Criticism of Count Witte, 46
Demands of, 75–77
Tactics of, 65–66
Riansk, Railway strike at, 25;
scene at the station, 60
Riazan, Railway strike at, 25–26
Riding school, Moscow, Cossacks fire from, 33
Right and Order, Alliance of, 100, 156
Robespierre, speech of, 199–200;
Danton’s criticism, 249
Rodichev, M.—
Cadet leader, 153
Speeches of, 199, 214
Zemstvoist leader, 129, 219–20
Rossia, the, 276, 288
Rostov Regiment, mutiny in the, 50
Ruskin read in Russia, 93
Russ, the, criticism of C. Witte, 117
Russkie Viedomosti, 43;
suppression of the, 87
Russkoe Slovo, offices burnt, 66;
attack on Count Witte, 79
St. Petersburg—
Current ideas in, Feb., 1906, 100–120
Election results in, 154, 156
Emperor’s birthday, demonstrations, 49
Foreign intervention, the, 286
Hooliganism in, 49–50
Strikes in, 39–44, 99
Samara, 21, 22
Saratov, agrarian agitation in, 99
Sardou, quoted, 138
Saviour, Church of the, 165–66
Schipov, Mr., endeavours to unite the Zemstva, 129–30;
his politics, 218;
formation of new ministry entrusted to, 274
Schools, village evening, 53–55;
village day, 150;
instituted by the Zemstvoists, 183
Schumann, Clara, 164
Serfs, results of emancipation, 178
Sevastopol, the mutiny in, 99
Shakespeare read in Russia, 93
Shaw, Bernard, 105
Shelley read in Russia, 93, 105, 267, 273
Siberia, suggested emigration to, 181
Sieyès, quoted, 206
Singing, Russian peasant, 294
Sipiagin, M., case of, 185
Sisran, the station at, 21
Skashi or tellers of tales, 149
“Skitaletzt,” his style, 82
Social Democrats, the—
Aladin’s speech, criticism of, 248
Political parties, position among, 154
Principles, 46
Social Revolutionaries, the—
Elections, abstain from action in, 157
Political parties, position among, 154
Principles, 46
Socialist Club, the, 281
Socialists, 154, 156
“Societies,” arrangement by, for the purchase of land, 145–46
Soldiers’ Hospital, Moscow, 72–73, 89, 166–69
Sortes Virgilianæ, 72
Sosnofka, 137–51
South African War, Russian opinions, 101–2
Spencer, Herbert, read in Russia, 93, 264, 267
Stachovitch, M. A., politics of, 130, 218
Stanislavoshi, M., 29
State Lands, expropriation proposed, 180–81
States-General, opening compared with opening of Duma, 205–7
Stevenson read in Chinese, 18
Stolypin, M., policy, 288–89
Strikes, the—
General, in Moscow, Dec., 1905, 50–62
Guerilla tactics of the Strikers, 57
Postal, in Moscow and St. Petersburg, 44, 99
Railway, warnings of, 5–7;
October incidents at Kouznetsk, 21–25;
behaviour of the strikers, 25;
effect in Moscow, 31–38
Struve, M., 153
Students, the, behaviour on publication of Manifesto, 27–28;
treatment by the Black Gang, 34–35
Suffrage, universal, the demand for, 42, 87;
question of women’s, 158
Tacitus quoted, 95
Tagantzef, M., comments on capital punishment, 271
Tarantass, the, 139
Ta-shi-chiæ, battle of, incident, 17–18
Tauris Palace, description, 191
Tea-shops, Russian, 293
Telegrams, posting of, in the Duma, 204
Terrioki in Finland, political meeting at, 243–49
Tiers-Etat, Cadets compared with the, 205–7
Tolstoi, treatment by the Government, 105;
compared with Dostoievski, 126;
a peasant’s opinion of, 263–64
Toula, 21
Transbaikalia, 6
Trepoff, General—
Character, 39–40
Dictatorship of, 98
Radical Press and, 43
Resignation demanded, 36
Troubetzkoi, Prince S. N., 128
Turkestan, suggested emigration to, 181
Twain, Mark, read in Russian, 18
Typhus, outbreak in Manchuria, 4
Ukraine, number of, in the Duma, 218

Ukase of December, 1904, 98
“Union of Unions,” formation of the, 130
Unions, political, formation of, November, 1904, 130
Urussoff, Prince, 220;
his speech in the Duma, 250–57
Verne, Jules, Michel Strogoff, 139

Village, description of a Russian, 140–41
Vilna, the massacre at, 253
Vinaver, M., 220
Volkonsky, Prince, politics, 218
Voting, orderliness during the, 159
Walpole, Horace, quoted, 116–18, 120

War, the, current ideas regarding, 101–2
Ward, Mrs. Humphrey, read in Russian, 18
Wells, H. G., Kipps, 105;
Food of the Gods, 113
Windt, the game of, 228
Witchcraft, employment of, 292
Witte, Count—
Financial policy, 177
Greatness of his task, 185–86
Komissaroff, his interview with, 255
Manifesto of October 17th, publication, 107
Party criticism of, 46–47, 79–81, 134–36
Power of, 43–44
Public opinion regarding, 17, 47–48, 184–85
Radical press, opposition, 42
Resignation, 175, 184
Russ, criticism of the, 117
Zemstva, their address to, 99;
their attitude towards, 110–13
Zemstva, the—
Coalition of, 128–30
Emperor, the deputation to, 98, 128
Leaders refuse Cabinet posts, 135–36
Liberal demand regarding Ministers, 36
Schools instituted by the, 183
Witte, attitude towards, 99, 103, 110–13
Zemstvo Constitutionalists, formation of the, 129–30
Zhilkin, his style, 221
Zola, M., compared with Dostoievski, 126;
read in Russia, 264
The Gresham Press
UMWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED
WOKING AND LONDON
A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS
PUBLISHED BY METHUEN
AND COMPANY: LONDON
36 ESSEX STREET
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Social Questions of To-day, 31
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Textbooks of Technology, 31
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Westminster Commentaries, 32
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The Shilling Novels, 37
Books for Boys and Girls, 38
Novels of Alexandre Dumas, 38
Methuen’s Sixpenny Books, 39
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Advanced Optical and Wireless

Communications Systems 1st Edition

Optical Wireless Communications: System and Channel

Quantum Information Processing, Quantum Computing, and

Guide to Wireless Communications Olenewa

New Directions in Wireless Communications Systems: From

Optical Modulation: Advanced Techniques and

Optical and Wireless Technologies Proceedings of OWT

Fundamentals and basic optical lnstruments ; Advanced

Academic Press Library in Mobile and Wireless

ISBN 978-3-319-63150-9 ISBN 978-3-319-63151-6 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017947898

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

techniques, OFDM for wireless and optical communications, diversity tech-

Tucson, AZ, USA Ivan B. Djordjevic

2.3 Propagation Effects in Wireless Communication Channels . . . . . 116

3.2.3 Multirate DSP and Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

5.3 Multicarrier Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

6.3 Channel Equalization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

7.2 Guard Time, Cyclic Extension, and Windowing . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

8.2.4 Relevant Classes of Space-Time Codes (STCs) . . . . . . 611

9.10 LDPC Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714

9.15.2 Adaptive Nonbinary LDPC-Coded Multidimensional

Abstract In this introductory chapter, we first describe the historical perspective

1.1 Historical Perspective of Optical and Wireless

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

1.1.1 Wireless Communication Historical Perspective

Electromagnetic wave propagation theory was developed in 1860s and summarized

frequency-division multiplexing access (FDMA). The most popular 1G cellular

(also known as FLASH-OFDM). The bandwidth and location information available

1.1.2 Optical Communication Historical Perspective

Thanks to the success of telegraphy, telephony, and radio communications in the

1560 nm. Regarding the networking aspects, WDM multiplexers/demultiplexers as

1.2 Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Optical cross-connect (OXS) /

Client 1 Transmitter Txs/Rxs Receiver Data 1

Fig. 1.2 A typical optical networking architecture

(vi) Various optical components (optical isolators, optical circulators, optical

Nabokov, M., his speech replying to the Prime Minister, 213–14;

Palm Sunday in Moscow, 159–61

Railway travelling in Russia, 4, 8, 243, 296–97

Ukraine, number of, in the Duma, 218

Verne, Jules, Michel Strogoff, 139

Walpole, Horace, quoted, 116–18, 120

The Gresham Press

UMWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED

WOKING AND LONDON

Colonial Editions are published of all Messrs. Methuen’s

Abbot (Jacob). See Little Blue Books.

A Colonial Edition is also published.

Acatos (M. J.). See Junior School Books.

A Colonial Edition is also published.

Aldis (Janet). MADAME GEOFFRIN, HER SALON, AND

A Colonial Edition is also published.

Alexander (William), D.D., Archbishop of Armagh.

See also I.P.L.

Allen (Jessie). See Little Books on Art.

A Colonial Edition is also published.

Aristophanes. THE FROGS. Translated into English by E.

A Colonial Edition is also published.

THE MATABELE CAMPAIGN, 1896. With nearly 100