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Advanced Heat Transfer
Second Edition
Advanced Heat Transfer
Second Edition

Greg F. Naterer
CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Naterer, Greg F., author.

Title: Advanced heat transfer / Greg Naterer.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press,
2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017058762| ISBN 9781138579323 (hardback) | ISBN
9781351262248 (E-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Heat--Transmission.
Classification: LCC TJ260 .N34285 2018 | DDC 621.402/2--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017058762

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To my wife, Josie; our children, Jordan, Julia, and Veronica;
and my parents, for all of their love and support.
Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Fundamental Concepts and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Thermophysical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Thermodynamic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Kinematic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.3 Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Thermal Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7 Phase Change Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.8 Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2. Heat Conduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.1 Heat Conduction Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.2 Thermal Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.3 Fins and Extended Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Multidimensional Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.1 Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.2 Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4 Method of Separation of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5 Conformal Mapping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.6 Transient Heat Conduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.6.1 Lumped Capacitance Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.6.2 Semi-Infinite Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.6.3 Unidirectional Conduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

3. Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.1 Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

vii
viii Contents

3.2.2 Conservation of Momentum (Navier–Stokes Equations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3.2.3 Total Energy (First Law of Thermodynamics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2.4 Mechanical Energy Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2.5 Internal Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2.6 Transformation to Dimensionless Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2.7 Buckingham Pi Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3 Convection Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3.1 Boundary Layer Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3.2 Heat and Momentum Analogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.3 Evaporative Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4 External Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.1 Scale Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.2 Integral Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.3 External Flow over a Flat Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5 Cylinder in Cross Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.6 Other External Flow Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.6.1 Sphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.6.2 Tube Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.7 Internal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.7.1 Poiseuille Flow in Circular Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.7.2 Noncircular Ducts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.8 Free Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.8.1 Boundary Layer Flow on a Vertical Flat Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.8.2 Body Gravity Function Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.8.3 Spherical Geometries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.8.4 Tilted Rectangular Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.9 Introduction to Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.9.1 Turbulence Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.9.2 Reynolds Averaged Navier–Stokes Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.9.3 Eddy Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.9.4 Mixing Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.9.5 Near-Wall Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.9.6 One and Two Equation Closure Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.10 Entropy and the Second Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.10.1 Formulation of Entropy Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.10.2 Apparent Entropy Production Difference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.10.3 Dimensionless Entropy Production Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

4. Thermal Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.3 Radiation Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.4 Blackbody Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.5 Radiative Surface Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.6 Radiation Exchange between Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.7 Thermal Radiation in Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Contents ix

4.7.1 Radiation Exchange at a Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

4.7.2 Radiation Exchange between Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.7.3 Two-Surface Enclosures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.8 Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.8.1 Components of Solar Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.8.2 Solar Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.8.3 Incident Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.9 Solar Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.9.1 Collector Efficiency and Heat Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.9.2 Temperature Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.9.3 Heat Removal Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

5. Gas–Liquid Two-Phase Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.2 Pool Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.2.1 Physical Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.2.2 Nucleate Pool Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.2.3 Film Pool Boiling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.3 Boiling on Inclined Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.4 Forced Convection Boiling in External Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.4.1 Over a Flat Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.4.2 Outside a Horizontal Tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.4.3 Other Surface Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.5 Two-Phase Flow in Vertical Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.5.1 Vertical Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.5.2 Dynamics and Heat Transfer of Bubble Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.5.3 Annular Flow Momentum and Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.6 Internal Horizontal Two-Phase Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.6.1 Flow Regimes in Horizontal Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.6.2 Dispersed Bubble Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.6.3 One-Dimensional Model of Stratified Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.6.4 Plug and Annular Flow Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5.6.5 Multi-Regime Nusselt Number Correlations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.7 Laminar Film Condensation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.7.1 Axisymmetric Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
5.7.2 Other Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.8 Turbulent Film Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.8.1 Over a Vertical Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.8.2 Outside a Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.9 Forced Convection Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.9.1 Internal Flow in Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.9.2 Outside a Single Horizontal Tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.9.3 Finned Tubes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.10 Thermosyphons and Heat Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.10.1 Transport Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
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5.10.2 Operational Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

5.10.3 Heat Pipe Fins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

6. Multiphase Flows with Droplets and Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.2 Dispersed Phase Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.2.1 Particle Equation of Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.2.2 Gas–Particle Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.3 Carrier Phase Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.3.1 Volume Averaging Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.3.2 Conservation of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.3.3 Momentum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.4 Packed Bed Flow in Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.4.1 Pressure Drop and Friction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.4.2 Heat Transfer Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6.5 External Flow with Droplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.6 Impinging Droplets on a Freezing Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
6.7 From Droplet Evaporation to Particle Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.7.1 Physical Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.7.2 Solvent Evaporation and Droplet Shrinkage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
6.8 Forced Convection Melting of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
6.9 Radiation in Participating Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.10 Liquid–Particle and Slurry Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.10.1 Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.10.2 Vertical Flows in Pipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
6.11 Nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
6.11.1 Transport Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
6.11.2 Governing Transport Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
6.11.3 Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
6.11.4 Heat Transfer Coefficient and Nusselt
Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

7. Solidification and Melting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
7.2 Thermodynamics of Phase Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.2.1 Gibbs Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.2.2 Nucleation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.2.3 Interface Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
7.2.4 Thermomechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
7.3 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
7.3.1 General Scalar Transport Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
7.3.2 Mass and Momentum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
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7.3.3 Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

7.3.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
7.4 One-Dimensional Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.4.1 Stefan Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.4.2 Integral Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
7.4.3 Directional Solidification at a Uniform Interface
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
7.4.4 Solute Concentration Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
7.4.5 Multicomponent Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
7.5 Phase Change with Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
7.5.1 Perturbation Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
7.5.2 Quasi-Stationary Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
7.5.3 Frozen Temperature Approximate Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
7.6 Cylindrical Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
7.6.1 Solidification in a Semi-Infinite Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
7.6.2 Heat Balance Integral Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
7.6.3 Melting with a Line Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.6.4 Superheating in the Liquid Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
7.7 Spherical Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

8. Chemically Reacting Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
8.2 Mixture Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
8.3 Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
8.4 Material Balance for Chemical Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
8.4.1 General Mole Balance Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
8.4.2 Batch Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
8.4.3 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
8.4.4 Plug Flow Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
8.4.5 Packed Bed Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
8.5 Energy Balance of Reacting Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
8.6 Combustion Reaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
8.7 Gas–Solid Reacting Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
8.7.1 Shrinking Core Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
8.7.2 Progressive Conversion Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
8.7.3 Energy Balance and Heat Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
8.8 Gas–Liquid Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
8.9 Gas–Gas Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
8.10 Fluidized Beds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
8.10.1 Hydrodynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
8.10.2 Heat and Mass Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
8.10.3 Reaction Rate Equations for Solid Conversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
8.10.4 Noncatalytic Gas–Solid Reaction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
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9. Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
9.2 Tubular Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
9.3 Cross-Flow and Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
9.4 Effectiveness—NTU Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
9.5 Thermal Response to Transient Temperature Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
9.6 Condensers and Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

10. Computational Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

10.1 Finite Difference Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
10.1.1 Steady-State Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
10.1.2 Transient Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
10.2 Weighted Residual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
10.3 Finite Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.3.1 One-Dimensional Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.3.2 Triangular Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
10.3.3 Quadrilateral Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
10.3.4 Two-Dimensional Formulation of Heat Conduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.3.5 Time-Dependent Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
10.3.6 Computational Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
10.4 Finite Volume Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
10.4.1 Discretization of the General Scalar Conservation Equation. . . . . . . . 446
10.4.2 Transient, Convection, Diffusion and Source Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
10.4.3 SIMPLE and SIMPLEC Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
10.4.4 Turbulent Flow Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
10.5 Control Volume-Based Finite Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
10.5.1 General Scalar Conservation Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
10.5.2 Transient, Convection, Diffusion and Source Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
10.5.3 Assembly of Subcontrol Volume Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.6 Volume of Fluid Method for Free Surface Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
10.7 Other Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

Appendices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Preface

Since the publication of the first edition of this book in 2002, heat transfer engineering has
expanded in many new and emerging technologies. This latest second edition was moti-
vated by a desire to broaden the scope of applications and enhance the depth and range
of analysis of thermal engineering systems. It was also updated based on input obtained
from many colleagues and readers over the years since the first edition. The first edition,
entitled Heat Transfer in Single and Multiphase Systems, provided a unique source of material
that covered each mode of multiphase heat transfer, as well as the fundamentals of heat
transfer. The title of the second edition was modified to Advanced Heat Transfer in order to
better reflect the focus on advanced methods of analysis and the broader range of applica-
tions, including new topics such as chemically reacting flows with heat transfer.
Traditionally, the advanced heat transfer topics of phase change and chemically reacting
flows are usually separated into separate sources which focus on a specific mode of multi-
phase heat transfer in depth. As a result, analogies among these modes are not explored, and
a systematic framework is not available in a single source. Also, advanced methods of anal-
ysis are normally covered in depth for a single specific mode of heat transfer, such as con-
duction or convection, rather than an overview of the primary solution methods for a wider
range of heat transfer modes. In this second edition, a single source of advanced solution
techniques is presented for a wide range of applications and modes of heat transfer.
Several new sections, figures, tables, example problems at the end of each chapter, and
graphs were added to the second edition. Solution methods by conformal mapping and
orthogonal curvilinear coordinates were added to the analysis of heat conduction (Chapter
2). In the treatment of convection (Chapter 3), new sections were added on entropy and the
second law of thermodynamics regarding an apparent entropy production difference as an
error indicator of approximate solutions. Also, a nondimensional entropy generation num-
ber was presented in terms of standard correlations for the skin friction coefficient and Nus-
selt number. The chapters on multiphase heat transfer were reorganized and renamed. In
Chapter 5 (Gas–Liquid Two-Phase Flows), several new sections were added, including
forced convection boiling, multiphase flow regimes in vertical tubes, horizontal two-phase
flows, forced convection condensation, and heat pipe fins.
The chapter on gas–liquid–solid systems was deleted from the first edition, its problems
were transferred to other chapters, and a new Chapter 6 (Multiphase Flows with Droplets
and Particles) was added in the second edition. New sections were also added to Chapter
6, including analysis of packed beds, impinging droplets on a freezing surface, particle for-
mation from evaporating droplets, external flow with droplets, and forced convection melt-
ing of particles.
Furthermore, a new chapter on chemically reacting flows (Chapter 8) was added. The
chapter includes sections on mole and energy balances, combustion, shrinking core and pro-
gressive conversion models of gas–solid reacting mixtures, and fluidized beds, including
hydrodynamics, solid conversion, and reacting flow models. In Chapter 9 (Heat Exchang-
ers), a new section was added on transient thermal response in heat exchangers. New sec-
tions on the finite volume method (including SIMPLE and SIMPLEC) and turbulent flow
modeling were added to the last chapter on computational heat transfer (Chapter 10). In
these updated chapters, numerous additional problems were added at the end of the

xiii
xiv Preface

chapters. Lastly, new tables were added to the appendices including convection equations
in various coordinate systems and thermodynamic properties of gases and liquids.
This second edition aims to cover a wide range of advanced heat transfer topics suitable
for both undergraduate and graduate level courses. It can serve both introductory and fol-
low-up courses in heat transfer, such as advanced topics courses or graduate-level heat
transfer. It would normally follow a first course in fluid mechanics. The student is expected
to have knowledge of vector calculus and differential equations.
The text is organized into six main parts: (i) introduction (Chapter 1); (ii) primary single-
phase modes of heat transfer (Chapters 2 to 4); (iii) multiphase heat transfer (Chapters 5–7);
(iv) chemically reacting flows (Chapter 8); (v) heat exchangers (Chapter 9); and (v) compu-
tational heat transfer (Chapter 10). The introduction provides the reader with fundamentals
of heat transfer. The modes of single phase heat transfer, including conduction, convection,
and radiation, are covered in the second part. Then, the reader may focus on all multiphase
systems (Chapters 5–7) or on any particular system, such as liquid–solid systems (Chapter
7), without a loss of continuity. Finally, chemically reacting flows, heat exchangers, and
numerical heat transfer are presented in the last parts, respectively. Again, either of these
three chapters can be studied independently of the others without a loss of continuity.
I’m grateful to numerous colleagues and students who have contributed in significant
ways to the development and preparation of the material in this second edition. It has
been a pleasure for me to serve on the Thermophysics Technical Committee of AIAA (Amer-
ican Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics) and as the Editor-in-Chief of the AIAA Jour-
nal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer. These roles have provided a source of valuable
inspiration and creativity. Also, special thanks to Brian McDonald, Nancy Chafe, Brandon
Howell, and Guofei Yan at Memorial University for their helpful contributions.

Greg F. Naterer
St. John’s, Canada
Author

Dr. Greg F. Naterer is presently the Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science
and a Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Memorial University, Canada. He previously
held a Canada Research Chair in Advanced Energy Systems. Dr. Naterer has served in
prominent national and international leadership roles in education and research, including
as Chair of the National Council of Deans of Engineering and Applied Science of Canada
(NCDEAS) and the Thermophysics Technical Committee of AIAA (American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics).
Dr. Naterer has made significant contributions to the fields of heat transfer, energy sys-
tems, and fluid mechanics. He led an international team that developed and constructed
a copper-chlorine cycle of thermochemical hydrogen production. In addition to this second
edition, he has coauthored two other books: Hydrogen Production from Nuclear Energy (with
I. Dincer, C. Zamfirescu; Springer, 2013) and Entropy-Based Analysis and Design of Fluids
Engineering Systems (with J.A. Camberos; CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, 2008).
Dr. Naterer is presently the Editor-in-Chief of the AIAA Journal of Thermophysics and Heat
Transfer. Among his awards and honors for teaching and research, Dr. Naterer has received
the EIC Julian C. Smith Medal, CNS Innovative Achievement Award, CSME Jules Stachie-
wicz Medal, and Best Professor Teaching Award. He is a Fellow of the Canadian Society for
Mechanical Engineering (CSME), American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
Engineering Institute of Canada (EIC), and Canadian Academy of Engineering (CAE).
Dr. Naterer received his PhD degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University of
Waterloo, Canada, in 1995.

xv
List of Symbols

a absorption coefficient, m−1

A area, m2
AF air–fuel ratio
b unfrozen water film thickness, m
B Ice thickness, m
Bi Biot number (hD/k)
BT Spalding number (cvΔT/hfg)
c speed of light, m/s; capacitance matrix
cd drag coefficient
cf skin friction coefficient
cp specific heat at constant pressure, kJ/kgK
cv specific heat at constant volume, kJ/kgK
C concentration; slip correction factor
CC cloud cover fraction
D diameter, m; mass diffusivity, m2/s
e internal (thermal) energy, kJ/kg
E total energy, kJ; emissive power, W/m2
Ec Eckert number (U2/cpΔT)
Ei exponential integral
Eo Eotvos number (ΔρgD/σ)
f friction factor
F force, N; view factor; blackbody function; correction factor
Fo Fourier number (αt/L2)
Fr Froude number (U/g1/2L1/2)
g Gibbs free energy, kJ/kg; gravitational acceleration, m2/s; metric (Lamé) coefficient
G irradiation, W/m2; mass velocity, kg/m2s
Ga Galileo number (gμ4/ρσ3)
Gr Grashof number (gβΔTL3/ν3)
h convection coefficient, W/m2K; enthalpy, kJ/kg; Planck’s constant (6.63 × 10−34 Js)
hfg latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg
hsl latent heat of fusion, kJ/kg
H height, m
i, j unit vectors in coordinate directions
I intensity of radiation, W; turbulence intensity
j diffusion flux; Colburn factor; drift flux, m/s
J radiosity, W/m2; Jacobian determinant
Ja Jacob number (cpΔT/hfg)
k thermal conductivity, W/mK; turbulent kinetic energy, m2/s2; reaction
rate coefficient
K permeability, m2; chemical equilibrium constant
Kn Knudsen number (λ/L)
L length, m
Le Lewis number (α/D)
m mass, kg

xvii
xviii List of Symbols

ṁ mass flow rate, kg/s

M molar mass, kg/kmol; heat pipe merit figure
Mo Morton number (gμ4Δρ/ρ2σ3)
n surface normal; order of reaction
N shape function; number of moles; number of specified unit parameters
Ṅ ′′ molar flux of species i, kmol/m2s
nel number of elements
NTU number of transfer units
Nu Nusselt number (hL/k)
Oh Ohnesorge number (μ/ρ1/2σ1/2L1/2)
p pressure, Pa; population balance
P perimeter, m2
Pe Peclet number (UL/α)
Pr Prandtl number (ν/α)
Q heat flow, kJ
q heat flow rate, W
q′′ heat flux, W/m2
r radial coordinate, m; reaction rate, mol/m3s
R thermal resistance, K/W; radial phase interface position, m; residual
Ra Rayleigh number (gβΔTL3/να)
Re Reynolds number (UL/ν)
s entropy, kJ/kgK; surface element, m
S shape factor, m; source term; surface area, m2
Sc Schmidt number (ν/D)
Sh Sherwood number (hL/D)
St Stanton number (h/ρUcp)
Ste Stefan number (cpΔT/L)
STP standard temperature and pressure conditions (25◦ C, 1 atm)
t time, s; thickness, m
T temperature, K
TDH transport disengaging height, m
u, v, w x, y and z direction velocities, m/s
u′ , v′ turbulent fluctuating velocity components in x, y directions, m/s
U freestream or reference velocity, m/s; total conductance, W/m2K
UTS ultimate tensile strength, N/m2
v′′′ specific volume, m3/kg
v velocity vector, m/s
V velocity, m/s; volume, m3
w complex coordinate (u + iv)
W work, kJ; width, m; weight function; liquid water content, kg/m3
We Weber number (ρU2L/s)
x fraction of phase conversion
x, y, z Cartesian coordinates
X Cartesian phase interface position, m; Martinelli parameter
yi mole fraction
z complex coordinate (x + iy)
Z heat fin parameter; molar generation rate, kmol/s
∇ gradient operator (∂/∂x, ∂/∂y, ∂/∂y)
List of Symbols xix

Greek Symbols

α thermal diffusivity (k/ρcp), m2/s; absorptivity; solar altitude angle

β thermal expansion coefficient, 1/K; flow excess parameter
χk mass fraction of phase k
δ boundary layer thickness, m; film thickness, m; thermal penetration depth, m
ϵ emissivity; turbulent dissipation rate; heat exchanger effectiveness; perturbation
parameter
φ angle, rads; velocity potential; general scalar; shear parameter
Φ viscous dissipation function, 1/s2; particle sphericity
γ shape parameter; mass flow weighting function
Γ mass flow rate per unit width, kg/ms; general diffusion coefficient
η efficiency; similarity variable
κ mass transfer coefficient, mol/m3s; Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10−23 J/K)
λ wavelength, m; spectral; latitude; dimensionless bed parameter
μ dynamic viscosity, kg/ms; chemical potential, kJ/kmol
ν kinematic viscosity, m2/s; frequency, s−1; stoichiometric coefficient
θ angle, rads; dimensionless temperature
Θ kinetic function
ρ density, kg/m3; reflectivity
σ normal stress, N/m2; Stefan–Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10−8 W/m2K); surface
tension, N/m
τ shear stress, N/m2; transmissivity
υ specific volume (m3/kg)
ω solid angle, sr
ξ flow alignment weighting factor; local elemental coordinate
ψ stream function; hour angle
ζk volume fraction of phase k; void fraction; porosity

Subscripts

a air; ambient; activation

A, B constituents A and B in a mixture
atm atmospheric
b base; blackbody; boiling; Bingham slurry; body force; bubble
bndry boundary
c cross section; collector; cold; critical; characteristic; combustion
civ civic
conv convection
crit critical
cv control volume
d drift
D diameter
dif diffuse
dir direct
e east; mean beam length; eutectic
eff effective
ev evaporation
xx List of Symbols

f fluid; fin; fusion (phase change point); final; formation

fg fluid–gas
g gas; ground; glass; generation
gen generation
h hot; high; horizontal; hydraulic
i inner; interfacial; initial; surface index
in inlet
ip integration point
j surface index
k phase number; kinetic energy
ko Kolmogorov
l, L low; laminar; liquid
le liquid entrainment
liq liquidus
lm log mean
loc local
m mixing length; mean; melting point; mass transfer
min minimum
mf minimum fluidization
mp melt particularization
n north
nb neighboring
nuc nucleate
o outer
opt optimal
out outlet
p particle; pipe
P product
r reference; relative; removal
R reactant
rad radiation
ref reflected
res residence
s surface; entropy; solar; solid; south; settling
sat saturation
sg superficial gas; solid–gas
sl superficial liquid; solid-liquid
sol solidus; solar time
sub subcooled
t thermal; turbulent
tp two-phase
U drift velocity
v vapor
w wall; wick; water; west
x, y, z Cartesian coordinates
1, 2 node numbers
∞ ambient; freestream
List of Symbols xxi

Superscripts
′
turbulent fluctuating quantity
′′
flux quantity (per unit area)
* nondimensional quantity
1
Introduction

Until the mid-nineteenth century, heat was interpreted as an invisible form of matter called a
“caloric.” The caloric was understood as a fluid substance that was responsible for heat
phenomena. This perspective was held until about 1840, when the British physicist James
Joule showed that heat was not a material substance, but rather a form of energy. This
led to a new interpretation of heat as a mechanism of thermal energy transfer across the
boundaries of a system. This new insight led to a deeper understanding of the fundamental
modes of heat transfer, namely conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction heat transfer occurs from one part of a solid body or fluid to another, or
between bodies in contact, without any movement on a macroscopic level. Convection
occurs when heat is transferred between a solid surface and a fluid, or between different
fluid regions, due to bulk fluid movement. For forced convection, external processes
(such as pressure-induced forces) drive the fluid motion. These external processes may
result from devices such as pumps, fans, or atmospheric winds. In contrast, buoyancy
(rather than an external force) drives the fluid motion for natural convection (or free convec-
tion). Radiation is another fundamental mode of heat transfer. It occurs from the emission
of electromagnetic waves, or photons as packets of energy, by all surfaces above absolute
zero temperature (zero Kelvin, or −273.15◦ C). These processes will be described in detail
in individual chapters devoted to each mode of heat transfer.
Multiphase heat transfer, such as phase change in gas–liquid and liquid–solid flows, arises
in many practical applications. For example, predicting and controlling the operation of
condensers in thermal power plants in an efficient manner requires an understanding of
gas–liquid transport phenomena during condensation. In material processing technologies,
such as extrusion or casting, the liquid metal phase change has a significant role in the final
material properties, such as tensile strength, due to the alignment of grain boundaries and
solidification shrinkage. In upcoming chapters, various solution techniques and case studies
dealing with such multiphase systems will be presented.
A common design issue in heat transfer engineering is finding ways to reduce (or increase)
the heat transfer to a minimum (or maximum) value. For example, consider the directional
solidification of Ni-based superalloy turbine blade castings by liquid metal cooling. Several
complex interactions occur during the solidification process, such as shrinkage flow at the
phase interface, thermalsolutal convection in the bulk liquid, and radiative heat transfer.
Effective thermal control is important so that grain boundaries are aligned parallel to the
blade axes during solidification. In this way, the solidified material can most effectively
resist conditions of maximum stress during turbine operation.
Another common design issue in heat transfer engineering is how to achieve a specified
heat transfer rate as efficiently and economically as possible. For example, in microelectron-
ics assemblies, designers seek better ways of cooling the electronic circuits and more efficient
alternatives to conventional cooling with a fan. Another example is deicing of aircraft, wind
turbines, and other iced surfaces. Aircraft icing increases drag and weight, and it presents a
serious danger to air safety. It can damage downstream components if the attached ice

1
2 Advanced Heat Transfer

breaks off, and ingested ice can damage the jet engine. Several heating and cooling modes at
the surface affect the ice accretion such as surface heating, convection, conduction, and
incoming supercooled droplets which freeze on the surface. These combined processes
are complex and involve multiple modes of heat transfer simultaneously. This book will
present a range of advanced solution methods for the analysis of single and multiphase
thermal systems.

1.1 Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

Microscopic phenomena at the molecular level affect a material’s thermophysical state

properties such as thermal conductivity, specific heat, viscosity, density, and phase change
temperature. Differences between solids, liquids, and gases at the microscopic level affect
their nature of intermolecular interactions and thermal energy exchange. Chemical bonds
between atoms in a solid enable the formation of the lattice structure, or ions and molecules
that form chemical compounds in a fluid. These bonds may result from electrostatic forces
of attraction between oppositely charged ions in the case of ionic bonds, or the sharing of
atoms in covalent bonds. The oppositely charged ions are arranged in a lattice structure.
Also, there are intermolecular forces which bind the substance together. These bonds create
a compact structure in the material that affects the resulting thermophysical state properties.
Unlike fluids, solids typically resist shear and compression forces, and they are self-
supporting. The various types of solids can be broadly characterized as ceramics, metals,
and polymers. Ceramics are compounds based predominantly on ionic bonding. Some com-
mon examples of ceramics are brick and porcelain. Ceramic phase diagrams have similar
layouts as metal–metal systems. Metals usually exhibit less complex crystal structures
than ceramics. Also, less energy is required to dislocate atoms in their atomic structure.
Metals typically have lower yield stresses and a lower hardness than ceramics. Ceramics
are harder, but usually more brittle and more difficult to plastically deform than metals.
Polymers are organic in nature and their atomic structure involves covalent bonding.
Common examples of polymers are hydrocarbons, such as C2H4 (ethylene), plastics, rub-
bers, and CH4 (methane). Polymers are utilized in applications such as coatings, adhesives,
films, foam, and many others. Polymers are neither as strong nor as stiff as metals and
ceramics; they form as molecular chains. Thermophysical properties such as the melting
temperature and material strength depend on their degree of crystallinity and the ability
of the molecules to resist molecular chain motion. Unlike phase change at a discrete point
in pure metals, a continuous phase change between liquid and solid phases is observed
in polymers.
The crystal structure of polymers usually involves “spherulites.” Spherulites are small
semicrystalline regions that are analogous to grain structures in metals. The extremities
of spherulites impinge on one another to form linear boundaries in polymer materials. A
region of high crystallinity is formed by thin layers called “lamallae” (typically of the order
of 10 μm in length). These different types of regions affect the thermophysical state pro-
perties. Their varying structural forms explain why the densities of ceramic materials are
normally larger than those of polymers, but less than those of metals. Metals usually
have melting temperatures higher than those of polymers but less than ceramics. Also,
Introduction 3

the thermal conductivity of polymers is usually about two orders of magnitude less than
that of metals and ceramics.
Unlike solids, there is a molecular freedom of movement with no fixed structure in liquids
and gases. From common everyday experience, liquids need a container for storage and
they cannot resist imposed shear stresses. However, they can resist compression. These
characteristics indicate some key differences between solids and liquids from a microscopic
point of view. Some materials, such as slurries, tar, toothpaste, and snow, exhibit multiple
characteristics. For example, tar resists shear at small stresses, but it flows at high stresses.
The study of these forms of hybrid materials is the subject of rheology.
In order to determine the macroscopic properties of a solid or fluid, such as density or ther-
mal conductivity, it is normally assumed that the substance is a continuous medium.
This approach is called the continuum assumption. It is an idealization that treats the
substance as continuous, even though on a microscopic scale, it is composed of individual
molecules. The continuum assumption is normally applicable to fluids beyond a minimum
of 1012 molecules/mm3. But in certain circumstances, the continuum assumption cannot be
used, for example, in rarefied gases at low pressure like the conditions experienced by space-
craft atmospheric reentry at high altitudes.
The continuum assumption considers macroscopic averaging rather than microscopic
properties arising from a varying spatial distribution of molecules. For example, consider
the definition of density by macroscopic averaging of the mass divided by the volume. In
this definition, a volume is chosen to be large enough so that the density is properly
defined. The mass of molecules is assumed to be distributed uniformly across the volume.
But the number of molecules varies within the volume if the volume size approaches the
scale of the mean free path of molecular motion. If the volume size is less than the mean
free path, then significant variations in density can arise due to the molecular fluctua-
tions. The molecules fluctuate randomly in and out of a selected control volume. On
the other hand, if the volume is large on a macroscopic scale, then variations associated
with the spatial density distribution would be observed. As a result, there is a specific lim-
ited range to be defined as the appropriate volume size for the continuum assumption
to be valid. The control volume size must be larger than the scale of the mean free
path, but less than the characteristic macroscopic dimensions, to properly define the local
fluid density.
Different techniques may be used to describe the motion of fluids. In an Eulerian frame of
reference flow quantities are tracked from a fixed location in space (or a control volume),
whereas in the Lagrangian framework, individual fluid particles are tracked along their trajec-
tories. In general, the Eulerian approach will be adopted throughout this book. However, it
should be noted that in some applications, a Lagrangian description may be more useful,
such as free surface flows with tagged particles for the tracking of wave motion on a
free surface.
As an example, consider a gas particle trajectory in a heated duct. If a thermocouple is
placed in the duct, then the temperature varies according to the selected position, as well
as time. This represents a fixed location, corresponding to the Eulerian approach. On the
other hand, if individual gas particles are tracked throughout the duct, then this represents
a Lagrangian approach. In this latter approach, the temperature of a specific particle is a
function of time along its trajectory. The particle is tracked over a trajectory so its velocity
has a functional dependence on both the trajectory and time, or in other words, spatial coor-
dinates of the pathlines that also vary with time. It would be impractical to trace all particle
trajectories within the duct so the Eulerian approach would be more suitable in this example.
In the Eulerian approach, the change of temperature and velocity with time would be
4 Advanced Heat Transfer

observed with a stationary control volume in the duct. The approaches are different but
ultimately both Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions lead to the same results.

1.2 Conservation of Energy

The conservation of energy, or first law of thermodynamics, is a fundamental basis of heat
transfer engineering. Two general types of energy balances may be used—either a control
mass or a control volume approach. A control mass refers to a closed system of no inflow
or outflow of mass from the system. In contrast, a control volume refers to an open system
consisting of a fixed region in space with inflows and/or outflows of mass across the
boundary surfaces. A general energy balance for a control volume can be expressed as
(see Figure 1.1):

Ėcv = Ėin − Ėout + Ėg (1.1)

From left to right, the individual terms represent: (i) the rate of energy accumulation with
time in the control volume; (ii) the rate of energy inflow across the boundary surfaces;
(iii) the rate of energy outflow; and (iv) the rate of internal heat generation within the control
volume due to processes such as electrical resistive heating or chemical reactions. The over-
dot notation refers to the rate of change with respect to time. A “steady state” refers to con-
ditions which are independent of time, that is, negligible changes in the problem variables
with time.
The energy balance states that the rate of the increase of energy over time within the con-
trol volume equals the net rate of energy inflow plus any internal heat generation. The
energy inflow and outflow terms include heat and work flows across the boundary surfaces.
For example, work or power input (or output) may occur due to a protruding shaft across
the boundary of the control volume of a pump. A turbine shaft and blades would extract
power from a control volume encompassing a steam turbine in a power plant. Although
the above form of the energy balance indicates a single outlet and inlet, a more generalized
expression can be written for multiple inlets and outlets by taking a summation over all
inlets and outlets in the above energy balance.

Control
volume (CV)
.
Ein Control
volume (CV)
. Ein
. . Eout
Eg Ecv
Ecv
Eg

Eout

FIGURE 1.1
Schematic of energy balance for a control volume.
Introduction 5

For a control mass, an energy balance can be written to include both work and heat
modes of energy transfer across the boundary surface of the control mass. The first law of
thermodynamics over a finite period of time including work performed on the system
(such as compression/expansion of a gas in the closed system), denoted by W, can be
written as:

Ei + Q + W = Ef (1.2)

where the subscripts i and f refer to initial and final states, respectively, and Q refers to the
net inflow of heat into the control mass (note: negative Q represents a heat outflow).
At the edges of a control volume, a boundary condition can be established through an
energy balance for a control volume that shrinks to a zero thickness as it encompasses the
boundary. In this case, the transient energy accumulation term in the energy balance
becomes zero since the mass of the control volume approaches zero. The heat generation
may be nonzero as a result of processes such as friction between two different phases at
the interface or heat transfer due to latent heat evolved at a moving phase interface. The
energy balance at the edge of the control volume can be regarded as a boundary condition
that is used to solve the governing equations for variables internally within the domain.

1.3 Thermophysical Properties

Four different types of thermophysical properties of a system are discussed in this section—
thermodynamic; kinematic; transport; and other properties. Fundamentals and the associ-
ated physical processes will be described.

1.3.1 Thermodynamic Properties

Thermodynamic properties or variables include pressure (p), density (ρ), enthalpy (h),
specific volume (υ), temperature (T ), specific internal energy (e), and specific entropy (s).
The fluid enthalpy, h, is defined by h = e + p υ. “Specific” properties are those expressed
on a per mass basis. A thermodynamic property is any property that is measurable and
which describes the state of the physical system. Some thermodynamic constants, such
as the ideal gas constant, R, do not describe the state of a system, and so these are
not properties.
Specific or intensive properties are independent of size, whereas extensive properties
(such as the total energy) are dependent on the size of the system. For example, an extensive
property of a system containing two parts, A and B, is the sum of properties of both parts A
and B. The state postulate of thermodynamics states that for a simple compressible substance,
the number of intensive independent properties of a system equals the number of relevant
reversible work modes plus 1. One is added because even if all properties are held constant
within a system, one further property can be changed, such as temperature, through
heat transfer.
Pressure, p, is the normal force per unit area acting on a fluid. It is associated with a
momentum change of a fluid and represents a force applied perpendicular to the surface
of an object, per unit area, over which the force is distributed. Consider the force exerted
6 Advanced Heat Transfer

on a plate as a result of fluid impact on the plate. The impulse (or change of momentum) of
a specific fluid particle near the plate is the change in momentum between an initial
point upstream of the plate and its final state (a zero velocity upon impact at the wall).
Summing over many molecules near the plate and taking the average normal velocity of
all molecules, an expression can be obtained for the average force per unit area exerted
by the molecules on the wall. For a gas at normal atmospheric conditions, the following ideal
gas equation of state can be used to relate pressure to the density and temperature.

p = ρRT (1.3)

Pressure is a scalar variable that acts perpendicular to a surface and whose magnitude
adjusts to conserve mass in the flow field. For example, consider an air gap in a window
cell with a buoyant internal flow arising from differential heating of both sides of the cell.
Due to buoyancy forces, warm air ascends near the hot wall until it reaches the top corner.
Conservation of mass dictates that the fluid cannot only ascend, but there must also be a bal-
ance of a descending flow to conserve mass within the cell. Therefore, an adverse pressure
gradient (i.e., increasing pressure in the flow direction) occurs as the fluid ascends toward
the top corner, thereby causing the airflow to change directions and descend down along
the other side to allow an overall conservation of mass within the cavity.
Another key thermodynamic property is energy. The total energy refers to the sum of
internal, kinetic, and potential energies. The internal energy of a system is characterized
by its temperature. Work and heat are the forms that energy takes to cross the boundaries
of a system. A force alone does not change the energy of a system, but rather a force acting
over a distance, leads to work and an energy change. At a visible or macroscopic scale, work
is a process that changes the potential and/or kinetic energy of a system. In contrast, heat
transfer leads to a change of internal energy at a microscopic scale. In other words, heat
transfer corresponds to work at a microscopic or sub-visible scale.
Every system above a temperature of absolute zero (zero Kelvin, or −273.15◦ C) has a state
of microscopic disorder. Entropy represents an uncertainty about a system’s microscopic
state. It characterizes the disorder at the molecular level and a statistical probability or
uncertainty of a particular quantum state. In a perfect crystal of a pure substance at absolute
zero temperature, the molecules are motionless and stacked precisely in accordance with
their crystal structure. Here there is no uncertainty about the crystal’s microscopic state
(called the third law of thermodynamics). The entropy at zero absolute temperature is
zero. The second law of thermodynamics requires that the entropy of a system, including
its surroundings (an isolated system), never decreases. So the entropy production of an iso-
lated system is equal to zero for reversible processes, or greater than zero for irreversible
processes. A process is irreversible if it is highly unlikely from a statistical probability per-
spective that the direction of energy conversion can be reversed. Examples of irreversible
processes are dissipation of kinetic energy to frictional heating in a boundary layer and
heat transfer from a higher to lower temperature.
Although entropy, s, cannot be measured directly, it can be determined indirectly from the
Gibbs equation. For a simple compressible substance, the Gibbs equation is given by:

Tds = de + pdυ (1.4)

where e and υ refer to the internal energy and specific volume, respectively. Entropy can
also be expressed in terms of the specific Gibbs free energy, g. The Gibbs free energy is a
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 Modo reges atque tetrarchas,
Omnia magna, loquens; modo “sit mihi mensa tripes, et
Concha salis puri, et toga, quæ defendere frigus,
Quamvis crassa, queat ——.”

In short—in manner, in language, in business, and in pleasure, he sets an

admirable example of mutability, which we shall always make it our study
to imitate—especially when we take up our pens.
Of Sir Wilfrid’s nephew and heir we shall here say nothing, as his
character has been elsewhere noticed by another hand, under the name of
Arthur Clavering. We pass on, therefore, to the Baronet’s maiden sister,
Lady Rachel Weathercock, who is nowise deficient in the peculiarities for
which her family is remarkable. Lady Rachel has now attained her fiftieth
year; the caprices and follies of her youth have gradually subsided; and, in
many points, she has become more stationary than a Weathercock ought to
be. Her character, however, is just saved by one little ingredient, by which a
person who is unacquainted with her habits may be not a little puzzled.
Lady Rachel is an inveterate reader, an inveterate talker, and an inveterate
arguer. You might therefore suppose that few subjects could be started upon
which the lady would not ground a dispute; but it is no such thing. Her
ladyship possesses such a delightful pliability of opinion, that it is hardly
possible to differ from her upon any topic. We have heard her advocate and
abuse every school of painting or poetry in almost immediate succession.
She combats to-day the very opinions she maintained yesterday; yet, upon
the first semblance of a contradiction, she veers round forthwith, and proves
herself a more accommodating antagonist, if possible, than the Neapolitans.
Mr. Oakley was three hours in conversation with her; and though the burden
of his song was No, No, No, he was unable to pick a quarrel. Like Sir
Robert Bramble and Job, “they couldn’t disagree—and so they parted.”
The only remaining member of the family is Sir Wilfrid’s niece. How
delightful is your mutability, charming Leonora! You are like a chess-board
which is checquered with black and white squares alternately; or a
melodrama, in which the tears of Tragedy are relieved by the follies of
Farce; or a day in April which blends rain with sunshine, summer with
winter; or the Etonian, in which the serious is united with the absurd, and
pathos is intermingled with puns. What a wardrobe must be yours! To-day
you assume the costume of the victim Mary—to-morrow that of the
executioner Elizabeth; you put off the diamonds of the queen for the
garland of the peasant, the curls of the coquette for the veil of the nun. Your
voice has a thousand tones; your lips have a thousand smiles—all of them
distinct, yet all of them engaging! You are always the same, yet always
varying; consistent only in your inconsistency! Be always so! We will build
a fane in the most beautiful region of Fancy, where no two flowers shall
wear the same hue, no two days be of the same length or temperature: light
gales shall breathe from all points of the compass by turns, and clear
streams shall vary their course every hour; stability shall be sacrilege—and
Leonora shall be the Goddess of the Temple.
 GOLIGHTLY’S ESSAY ON BLUES.

A FRAGMENT.
Lady Dabble is a True Blue. She is a meddler in literature of every sort and
description. Poetry and prose, pamphlets and plays, sermons and satires,
overtures and odes—all are her hobbies, all are the objects of her patronage,
all are subjects of her harangues. At her house is the synod held: where
criticism and tea are poured out together, where sweet sugar and sweeter
sonnets melt in delicious unison. It is delightful to spend a few hours at
Lady Babble’s conversazione. All inferior wits and witlings flit around her
like twinkling stars; while her ladyship, with her full-moon face—but it
strikes us that this is a very old simile.
Of all Blues we think the Light Blue is our favourite. Mark the
surprising difference which exists between Emilia, the Light Blue, and her
sister Sophia, the Dark Blue. Sophia is a fine vessel, properly supplied with
everything requisite for a long voyage; but a villanous slow sailer. Emilia is
the same vessel, but certainly it has thrown out a vast quantity of ballast. To
speak in plainer language, Sophia talks learnedly, and puzzles you; Emilia
talks learnedly, and amuses you; the latter sets you a laughing, and the
former sends you to sleep. A good painter will select for his picture only the
most agreeable parts of the landscape which lies before him; a good talker
will notice the more pleasing points of his subject, while he will throw aside
the tedious. But, alas! Emilia will describe a statue, while Sophia is treating
of a finger; and the Light Blue will analyse the “Iliad,” while the Dark Blue
is discussing the Digamma.
Fannia is a fair one, who endeavours to unite the extreme of fashionable
dress with the extreme of unfashionable Blue-ism. Mr. Hodgson made a vile
pun (as usual) when he denominated her a Blue Belle.
The only remaining Blue of whom we shall here make mention is Eva,
the Sky-Blue. The habit of talking sentiment, in which the Sky-Blue
commonly indulges, is in general sufficiently annoying; but in the person of
Eva, far be it from us to apply to it such an epithet. Eva is always in heroics:
she never speaks a sentence which is not fit to go into a German romance.
All this sits very well upon youth and beauty, but in age and ugliness it is
insufferable. Eva has a pretty pair of blue eyes, a finely polished neck, an
enchanting white arm, and a voice withal, which is never heard but in a
whisper, an aria, or a sigh. She has, in short, such a talent at turning our
brains, that our Secretary has not inappositely styled her “Blue Ruin.”
 OLD BOOTS.

“Whose conceit
Lies in his hamstring, and doth think it rich
To hear the wooden dialogue and sound
’Twixt his stretched footing and the scaffoldage.”
Shakespeare.

Ι have got a pair of old boots.

I bought them at Exeter last summer, and they withstood all the malice
of Devonshire paviours in a most inconceivable style. The leather was of a
most editorial consistency, and the sole resembled a quarto. It was in them
that I revisited the desolate habitation of my infancy; it was their heavy
clanging sound which echoed through those deserted apartments. It was in
them, too, that I tottered upon the perilous summit of the Ness; and it was in
them that I got wet to the knees in the disagreeable tempest which waited
upon the Dawlish regatta. How many pleasant moments, how many dear
friends, do they recall to my recollection! It was with their ponderous
solidity that I astonished the weak nerves of one, and trod upon the weak
toes of another. Every inch of them, old and emeriti as they are, is pregnant
with some delightful, some amiable sensation. It was in them that I
excogitated the first number of the Etonian—they shall live to look upon
the last! I cannot say they were ever very elegant in shape or texture. Like
the genius of my friend Swinburne, they possessed more intrinsic strength
than outward polish. They served me well, however, and travelled with me
to town.
I happened to put them on one wet morning in April. Whatever form or
fashion they formerly boasted was altogether extinct; they were as
shapeless as an unlicked cub, and as dusky as a cloud on a November
morning. I beheld their fallen appearance with some dismay. “I shall be
stared at,” I said; “I had better take them off!” But I thought of their former
services, and resolved to keep them on.
They had brought their plated heels from the country, and they made a
confounded noise upon the pavement as I walked along. Ding, dong, they
went at every step, as if I carried a belfry swung at my toes. “This is a
disagreeable sort of accompaniment,” I said. “I had better dismiss the
musicians.” Just at that moment a young baronet passed me, attended by a
fine dog. The dog was in high spirits, and made rather too much noise for
the contemplative mood of his master. “Silence, Cæsar! Be quiet, Cæsar!”
No, it was all in vain, and Cæsar was kicked into the gutter. “That was
cruel!” I said, “to dismiss an old servant, because he was a note too loud! I
think I will keep my boots!”
I walked in the Park with Golightly. By the side of my stable footcase his
neat and dapper instep cut a peculiarly smart figure; it was a Molossus tête-
à-tête with a Pyrrhic; an Etonian’s skiff moored alongside of a coal-barge.
Golightly’s meditations seemed to be of the same cast; he once or twice
turned his eyes to the ground, as I thought with no very complacent aspect.
“My friends grow ashamed of me,” I said to myself; “I must part with my
boots!” As I made up my mind to the sacrifice, Lady Eglantine met us, with
her husband. She was constantly looking another way, nodding familiarly to
the young men she met, and endeavouring to convince the world how
thoroughly she despised the lump of earth which she was obliged to drag
after her. “There is a woman,” said Frederick, “who married Sir John for his
money, and has not the sense to appear contented with the bargain she has
made. What can be more silly than to look down thus upon a man of
sterling worth, because he happened to be born a hundred miles from the
metropolis?” “What can be more silly?” I repeated inwardly; “I will never
look down on my boots again!”
We continued our walk, and Golightly began his usual course of
strictures upon the place and the company. Hurried away by the constant
flow of jest and wildness with which he embellishes his sketches, I soon
forgot both the boots, which had been the theme of my reflections, and the
moral lessons which the subject had produced. There was an awkward stone
in the way! Oh my unfortunate heels! I broke down terribly, and was very
near bringing my companion after me. I rose, and went on in great dudgeon.
“This will never do,” I muttered; “this will never do! I must positively
cashier my boots!” I looked up: an interesting girl was passing, leaning on
the arm of a young man, whose face I thought I recognized. She looked pale
and feeble; and, when my friend bowed to her with unusual attention, she
seemed embarrassed by the civility. “That is Anna Leith,” said Golightly;
“she made an imprudent match with that young man about a year ago, and
her father has refused to see her ever since. Poor girl! She is in a rapid
decline, and the remedies of her physicians have no effect upon a broken
spirit. I would never cast off a beloved object for a single false step!”
“I will keep my boots,” I exclaimed: “though they make a thousand!”
 ON THE DIVINITIES OF THE ANCIENTS.
To a person inquiring into the manners and customs of ancient nations, the
religion which they professed and the gods which they worshipped will
always appear objects of the greatest curiosity. And this will not be
wondered at when we remember how intimately the religion of a State must
necessarily be connected with its civil policy. In former times, when
ignorance and superstition flourished side by side, the aid of a divinity was
required for the carrying into effect of the most frivolous designs. No poem
could succeed until the Muses were called upon in a well-rounded
hexameter, no war could prosper until Mars was propitiated by a sufficiency
of roast beef. The ancients appear to have had some faint idea of the
ubiquity of the Deity; but, not comprehending how such a faculty had been
vested in a single divinity, they formed to themselves a set of superior
powers, calculated to attend upon every emergency, from Jupiter, the god of
thunder, to Tussis, the god of coughing. It is therefore evident that the
consideration of the religious ideas of the ancients must be inseparably
united with the study of the other parts of their history.
In the remarks which I am about to make upon this subject, I must
request that one or two preliminaries may be kept in mind. First, that the
characters of the constant supporters of the Etonian may not be implicated
in the blunders of an occasional correspondent; and, secondly, that I may
not be understood as endeavouring to compose a regular essay or treatise
upon the topic which is before me. I have no more the inclination than I
have the ability to attempt such a task. The observations which I shall have
occasion to make will be merely the unripe fruit of an hour of leisure;
merely a few unconnected hints, thrown out at random for your amusement,
Mr. Editor, and that of my fellow-citizens. If they are pleased with them,
they will thank me, and I am sufficiently repaid: if not—n’importe—they
will at least give me credit for good intentions.
The first point which I shall notice is the opinion which the ancients
entertained of the power and authority of their heavenly rulers. And as the
study of fallen religions is principally useful as it shows to us the
superiority of that religion which can never fall, let us first see upon what
footing Christianity stands in this respect. In my eyes, and in the eyes of
every one upon whom the light of revelation has dawned, the mention of a
God presupposes an idea of infinite, irresistible, indisputable power. One
cannot form the most remote conception of a deity whose powers or
existence should be in any way limited. One of the distinguishing attributes
of Christianity is that with its God nothing is impossible. He is omniscient,
omnipresent, omnipotent. Can we say the same of the gods of the heathen
—“the gods of wood and stone, the work of men’s hands?”
Alas! alas! They raised ghosts, and they raised tempests; they scolded,
and they thundered; they drank nectar, and drove doves: but when anything
serious was to be done—when a battle was to be decided, or an empire
overthrown, they were frequently as powerless to slay or to save as the
sceptre which they wielded or the cloud which they bestrode. Let us call
before us some of the most formidable, and examine into their pretensions
to Olympus.
Come down, then, Jupiter, from the little pedestal on which I have placed
your plaster effigy! Come down, father of men and gods, counsel-giving,
wide-thundering, cloud-compelling! Come down, thou who overthrowest
the Titans and abusest thy wife; thou who art so fond of the voice of prayer
and the smoke of hecatombs; thou who hast so many epithets and so many
sons; thou who governest Olympus and meritest Bridewell! Where are thy
frowns and thy nods? thy muscles and thy sinews? thy darts and thy
decrees? Where are the looks which appal—the blows which destroy?
Where is the unbroken chain—the insatiable vulture? Where are the
Cyclopes who forge the lightning, and the poets who forge the Cyclopes?
Alas! Jupiter, amidst all thy terrors, in heaven or on Ida, in feasting or in
wrath, in poetry or in prose, thou wert a quack, Jupiter, a most contemptible
quack; so utterly destitute of everything that could ensure respect; so
miserably deficient in everything that could inspire fear; such a pitiful
compound of ignorance and knowledge, of strength and imbecility, of
vanity and vice—that if the days of thy sovereignty could return again—if
thou couldst again be fed upon sacrifice and flattery, I swear by thine own
beard I would as soon be an Irus as a Jupiter.
The truth is that the religion of the ancients, as far as it can be collected
from their writings, partook in no small degree of predestination. Yet it is
enveloped in so much obscurity, that it is very difficult for us—nay, it might
have been very difficult for them—to define where the supremacy of fate
should stop and the authority of the gods commence. We find some
unfortunate divinity perpetually endeavouring to overthrow some State
which is destined to stand, or to destroy some hero who is destined to live;
although the said divinity has an innate perception that his struggles in
either instance must eventually be fruitless. I know that these ideas may be
said to be founded solely on the marvellous fictions of the poets; but, let me
ask, would Diomedes have ever inflicted a wound upon Mars, if Homer had
seen in Mars a formidable being? or would Juno have ever strutted and
stormed through the Æneid, if Virgil had cared a sixpence for her
displeasure? When I see these liberties taken with the gods in writing, I feel
convinced that equal liberties will be taken with them in life; when I find an
immortal and an invincible being knocked on the head or run through the
belly at the mercy of a terrestrial wit, I naturally conclude that in the
country where such a phenomenon takes place few persons will boggle at a
perjury from the apprehension of a thunder-bolt. But this is not all. There
seems to have existed an idea that a time was approaching when the great
offspring of Saturn would be hurled down from the seat he occupied, and
subjected to an ignominious destiny, if not to utter annihilation. This is one
of the most singular and unaccountable points in their system of faith.
Without going into discussions, to which I am unequal, upon the origin and
import of this notion, I must express my surprise at the blindness of those
who dressed up a figure loaded with all these debilities as their supreme
power, and installed him in the seat of universal dominion.
As I have been making allusions to the introduction of the gods in the
battles of the Epics, I shall proceed to say a few words upon the subject.
The worthy gentry of Olympus, resembling men in their vices, their
passions, their liability to pain, and their delight in carnage, made a very
tolerable figure in a fair stand-up fight. Their characters could suffer very
little from their making use of brazen arms, riding in wooden chariots, and
wrestling with antagonists of mere flesh and blood. Mars, to be sure, would
have done better if he had refrained from howling; and Juno would not have
lost in dignity if she had been a little more cautious in boxing the ears of
Diana. But, upon the whole, these people are very good matter for the poet;
and I would as lief meet them in an hexameter as in a temple.
But it is a very different thing when the person of the only true God is to
be introduced in a poem. A pigmy in poetry may trifle with the thunders of
Jupiter; but a Hercules should beware how he handles the terrors of
Jehovah. A rhymer may talk what nonsense he pleases of a mythology
which consists of fiction and tinsel; but he should be afraid to touch upon a
theme in which there is truth, and eternity, and power. It is for this reason
that I can never read without disgust those passages of Tasso in which the
divine agency is degraded to the level of the machinery of the poem.
When, however, the description falls into the hands of one who is able to
do justice to it, see how the glories of the heathen mythology sink before
the effulgence of the living God. Search the most celebrated descriptions of
heathen writers; and where, in the brightest moments of inspiration, will
you find a passage that can for a moment be compared with that of the
Psalmist?
“The earth trembled and quaked; the very foundations of the hills shook,
and were removed, because He was wrath. There went a smoke out in His
presence, and a consuming fire out of His mouth, so that coals were kindled
at it. He bowed the heavens also and came down, and it was dark under His
feet. He rode upon the cherubims and did fly: He came flying upon the
wings of the wind. He made darkness his secret place; His pavilion round
about Him with dark water, and thick clouds to cover Him. At the
brightness of his presence His clouds removed; hailstones and coals of fire.
The Lord also thundered out of heaven, and the Highest gave His thunder;
hailstones and coals of fire. He sent out His arrows and scattered them; He
cast forth lightnings and destroyed them. The springs of waters were seen,
and the foundations of the round world were discovered, at Thy chiding, Ο
Lord, at the blasting of the breath of Thy displeasure.”
When I look at the famous nod of Jupiter—

Ἧ, καὶ κυανέησιν ἐπ’ ὀφρύσι νεῦσε Κρονίων,

Ἀμβρόσιαι δ’ ἄρα χαῖται ἐπεῥῤώσαντο ἄνακτος
Κρατὸς ἀπ’ ἀθανάτοιο· μέγαν δ’ ἐλέλιξεν Ὄλυμπον—

I have before me a distinct image of a handsome terrible-looking man,

sitting on a throne, and shaking his head; but when I read the passage which
I have quoted above, I find no clear image represented; I feel only a dark
and undefinable sensation of awe—a consciousness of the presence of the
Deity, visible, yet clothed with darkness as with a veil.
Look now at the terrible magnificence with which Ezekiel has
overshadowed the Almighty. After a gorgeous description of the attendant
ministers, he says—
 “And there was a voice from the firmament that was over their heads,
when they stood and had let down their wings. And above the firmament
that was over their heads, was the likeness of a throne, as the appearance of
a sapphire stone, and upon the likeness of the throne was the likeness as the
appearance of a man upon it. And I saw as the colour of amber, as the
appearance of fire round about within it, from the appearance of his loins
even upward, and from the appearance of his loins even downward, I saw as
it were the appearance of fire, and it had brightness round about. As the
appearance of the bow that is in the cloud in the day of rain, so was the
appearance of the brightness round about. This was the appearance of the
likeness of the glory of the Lord. And when I saw it, I fell upon my face,
and I heard a voice of one that spake.”
My quotations are running to a great length; nevertheless I cannot refrain
from transcribing the splendid description of the Messiah, in which our own
Milton has united the above two passages:—
 Forth rushed with whirlwind sound
The chariot of Paternal Deity,
Flashing thick flames, wheel within wheel withdrawn
Itself instinct with spirit, but convoyed
By four cherubick shapes; four faces each
Had wondrous; as with stars their bodies all
And wings were set with eyes, with eyes the wheels
Of beryl, and careering fires between;
Over their heads a crystal firmament,
Whereon a sapphire throne inlaid with pure
Amber, and colours of the showery arch.
He in celestial panoply all armed
Of radiant Urim, work divinely wrought,
Ascended; at his right hand Victory
Sate eagle-winged; beside him hung his bow
And quiver, with three-bolted thunder stored;
And from about him fierce effusion rolled
Of smoke and bickering flame, and sparkles dire.
Attended with ten thousand thousand saints
He onward came; far off his coming shone;
And twenty thousand (I their number heard)
Chariots of God, half on each hand were seen.
He on the wings of cherub rode sublime,
On the crystalline sky in sapphire throned.

After having transcribed three such passages as these, I am in no mind to

return at present to the dirt and filth of Pagan superstition, and I shall hasten
to a conclusion.
I have been digressing from my original proposition, until at last I have
left the Divinities of the Ancients, and set to work at proving that Homer
and Virgil are far inferior to David, Ezekiel, and Milton, which after all is a
very easy task, and not very new. I intended to have made this a very
learned paper, to have talked much of Egypt, a little of M. Belzoni, and
several other matters which I have not time to enumerate. Here, however, is
the fruit of my labours; I am too lazy, or too busy, to alter, or add, or erase;
in thus rambling through five or six pages, instead of labouring through
fifty, my time has been expended, I am sure, more pleasantly to myself, and
I hope as agreeably to my readers.
 REMINISCENCES OF MY YOUTH.

“Admonitu locorum.”—Cicero.

It is the seventh day of my revisiting! The burst of almost painful affection

which came over me as I first trod upon the scene of brighter hours, and the
glow of heart and brow, which seemed like a resuscitation of feelings and
passions that have long lain dormant in forgetfulness—these have gradually
died away; but there has succeeded, dearest spot, a mellowed fondness for
you, which, were I to live an eternity with you, would remain through that
eternity imperishable. I now am delighted to muse upon the sweetness of
those recollections, whose overpowering throb I at first could hardly
endure; and love to call up before me those imaginings, which at first
rushed upon me with the overwhelming force of a cataract. I look around
me! A spirit seems to be sitting on every house-top, lingering in every
grove; incidents in themselves the most humble, objects in themselves the
most mean—like insects preserved in amber—derive nobility and beauty
from the colours which memory has thrown around them!
There are associations in the names and the aspects of places which it is
impossible for us to restrain or subdue. Who shall gaze upon the Capitol,
and not think upon the Cæsars? Who shall roam round Stonehenge, and not
shudder at the knife of the Druids? Who shall be a sojourner in Eastcheap,
and not enjoy sweet visions of Shakespeare? My native village! Less
celebrated are the worthies whose images you recall to my imagination, but
they are recalled in colours as constant and as vivid. How can I look upon
your sports, without thinking of those who were my companions when I
joined in them? How can I listen to the voice of your merriment, without
thinking of those from whom in other days it sprung?
Before me is the tavern! The lapse of years has hardly bored an
additional excavation in its dusky window-curtain, or borrowed a single
shade from the boards of its faded sign. But its inmates have vanished; their
laughter is no longer heard in their place; and the red-brick wall of the Ship
stands before me like the cemetery of their mirth, their wit, and their good-
humour. In my youth I was wild—blame me you that have never been so—
and I loved to mingle in this scene of rustic joviality, to listen to the remarks
of untutored simplicity, to envy those who had grown grey untainted by the
corruptions of “this great Babel,” and to feel how truly it was said,

Where ignorance is bliss,

’Tis folly to be wise.

Many years ago I looked upon these boyish pursuits with an eye very
different from that which is now cast back towards them. Many years ago, I
thought nothing disgraceful which was not incompatible with innocence in
myself and charity towards my fellow-creatures. What would you have? I
have grown more prudent, and I am not so happy.
The great room of this humble building was the curia of the village. In it
the patriarchs of the place held their nightly sittings, and discussed ale and
politics with unremitting assiduity. There was no inebriety, no tumult, no ill-
mannered brutality in their sessions; everything was conducted with the
greatest order and tranquillity; the old men assembled with all the gravity,
with all the earnestness, perhaps with much of the wisdom, of great
statesmen. Alas! ye profane ones, ye smile. Ye look with contempt upon my
rustic curia and my weather-beaten statesmen. And what are the great ones
of this earth? Shall not the beings of a more exalted sphere contemplate
with equal scorn the wranglings of more honoured senates? You turn with
disgust from the eloquence of a Huggins or a Muggins! Look ye then to the
oratory of a Cicero, to the patriotism of a Brutus, or, if you will, to the
commanding energies of a Pitt and a Fox! Years roll on, and—what are
they?
However, call it a curia, or a club, or what ye will, custom had
established in this mansion a meeting of all the wise heads and all the
choice spirits of the hamlet. At first the members of it were very
independent of all party considerations, and each was too conscious of his
own individual merits to become a hanger-on of any more important
potentate. Whatever subject was tabled, whether it were the Holy Alliance
or the Holy Church—the taste of the new tap or the conduct of the new
member—every one said what he thought, and had no idea of bowing to the
opinion of his neighbour. In process of time, however, this laudable spirit of
liberty and equality began, as in other places, to decline. Some of the
members became idle and complaisant, others waxed mighty and
overbearing; until at last the Parliament of—— became subservient to the
will and wishes of a single ruler, and Jeremiah Snaggs took his place in my
memorandum-book as the first Dictator.
He had lived many years in the place, so that he was well known to most
of its inhabitants—to some too well. He had long enjoyed the office of
collector of the taxes in—— and its neighbourhood, and had contrived to
grow rich, as some whispered not by the most creditable methods. However
that might be, he was rich, and, as the patriarchal simplicity of the spot
declined, many began to look with ill-concealed covetings upon the
possessions of Jeremiah Snaggs. He had built to himself a mansion by the
roadside, with a small garden in front; and there was a very extraordinary
appendage to it, which excited much speculation among his unsophisticated
contemporaries, and which he denominated a veranda. For some time he
remained shut up in his citadel, and seemed to contemn the courtesies and
repel the approaches of the inferior beings who moved around him.
Afterwards, however, he found the solitude of his home (for he was a
bachelor) insupportable; and he emerged gradually from his retirement, and
condescended to join in the social assemblies of his neighbours. He joined
them not as a fellow-citizen, but as a sovereign; he came among them, not
to brighten their festivity, but to chill their good-humour; his presence was
not an assistance, but a restraint. Nevertheless, he was the great man of the
place, and in a short time his word was law among its inhabitants. Whether
the ascendency was owing rather to the talents which he occasionally
displayed, or to the dinners which he occasionally gave, I cannot say.
Thomas the boatbuilder, who till now had the credit of being a staunch
Whig, and the boldness to avow it, drew in his horns; his patriotism, his
oratory, his zeal shrank into nothing before the fiat of the Tory bashaw. He
made indeed a violent opposition when Jeremiah proposed the introduction
of port wine in lieu of the malt which had hitherto been the inspiration of
their counsels, and he was somewhat refractory when the dictator insisted
upon turning out the seats of the last generation and introducing modern
chairs. But upon both points the boatbuilder was outvoted; and in obedience
to Mr. Snaggs the senators dozed upon nauseous port, and fidgeted upon
cane bottoms, for the space of six years. Look now! You smile at the
disputes of a Thomas and a Snaggs! Yet why? What is there of greater
moment in those of a Londonderry and a Brougham?
 A period, however, was soon put to this terrible system of misrule: an
old favourite of the hundred returned from fighting his country’s battles, in
which occupation he had been perseveringly engaged for the last fourteen
years. Sergeant Kerrick was disgusted with the innovations of the day, and
set vigorously to work to drive them before him, as he expressed himself, at
the point of the bayonet. The sergeant was always a fine man, but he was
now a cripple into the bargain; he had always majestic black eyes, but he
had now the additional advantage of having a cut over both; he had always
the two legs of Hercules, but now—glorious destiny!—he had only one to
stand upon. He was irresistible! The veranda, the roast mutton, the will—
all, all was forgotten. In a short time Snaggs was beat by unheard-of
majorities; a week—and the tide of Whitbread’s best was turned into its
proper channel; another—and the cane-bottoms were kicked ignominiously
from the Parliament. Thomas the boatbuilder, who had seceded in
disappointment, was brought back in triumph; the dictator in vain attempted
to check the progress of the revolution! baffled, defeated, insulted on all
sides, he retired from the field in dismay, and died within a week afterwards
from the falling of his veranda. His death produced no sensation; for it was
evident that the man of war had been already installed in his place.
The Sergeant bore his faculties right meekly, and promoted the
restoration of l’ancien régime to the utmost of his abilities. During his
administration people began to talk with some little degree of freedom,
although at first they were much awed by the laurels and the scars of their
president. They had a wondrous idea of the wisdom he had attained upon
his travels. How could they talk of politics in his presence? Why, gracious!
he had held the Emperor o’ Russia’s stirrup at Petersburg, and taken off his
hat to the Pope o’ Rome—ay! and caught a glimpse o’ Boney to boot. Then,
as to religious matters! why the Vicar was nothing to him: he had seen some
nations that pray cross-legged, and some that pray in the open air, and some
that don’t pray at all; and he had been to St. Peter’s, and a place they call
the Pantheon, and all among the convents and nunneries, where they shut
up young folk to make clergymen of them. It is not surprising that all this
condensation of knowledge produced much veneration in the
neighbourhood; it wore off, however, rapidly, and his companions began to
enjoy the tales of his hardships, his privations, his battles, and his triumphs,
without any feeling of distance or dissatisfaction. Enchanted by the stories
he told, enchanted still more by the enthusiasm with which he told them, the
Patres Conscripti began to despise their hitherto pacific habits; they carried
their sticks on their shoulders, instead of trailing them on the ground; they
longed

To follow to the field some warlike lord;

all of them began to look big, and one or two made some proficiency in
swearing. By the edict of the dictator, the Biblical prints which were ranged
round the chamber made room for coloured representations of Cressy and
Agincourt; and the table was moved into such a situation as to give
sufficient room for the manual exercise. The women of the village began to
be frightened; Matthew Lock, a fine young man of eighteen, ran away to be
listed; Mark Fender, a fine old man of eighty, lost an eye in learning parry
tierce; two able-bodied artisans caught an ague by counter-marching in a
shower; apprehensions of a military government began to be pretty general
—when suddenly the dictator was taken off by an apoplexy. Ibi omnis
effusus labor! He died when the organization of the corps was just
completed; he was carried to his final quarters in great state, and three
pistols and a blunderbuss were fired over his grave. Why should we
contemn his lowly sepulchre? He died—and so did Alexander.
The warlike Tullus was succeeded by the pacific Numa. Kerrick, the
sergeant, was succeeded by Nicholas, the clerk. The six months during
which the progeny of Mars had held the reins of government, had unsettled
everything; the six weeks which saw Nicholas in his stead set everything in
its place again. In the course of a few days it was discovered that drab was a
better colour than red, and that an oyster-knife was a prettier weapon than a
bayonet. In this short reign the magnates of the place imbibed a strong taste
for literature and the arts. The blunderbuss was exchanged for the
“Pilgrim’s Progress,” and one of the pistols for the “Whole Duty of Man.”
Nicholas himself was a man of considerable acquirements; he was the best
reader in the place next to the Vicar, and by dint of much scraping and
perseverance he had managed to fill two shelves with a heterogeneous
confusion of ancient and modern lore. There was an odd volume of the
“History of England,” sundry ditto of sermons, an account of “Anson’s
Voyage Round the World,” and “The righte Pathe toe Welle-Doinge,” by
Geoffry Mixon. There was also a sage treatise on Ghosts, Spectres,
Apparitions, &c., which instigated me to various acts of atrocity, to which I
shall presently allude.
Nicholas had presided over the conclave for four months in
uninterrupted tranquillity, when an incident occurred which put the firmness
of his character to the test. The Parliament had just finished their second jug
one evening, and were beginning to think of an adjournment, when a low
rumbling noise, like the echo of distant thunder, was heard, and in a
moment afterwards the door, as it were spontaneously, flew open, and a
spectre flew in. It is needless for me to describe the spectre: it was, selon
règle, above the common height, with pale cheeks, hollow voice, and
staring eyes. It advanced to the dictator’s chair, and moaned, in an audible
murmur, “I am thine evil genius, Nicholas! Thou shalt see me at church on
Sunday.” And then it immediately vanished, nobody knew how or where.
Well indeed it might, for few of the company were qualified to play the spy
on its motions. The clerk, however, is said to have kept his seat with great
firmness; and all avowed that they had followed his example. Howbeit,
unless my memory fails me, there was a whisper that the saddler contrived
to be looking under the table for a sixpence, and the exciseman’s sooty
appearance told dirty tales of the chimney. The clerk was much importuned
not to hazard himself in the church upon the fated Sabbath; but upon this
point he was obstinate: it was finally agreed to conceal the matter, and in
the event of the apparition’s reappearance to set the minister at him.
On the Sunday (for I suppose the reader is aware that I was intimately
acquainted with the causes of the alarm) it was very amusing to watch the
different faces of terror or expectation which appeared at public worship, to
mark the quivering hue on the sallow cheek of the exciseman, and listen to
the querulous intonation of the clerk’s Amen. When at last the sermon was
concluded, Nicholas gave his final twang in such a manner that to my ears it
resembled an Io pæan. He rose from his knees with a countenance of such
unmingled, unrepressed triumph, that I could no longer restrain myself! I
laughed. Alas! dearly did I rue, unhappy wight, that freak of sacrilegious
jocularity.
“And is this all!” See now; you laugh at this deception because a foolish
boy was its instrument, and an honest clerk its victim. Have you not often
pored, with romantic interest, upon tales of impostures equally gross? Have
you not read with horror the celebrated warning of Dion? Have you not
shuddered at, “I am thine evil spirit, Brutus; thou shalt see me again at
Philippi?” and yet

What’s in a name?
“Nicholas” will raise a spirit as well as “Brutus.”

The dictator’s seat was soon after vacated. Ellen, the Vicar’s daughter,
had died some years before; and her father, finding himself unable to
reconcile himself to the residence which she had so long endeared to him,
prepared to quit the village. It was supposed that poor Nicholas was
overpowered by the misfortune of his patron: certain it is that he died very
quietly one fine summer’s evening, quite prepared for his end, and in the
fullest possession of his faculties. He was followed to his grave by as
sincere a crowd of mourners as ever wept at a poor man’s obsequies. There
is no urn, no column, no monumental splendour where he sleeps! But what
of this? Nicholas is dust—and so is Cheops.
One more name lives in my recollection. The old clerk bequeathed his
library and his authority to his favourite, Arthur. Arthur!—he had no other
name. That of his father was unknown to him, and he was taken from life
before his merits had earned one. He was a foundling. He had been left at
the old clerk’s door some years before I was born; and Nicholas had
relieved the parish of the expense, and had educated him with all the
attention of a father. I will not relate the whisper which went about at the
time, nor the whispers which succeeded afterwards. Arthur grew in health
and beauty, and was quite the pet of the neighbourhood; he had talents too,
which seemed designed for brighter days; and patience, which made even
his bitter lot endurable. He used to write verses which were the admiration
of the synod; and sang his hearers to sleep occasionally with all the good-
nature imaginable. At last a critic of distinguished note, who was spending
a few months near the hamlet, happened to get a sight of the boy’s poetry,
and took a fancy to him. He taught him to read and recite with feeling;
pointed out to him the beauties and the errors of the models which he put
into his hands; and, on his departure, gave him the works of several of our
modern worthies, and promised that he would not forget him. However he
did forget him, or gave no symptoms of his remembrance.
The old clerk died, and Arthur felt alone in the world. Still he had many
friends; and when the first burst of his regret was over, comfortable