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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN OCEANOGRAPHY

Jacques Yves Guigné

Philippe Blondel

Acoustic
Investigation of
Complex Seabeds

123
SpringerBriefs in Oceanography
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11754
Jacques Yves Guigné Philippe Blondel
•

Acoustic Investigation
of Complex Seabeds

123
Jacques Yves Guigné Philippe Blondel
Department of Physics Department of Physics
University of Bath University of Bath
Bath, Avon Bath, Avon
UK UK

and

Acoustic Zoom Ltd.

Paradise, NL
Canada

ISSN 2196-1212 ISSN 2196-1220 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Oceanography
ISBN 978-3-319-02578-0 ISBN 978-3-319-02579-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-02579-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016963742

© The Author(s) 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book, and all this work, would not have
been possible without the love and support of
Anna during all these decades, and I would
like to dedicate the book to her.
For my grandchildren Éric, Raya, Mila and
Loïc, to inspire them to the world of seabed
acoustics.
Jacques Yves Guigné

For my parents: role models,

encouragements and always present when
needed. For Olga, source of inspiration and
constant support. And for Diego, to share
with him the wonders of science and the
discovery of underwater frontiers.
Philippe Blondel
Preface

Marine environments are increasingly important to human activities, with

increasing exploration of our “Blue Planet” and with the development of resource
extraction and offshore construction in often challenging environments. For these
activities, we need an accurate knowledge of the seabed and what lies immediately
beneath it. Are there methane reservoirs frozen below a particular Arctic seabed?
What is the “plumbing system” below a field of hydrothermal vents? Can resources
be safely extracted from a particular area, or is the seabed unstable? Will the
installation of gravity bases for a large offshore wind farm be possible, or will the
location of the different turbines be constrained by the local geology? Will drilling
work in this site, or are there hidden obstacles that are going to block it? Or is there
a risk of punch through, affecting economic viability as well as risks to humans,
assets and the environment? Human activities also affect the marine environments,
and knowing how they do so is now essential. How does resource extraction affect
the subsurface geology? How do marine habitats fare with particular activities (e.g.
trawl fishing) or how well do they recover after these activities cease (e.g. Grand
Banks fishing moratorium)? How successful is a particular carbon capture and
storage facility in keeping CO2 safely in the ground? If siting an offshore structure
at one place, will it be safer or riskier than siting it 15 m away? All these questions,
and many more, are routinely faced by marine scientists and geotechnical
engineers.
This book is for them and for anyone interested in the discovery of what lies
below the seabed. Through fact-packed chapters, we aim to illustrate the evolution
of the Acoustic Interrogation of Complex Seabeds (the title of this book) from its
initial concepts to the answer products now available on the market. First author
Jacques Yves Guigné did his Ph.D. at the University of Bath and graduated in 1986,
with some key ideas about how to improve existing geoacoustic tools. He then
founded Guigné International Ltd. to pursue further the prototyping and experi-
mentation of these thoughts in collaboration with his academic role at C-CORE
(Memorial University of Newfoundland). He later cofounded PanGeo Subsea Inc.,
to develop the prototypes into commercial sub-seabed exploration tools. He also
founded Acoustic Zoom Inc., to expand on the physics behind the sonar-based

vii
viii Preface

sciences to new applications for unprecedented earth imaging. Jacques’ work earned
him the Rayleigh Medal, the premier award from the Institute of Acoustics (in 2013),
and a D.Sc. from the University of Bath (in 2014). This book is focused on Jacques’
work and his achievements and in particular the development and use in the field
of the Acoustic Corer now marketed by PanGeo Subsea Inc. (Canada). Second
author Philippe Blondel joined the University of Bath in 1999, where he has spe-
cialised in sonar mapping, developing multistatic sonars and writing textbooks such
as the Handbook of Sidescan Sonar (Springer, 2009) and Bathymetry and its
Applications (InTech, 2011). He is teaching physics to undergraduate and post-
graduate students and he is also deputy director of the Centre for Space, Atmospheric
and Oceanic Science (CSAOS). Both authors started collaborating and exchanging
ideas after their first meeting in 2007, and Jacques Yves Guigné is now a visiting
professor at the University of Bath.
This double authorship offers a double perspective to this book. The insights
of the inventor of many devices for acoustic seabed interrogation (ASI) result from
several decades of hard work, in the laboratory and in the field. This book aims to
explain the thought processes but also the everyday use at sea and how it compares
with other technical approaches. Springer Briefs are meant for “experienced read-
ers”, and in this spirit, we assume known the basics of underwater acoustics, marine
geophysics and seismic prospection. The reader desirous to know more (or refresh
some concepts) will be invited where necessary to look at specific references known
in the field, such as Applied Geophysics (Cambridge University Press, 1990),
written by W.M. Telford, L.P. Geldart and R.E. Sheriff, and An Introduction to
Underwater Acoustics (Springer, 2009), written by X. Lurton. Both books have
seen several editions, a strong measure of their success. Other references will be
presented wherever felt necessary.
We hope that this short book will help appreciate the challenges of acoustic
seabed interrogation and how this can be successfully addressed in even the most
complex environments with a new instrument (the Acoustic Corer) presented in a
variety of situations.

Paradise, NL, Canada Jacques Yves Guigné

Bath, UK Philippe Blondel
October 2016
Acknowledgements

All books are collaborative endeavours, and the science presented in a book could
not be brought to a wider audience without the dedication and hard work of a team
working behind the scene to “make it happen”. We are very fortunate (and very
grateful) that Springer accepted our book proposal, and we would like to thank in
particular Janet Sterritt-Brunner for her initial encouragements. During the writing,
we interacted with Devi Ignasy and Karthik Raj Selvaraj, whose patience with the
delays coming from very busy professional lives (and the odd health issues along
the way) was always much appreciated.
The making of this book would not have been possible without a mutual
colleague, who also happens to be a mutual friend and who made us meet at the
Underwater Acoustics Conference in 2007. Both authors would like to acknowl-
edge the guiding figure of Prof. Emeritus Nicholas G. Pace, as supervisor (some-
times) and role model (always). Nick started working in the Department of Physics
at the University of Bath in 1970, and he stayed there until his retirement a few
years ago. He was the Ph.D. supervisor of Jacques Yves Guigné (1982–1986) and
the line manager of Philippe Blondel (1999–2000). Nick’s strong preferences for
experimental work, his wide and extensive knowledge of the entire field of
underwater acoustics (from what had been published to what had been tried and
never published) and his guidance in translating laboratory experiments into
sea-based products were defining influences for both of us.
Throughout the three decades of research and development that led to the
Acoustic Corer and derived answer products, many students, technical staff and
scientists worked with Jacques at the various companies and institutions that
teamed up with him to deliver on the sciences. Selected mention is to be given to
Dr. Chris Pike, Dr. Richard Charron, Dr. Sam Bromley, Dr. Ian McDermott, Gary
Dinn and Adam Gogacz for their work and direct participation. Special thanks to
PanGeo Subsea for their support in particular to Ms. Moya Cahill, cofounder of the
firm that took the acoustic interrogation ideas into commercial applications. Special
mention is also gratefully made to the Canada National Research Council’s
Industrial Research Assistance Program who provided grants to Guigné to pursue

ix
x Acknowledgements

the various experimental trials that shaped the concept for interrogating the seabed
with acoustics to commercial applications.
Except as indicated, all figures were produced by the authors in their respective
lines of work. When presenting work spanning several decades and a wealth of
scientific publications, technical and commercial reports and general presentations,
omissions or misattributions are always a possibility. The authors will therefore be
very grateful for notification of any error, which will be corrected as soon as
possible, either online or in the next editions.
Contents

1 Acoustic Coring—The Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 The Need for Accurate Assessments of Sub-seabed Sediments . . . 1
1.2 Importance to Present Maritime Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 The Technology Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Filling the Gaps—The Case for “Acoustic Coring” . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2 Imaging of the Near-Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Capturing the Relevant Characteristics of Near-Surface
Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Buried Objects and Benthic Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Significance and Value—Moving Toward an Answer Product . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3 Imaging into the Seabed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Creating a Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Formulating the First Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 The Next Generation: The Acoustic Corer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 Data Processing—Coherent Summation and Flow Diagram . . . . . . 41
3.5 Processing Acoustic Corer Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.1 Data and Acquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.2 JYG-Cross Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.3 Synthetic Aperture—Rendering and Processing . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5.4 Combining Low-Frequency and High-Frequency
Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 61
3.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 62
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 63
4 Acoustic Seabed Interrogation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.1 Using the Low-Frequency (LF) JYG-Cross Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2 High-Frequency (HF) Identification of Non-specular Returns . . . . . 68

xi
xii Contents

4.3 Sizing and Identifying Individual Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.4 Acoustic Textures and Substrate Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.5 Combining with Other Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.5.1 Traditional Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.5.2 Investigations of Sites with Complex Geology . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.5.3 Gassy Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.6 Interpretations—Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5 The Future of Acoustic Seabed Interrogation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.1 Filling the Technology Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.2 Moving to New Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3 New Environments—New Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Abbreviations

AC Acoustic Corer
AGC Automatic Gain Control or Automatic Gain Correction
AMIE Acoustic Mapping and Interrogating Eye (portable, multistatic sonar)
ASI Acoustic Seabed Interrogator or Acoustic Sub-seabed Interrogator
(both concepts being equivalent in practice)
AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
BH Borehole
CDP Common Depth Point (the common reflection point at depth on a
sub-seabed reflector)
CMP Common Mid Point (the seabed point halfway between source and
receiver, and shared by numerous source-receiver pairs)
CPT Cone-Penetration Testing
CPU Central Processing Unit
CT Computed Tomography
DRUMS Dynamically Responding Underwater Matrix Sonar (part of
Benthic-DRUMS™, developed by Guigné and co-workers in the
1990s, and DRUMS® = R200 parametric sonar)
FK Frequency (f) and wavenumber (k) reference framework, resulting
from Fourier transformations in time and in space
GIL Guigné International Ltd.
GLORIA Geological Long-Range Inclined Asdic (early British sidescan sonar)
GNU Type of permissive, free software license (derived from the recursive
acronym “GNU’s Not Unix”, used in Unix-operated software)
GPU Graphical Processing Unit
GSF Generic Sensor Format (a GNU open format, available
at https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/res/pi/MB-System/formatdoc/gsf_
spec.pdf)
HF High-frequency
INS Inertial Navigation System

xiii
xiv Abbreviations

JYG-Cross Patented configuration of transducers, designed by Jacques Yves

Guigné (JYG)
LF Low-frequency
LFM Linear frequency modulation
MOU Mobile Offshore Unit
NMO Normal Move Out (compensation of the separation between acoustic
sources and receivers for a horizontal reflector)
QA Quality Assurance
ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle
SAS Synthetic Aperture Sonar (referring to either the instrument or the
mode of processing)
SAX Sediment Acoustics eXperiment (US research programmes known as
SA’99 and SAX’04)
SITAR Seafloor Imaging and Toxicity Assessment of Risks caused by buried
waste (EC research programme)
SPL Source Pressure Level
SVD Singular Value Decomposition (filtering technique)
UXO UneXploded Ordnance
Chapter 1
Acoustic Coring—The Rationale

Abstract The scope and ambition of marine geotechnical investigations have

greatly evolved over the last years. Offshore foundations, dredging operations of
harbours and channels, sub-seabed installations all place new demands on acquiring
more reliable knowledge on the composition of the seabed to address
cost-effectively the issues of buried geo-hazards, sediment property discontinuities
and trapped pollutants. This chapter shows the potential of physical sampling and
different remote sensing approaches, but also their limitations. The technology gap
can be addressed by designing an Acoustic Sub-seabed Interrogator (ASI), ideally
combining a range of low frequencies (to penetrate deeper into the seabed) and a
range of high frequencies (to enable higher vertical resolutions closer to the sur-
face). The use of a dense network of broadband receivers should allow capturing of
specular and non-specular returns, and bespoke data acquisition and processing
should give access to 3-D volumetric measurements. Its design should allow
deployments at all depths. The resulting acoustic corer should expand the horizontal
and vertical ranges of existing tools whilst preserving the best spatial resolutions
currently achievable.

Keywords Acoustic coring Offshore construction Sub-seabed Geotechnics


Borehole

Cone-penetration testing

Mobile Offshore Units Acoustics




Spudcans Punch-through Blowout

1.1 The Need for Accurate Assessments

of Sub-seabed Sediments

Industrial and environmental activities are steadily and increasingly turning toward
the marine environment, as technology developments enable greater access to its
resources. Traditional exploitation of oil and gas is now supplemented with
extraction of mineral deposits such as manganese or sulphide (e.g. Masuda et al.
2014). Renewable energies (tidal, wave and wind) and Carbon Capture and Storage
are expanding to adapt to climate changes and reduce the effects of CO2 in the

© The Author(s) 2017 1

J.Y. Guigné and P. Blondel, Acoustic Investigation of Complex Seabeds,
SpringerBriefs in Oceanography, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-02579-7_1
2 1 Acoustic Coring—The Rationale

atmosphere (IPCC 2014). All these activities are associated with some type of
offshore construction, ranging from single piles to caissons of different sizes,
trenched pipelines or more substantial structures. Sustainable management of
marine habitats makes use of long-term structures in/on the seabed, like fish pens
and cages (e.g. Pilley 2008). Renewable-energy devices are installed singly or,
increasingly, as large arrays (e.g. Amoudry et al. 2009). Similarly, seafloor
observatories around the world rely on instrumented nodes and long cables con-
necting them back to shores (e.g. Favali et al. 2015). Successful siting and operation
rely on accurate and timely knowledge of the properties of the seabed, and of
relevant objects immediately below the seabed (e.g. boulders preventing piling or
drilling, gas pockets affecting the stability or safety of operations).
Advances in acoustic mapping, particularly in the last decades, have allowed
unprecedented access to seabeds all around the world, at depths down to the full
11 km of the Mariana Trench, and with resolutions varying from hundreds of
metres to centimetres (e.g. Blondel 2009; Blondel 2012). These maps provide
generic information about sites of interest. Further detailed investigations are
necessary to measure the physical and behavioural properties of the soil in those
places, assessing for example how easy it will be to drill or emplace structures (are
there any boulders big enough to stop or slow offshore work?), and how the bulk of
the seabed will respond to loads varying with time (for example through extraction
of the underlying gas reservoir, or processes such as scouring).
Knowing the properties of the immediate sub-surface has traditionally relied on
direct, physical sampling, for example using Cone-Penetration Testing (CPT) or
boreholes. The information provided is only valid for small areas, of the order of
square meters or generally less, at a maximum of 50 m below the surface (Harris
et al. 2008; Stark et al. 2014). Technical limitations mean deployments are currently
restricted to seabeds shallower than ca. 3000 m (Lunne 2012). Finally, these
properties are likely to change with distance. Detailed geophysical mapping
between test sites, as typified by the 10–50 m grid of North Sea surveys (e.g.
Semple and Rigden 1983; Ruffell et al. 1985; De Ruiter and Fox 1975), has proven
in general successful for a first examination of the broad horizontal uniformity of
soils, but limited in dealing with near-surface, sub-seabed geo-hazards. Difficulties
also exist in knowing what constitutes reality, also known as “the ground truth”. For
example, despite a test density of about 1 borehole or CPT every 800 m2, pile
driving in the North Sea Forties field revealed significant variations in soil prop-
erties that were not predicted by the borings (De Ruiter and Fox 1975). These
unexpected variations were apparently influenced by the assumption that anoma-
lous strength data in a weak zone were due to sample disturbance. In situ tests,
while providing some relief from the problems of sample disturbance, may be
affected by fabric-related discontinuities on a scale larger than that affected by the
test procedure (Marsland 1985). In cases like the exploitation of surface deposits,
limited ground sampling might also preclude full-scale assessments of the prof-
itability of extraction (e.g. Masuda et al. 2014). Exploitation of gas hydrates will
require similar levels of information (e.g. Hart et al. 2011).
1.1 The Need for Accurate Assessments of Sub-seabed Sediments 3

Can remote sensing techniques help? Geophysical sensing techniques used for
land-based work (Telford et al. 1990), such as electromagnetic (including radar) or
gravity can provide some information, but they are often limited at sea by their
resolution and/or use of operation in water. Seismic and acoustic techniques are
therefore mostly used.1 High-resolution acoustic profiles are used to trace the
continuity of acoustic interfaces (i.e. reflectors), based on their distinct physical
properties (such as bulk density, shear modulus, Young’s modulus or Poisson’s
ratio). These profiles are generally gathered from towed or propelled systems such
as Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs). Scientific literature however shows clearly
that, under certain conditions, acoustic reflectors do not correlate well with
boundaries identified by geotechnical tests (e.g. Mayer 1979; Mayer and LeBlanc
1983; Guigné 1986). This situation can be caused by interactions between the finite
bandwidth of an outgoing acoustic pulse and the soil stratigraphy, or by soils
characterized by a high degree of inhomogeneity (e.g. glacial tills or boulder lags).
Acoustic attenuation will also vary with frequency: in most cases, it is not known a
priori and it is affected by the geometric spreading as the sound waves travel
through the sediments. These conditions give anomalous reflections and distorted or
masked stratigraphic profiles. Their spatial extents will be limited by the beam-
widths of the transducers used. And the vertical resolution will consist in a trade-off
between higher frequencies (higher resolution, but also lesser penetration into the
seabed) and lower frequencies (lower resolution, but less attenuation, therefore
deeper imaging).
Whether acquired by direct physical sampling or by acoustic/seismic remote
sensing, the datasets acquired by engineers and geophysicists by necessity include
gaps, over which empirical correlations can prove tenuous. Even with much field
experience, there is always the risk that, for whatever reason, discontinuities exist
precisely in the region over which the data is to be interpolated (Fig. 1.1).
Correlating between datasets, from whatever origin, is not easy. Quantitative results
are directly tied to the level of calibration of the instruments, and how this was
tested in the field (Lunne 2012). Achieving agreement between, for example,
acoustic and penetrometer data is only achievable if the lateral extent and the
variability of the different sediments is known when planning in situ cone tests. The
ability to develop offshore resources in a safe and cost-effective manner is therefore,
unsurprisingly, based on the accuracy of the acquired sub-seabed information.
Significant losses, mostly economic but also of equipment or lives in the most
extreme cases, can result if the information is inaccurate.

1
Although there is no clear-cut and generally agreed definition, “seismic” techniques are generally
meant to encompass all uses of acoustic waves with frequencies below 1 kHz (e.g. Telford et al.
1990) whereas “acoustic” techniques extend above 1 kHz, up to hundreds of kHz or higher (e.g.
Lurton 2010).
4 1 Acoustic Coring—The Rationale

Fig. 1.1 Top The standard piles used offshore approach five-meter diameters. Bottom A typical
buried boulder from the East Coast of Canada, wide enough to halt pile-driving if not detected in
time (PanGeo Subsea Inc. marketing archive, 2010)
1.2 Importance to Present Maritime Operations 5

1.2 Importance to Present Maritime Operations

Mobile Offshore Units are the traditional beneficiaries of detailed geotechnical

investigation, as their installation, operation and removal present particular risks
(Noble Denton 2013; UK Offshore Operators Association Ltd. 1997). Figure 1.2
shows how they are placed once towed onto the operation site. Accurate positioning
of the different platform legs requires good knowledge of the most stable places,
and the accurate identification of geohazards (to move away from them, or to
activate the necessary risk remediation measures) (Wong et al. 2010).
These mobile legs, called jack-ups, can have special footings (“spudcans”)
designed to increase their bearing area, thereby reducing the load requirements on
the sub-seabed immediately beneath each leg. They vary in size, the largest being
approximately 20 m in diameter.
Pre-loading is the most critical stage in placing a jack-up, as rapid penetration of
one or more legs may occur. A soil’s bearing capacity normally increases with
depth. But, when it is underlain by a weaker layer, there is a rapid reduction in soil
strength. As the spudcan reaches this interface, the weaker soil gives way and the

Fig. 1.2 Placement sequence of a Mobile Offshore Unit (Bennett and Associates 2005)
6 1 Acoustic Coring—The Rationale

support of the leg moves downward faster than the jacking system can maintain
stability of the hull. This shifts the weights relative to the supports, thereby
increasing the required footing reaction needed to maintain equilibrium. This
continues until either the soil’s bearing capacity or the hull buoyancy (when it
enters the water) restores equilibrium. This phenomenon is referred to as “punch
through”. The risk of a punch through increases as jack-ups are being required to
work in deeper water and in locations where they are subject to greater environ-
mental loads. The consequences of an uncontrolled rapid jack-up leg penetration
can be extremely costly to the operator. It may result in structural problems:
– leg bending and/or damage to the leg-hull connection; failure of leg elements;
lost time and lost revenue due to downtime and repairs;
– excessive penetration, resulting in the operator discovering the jack-up legs are
not long enough for the location; and catastrophic events such as the collapse of
the rig (Fig. 1.3).
Spudcans can leave impressions on the seabed once the Mobile Offshore Unit
has been removed, particularly in locations with soft seabeds. If another unit is later
installed, these old spudcan impressions can induce horizontal forces on one or
more legs, as the spudcan tries to conform to the earlier impression. Because it is

Fig. 1.3 Failure of the AD19 jack-up in Saudi Arabia, in September 2002, was associated to
“punch through” by one of the legs, which subsequently collapsed under the load. Photography by
Bienen (2011)
1.2 Importance to Present Maritime Operations 7

Fig. 1.4 Jack-up rig toppling as a result of placing footing in an old spudcan footprint

disconnected from the other spudcans, this movement will bend the legs, causing
damage during pre-loading, or reducing allowable storm environment loads.
Identification of old spudcan impressions should therefore be an important part of
the site investigation. Typically, old spudcan footprints will have steep-sided
impressions with highly compacted soil at the base (Fig. 1.4). If still exposed, the
acoustic contrast with the surrounding surficial sediments will generally be enough
that they can be identified using multibeam echosounders or sidescan sonars.
However, if buried, these footprints are extremely difficult or impossible to map with
accepted practices (seabed penetration at the frequencies used not being high enough).
Even “pristine” seabeds are not without their problems. Hard ground patches
represent another type of localized anomalies, because they will have load-bearing
pressures different from their surroundings. Like spudcan impressions, they can be
detected with traditional tools if exposed at the surface, and if there is enough
acoustic impedance contrast with its surroundings, but are much more difficult, or
impossible, to detect if buried.
The upper boundaries of bedrock are another type of risk, because of rock
pinnacles and cavities (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6). Erratic variation in rock head elevation
presents another risk to jack-up rig placement, especially if buried (again, this is
because the foundation forces will not be balanced, inducing strong risks of sliding
or toppling). Jack-up legs reaching cavities might fail to reach a contact surface on
which they can rest. Once grouting starts, to consolidate the pile positions, large
amounts of grout can also be pumped and lost within the cavities, affecting overall
stability. This is a common occurrence during piling operations in the Gulf of
Arabia, as recently observed by the lead author.
In some cases, the upper layers of the seabed might also directly overlay gases or
fluids under pressure. Accidental breaching of the capping layers might create direct
environmental and technical problems, like gas flares, blowouts or the release of
pollutants into the water (e.g. OGP 2000). This problem will be increasingly likely
8 1 Acoustic Coring—The Rationale

Fig. 1.5 Limestone formation exposed by erosion in Dukhan, Qatar. The structure shows different
layers and exposed cavities. Photography by Zitona [CC BY 2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zikreet_
rock_formations,_Dukhan,_Qatar.jpg)

as operations move toward previously exploited areas of the seabed, some of which
can be unevenly documented. For example, Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela has seen
more than a century of oil exploitation, with pipelines and other structures some-
times overlaying each other, some having been abandoned decades ago by now
untraceable operators. In other places, there is a risk of accidentally breaching into
gas or drilling fluid reservoirs left by previous operators. Similarly, the move
toward polar waters will increase risks of accessing gas hydrates close to the
surface, in waters made warmer by climate change.
Rapid expansion of the marine renewable energy sector is another driving factor
behind the need for accurate and competitive techniques of geophysical site inves-
tigation. A typical wind farm would consist in hundreds of turbines, pile-driving
several tens of metres into the seabed. Each foundation would be 40–60 m tall, 5-m
1.2 Importance to Present Maritime Operations 9

Fig. 1.6 Installation of offshore wind turbines requires specialist vessels and/or Mobile Offshore
Units, pile-driving at tens or hundreds of locations in a pattern made to maximise energy
generation. (Image credit Siemens, http://www.siemens.com/press/)

wide, weighing up to 530 tons (e.g. Sheringham Shoal, UK). Each pile would be
installed by Mobile Offshore Units needing stable positioning on the seabed, and its
position would need to follow an overall pattern designed to optimise energy gen-
eration from the farm. As tidal turbines progress from the prototype stage to actual
implementation, the same arguments will be made. In the case of renewable ener-
gies, the fact they are most often located close to shores and in areas of high
biodiversity add complexity to their installations: they need to take place at specific
times of years, or within specific timeframes, and the number of sites needs opti-
misation in respect to the ecological impacts of pile-driving (noise levels, dis-
placement or injury of specific animal species, etc.). Cost over-runs linked to
inaccurate geotechnical information will have the same detrimental effects as with
other offshore works, but will also run the risk of seriously affecting the project, as its
environmental cost will increase, potentially leading to cancellation.

1.3 The Technology Gap

The scope and ambition of marine geotechnical investigations have greatly evolved
over the last years. Offshore foundations, dredging operations of harbours and
channels, sub-seabed installations all place new demands on acquiring more reliable
10 1 Acoustic Coring—The Rationale

knowledge on the composition of the seabed to address cost-effectively the issues of

buried geo-hazards, sediment property discontinuities and trapped pollutants being
released into the water during excavation operations. The two approaches seen so far,
namely physical sampling and acoustic imaging, have time and again shown their
potentials, but also their limitations, even if used in conjunction.
Diver- or camera-assisted sampling, like video observations, only show a limited
view of the seabed. They can easily be limited by water turbidity (for video) and
bottom currents (for diver sampling). Physical coring and sampling, e.g. with CPT,
goes deeper below the surface, but still only provides information over very limited
areas/volumes. These samples are generally collected at great costs, limiting their
numbers and sampling density. As an illustration, the European Wind Energy
Association recently stated (EWEA 2016) that the cost of geotechnical survey and
foundation construction is “great” at 21% of the total capital cost of an offshore wind
farm. Modern geotechnical surveys cost approximately2 USD 11.7 M for a typical
500-MW wind farm (Crown Estate 2010). This can be associated to individual costs of
typically USD 16 k for a CPT test in shallow waters (25 m), for an operation time of
4 h, compared to USD 117 k for a borehole in deeper water (50 m), for 14 h of
operation or more (Foley 2014). Current estimates are that at least USD 250 M will
need to be spent annually just for wind farm projects in the North Sea. There are of
course many other types of offshore projects planned, and the North Sea is but a small
part of the world’s seas. Market data suggests this will lead to a doubling or tripling of
the current levels of spending, notwithstanding a very likely shortage in the supply of
equipment, suitable vessels and appropriately trained personnel.
If boulders are found in some places, limiting for example the extent of bore-
holes, how do the measurements connect to the “real” state of sub-seabed condi-
tions? And how can all these measurements be integrated? Use of geostatistical
methods to optimise site investigations (e.g. by De Smith et al. 2006; Ditlevsen and
Madsen 2007) aimed for example at reducing the number of boreholes necessary
for wind farm installations, but models of foundation costs vs. site investigation
costs (Stuyts et al. 2010) concluded that even the best geostatistical techniques still
gave uncertain results. The risk of failure is also compounded by the often strong
disconnect between what is recorded in a physical sample, and what is measured in
geotechnical strength tests, e.g. CPTs. The mismatch in spatial and temporal scales
is reinforced by the provision of data at different resolutions, and at distinct loca-
tions. Figure 1.7 compares for example the information obtained by a borehole
(left), CPT sampling (middle) and what is actually found by acoustic imaging
(right). The borehole has a typical spatial footprint of 2–12 inches (ca. 5–30 cm)
and identifies the vertical sequence of sediment layers. Conversely, the CPT only
measures resistance and has no associated, quantifiable spatial footprint. It provides
the vertical geotechnical changes within each of these layers. But only the

2
The original quoted values of £7.5 M, £10 k and £75 k were converted to US dollars and are
therefore estimates. The orders of magnitude will remain, although individual costs will of course
depend on sites and marine environments.
1.3 The Technology Gap 11

Fig. 1.7 Comparison of information provided by a borehole (left), a CPT (middle) and wider-area
acoustic imaging (right). The borehole correctly identifies the different sediment layers. The CPT,
located a few metres away, detects slight changes in soil resistance. But only the acoustic imaging
reveals that the upper sand layer is actually thinning in just a few metres, implying a very strong
risk of “punch through”. (prepared by Ian McDermott, PanGeo Subsea Inc. marketing material,
2010)

wider-area acoustic imaging reveals that the upper sand layer is actually thinning
over the course of a few metres. This would definitely affect any offshore instal-
lation (as spectacularly shown in Fig. 1.3).
Does this mean acoustics should always be preferred? Not necessarily so.
Surface-mapping tools such as multibeam echosounders or sidescan sonars are
good at mapping larger areas, but acoustic returns correspond mostly to backscatter
from the immediate surface of the seabed (Fig. 1.8). Higher-density soils, in this
case from previous spudcan impressions, show as stronger acoustic returns, mod-
ulated by the local topography and the angle of imaging (see Blondel 2009 and
Fig. 2.1, for details of how backscatter is affected by the geometry). Conventional
sub-bottom profiling will be less affected, as it images these features from directly
above (normal incidence), therefore relying on specular energy. Traditional data
processing, or more sophisticated acoustic profiling acquisitions with long receiver
12 1 Acoustic Coring—The Rationale

Existing Spudcan Impressions in the Seafloor

Fig. 1.8 Multibeam echosounder image of existing spudcan imprints on the seabed (Wong et al.
2010). Approximately 5 m in diameter, they are coded in blue. Note some of them show evidence
of scouring at their periphery, whereas smaller impressions on the seafloor are only visible because
of the purpose-defined colour scheme. The spudcan imprint highlighted with an arrow will be
analysed in more details later (Fig. 1.11)

offsets, render the data via migration/inversion protocols so as to discriminate

against the diffuse, non-specular energy, often treating it as noise. In many
instances, the very detail of the geological structure to be imaged is too small
(sub-wavelength scale) for a strong specular reflection to be built up laterally. The
textural character and detail of the sub-seabed is thus not always resolvable. Current
acoustic surveying approaches lack the ability to image the non-specular returns
that typify old buried spudcan impressions, patches of hard ground, punch through
potentials of thin, uneven sub-seabed formations, cavities, and rock pinnacles.
The technology gaps are therefore becoming clearer:
• There is a gap in scales between wide-area imaging techniques, such as seismics or
seabed mapping, and very localised ground sampling, such as boreholes or CPTs.
• There is a gap in resolutions between these two approaches. This can best be
addressed with another acoustic tool, which needs to be designed to provide
complementary information to existing techniques, if possible at lower costs, and
keeping the sub-seabed resolution as constant (and high) as possible (Fig. 1.9).
1.4 Filling the Gaps—The Case for “Acoustic Coring” 13

Fig. 1.9 The different approaches to geotechnical site investigation show a “technology gap”,
which can be filled by an “acoustic corer”, working in complement to existing measurements or as
a replacement if needed. (Image source Simmons and Company International—Information
Memorandum on PanGeo Subsea Inc., March 2012)

1.4 Filling the Gaps—The Case for “Acoustic Coring”

Acoustic “coring” should also make a fuller user of the rich information provided
by non-specular returns from complex sub-seabeds (Fig. 1.10). This requires sev-
eral receivers, emplaced where they will make the most use of the different com-
ponents of scattering: from the surface, from sediment layers, from heterogeneities,
from dipping large or small objects.

Sound source
Receivers

Fig. 1.10 Acoustic returns from the seabed and layers/objects below its surface make for a
complex set of information, which is best analysed using several receivers, and identifying both
specular and diffusive returns
14 1 Acoustic Coring—The Rationale

The concept of acoustic coring, also called Acoustic Sub-Seabed Interrogator

(ASI), was introduced in Guigné (1986) and refined over the years (e.g. Guigné
et al. 1989; Guigné 2015), building on technological advances, progress in signal
processing techniques, and field experience all over the world. It addresses the
following concepts, presented in more detail in the following chapters:
– The ASI source will ideally be fixed on a stationary platform, allowing the
concurrent use of multiple data acquisition protocols. It will need to use a range
of low frequencies (to penetrate deeper into the seabed) and a range of high
frequencies (to enable higher vertical resolutions closer to the surface). Ideally,
it should use the interaction between these frequencies to increase the resolution
(suggesting the possibility of combining sources to form parametric arrays,
whose narrow beamwidths will enable higher horizontal vertical resolutions).
– The different receivers will need to cover a dense area, with horizontal
dimensions greater than 5 m and typically 12 m or more. These receivers will
need to be broadband, and they will use beam steering to focus on specific
reflectors. They will move in a controlled manner in the same plane as the
source transmitters for a wide range of possible emergent ray angles. They will
be organised as a phased array of hydrophones, to capture the time histories of
the returns and quantify beam spreading for particular reflectors. Focusing on an
emergent beam angle of interest is a powerful criterion of an ASI, allowing
particularly weak or distorted signals to be analyzed. The dynamic operation of
the transmitters and receivers will be controlled by a logical unit that uses
real-time processing.
– Data interrogation is done by first processing it into a volume whereby a
layer-by-layer (or depth slice where stratigraphy is obscured or lacking) data
analysis can be made to examine both the specular nature of stratigraphic layers
and the non-specular responses of discontinuous features such as boulders,
resulting in an “acoustic core” (Fig. 1.11). A sequential analysis of the time
histories (data traces) can be presented graphically. Bathymetry, layer thickness,
seismic velocities, attenuation, and other data such as the extent of seabed
inhomogeneity or internal scattering (attenuation) can also be emphasized to
allow for a thorough analysis of what truly characterizes the geotechnical nature
of a sub-seabed.
Typical acoustic cores quantify 3-D scattering in a cylinder-shaped volume, with
horizontal dimensions greater than 5 m (typically >12 m), extending down to 10 m
or more. How do they compare with other tools?
An acoustic core records variations of acoustic scattering, and strong intensities
correlate well with high CPT resistance values (Fig. 1.12). Figure 1.7, similarly,
showed strong correlation with CPT results, and the added benefits of imaging an
entire volume, sometimes highlighting unexpected discontinuities.
1.4 Filling the Gaps—The Case for “Acoustic Coring” 15

Fig. 1.11 “Acoustic corer” view of the jack-up spudscan highlighted with an arrow in Fig. 1.8.
Top Plan view, showing smaller circular imprints, interpreted here as reactions to the weight of the
CPT frame on the seafloor. Bottom Cross-section through the XZ profile, showing the depth
resolution and revealing differences between imprints A1 and A2, which appeared similar in the
plan view. (PanGeo Subsea Inc. Acoustic Corer Baltic 1 Survey Interpretive Report for EnBW
Ostsee Offshore GmbH February 2010)

Acoustic coring provides much more detail than would be achieved by con-
ventional seismic surveys, and the resolution does not degrade with distance from
the source, contrary to single-beam profiling. Compared to sidescan sonar or
multibeam echosounding, acoustic coring has the obvious advantage of penetrating
into the seabed to controllable depths. It also adds the benefit of multiple views
from the same objects. Using SAS rendering (see Chap. 3) and beamforming,
signals scattered by boulders and similar discontinuities can be analysed in the
directions of highest scatter, better capturing the details of complex seabeds.
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House-rule, in Southern Nigeria, 62, 63

Ibadan, 78, 80, 81, 85, 110, 196, 218, 224

Idah, 96
Ilorin, 99, 127, 177, 202, 203
Islam, in Nupe, 29
in Zaria, 35-41
as a political and social force, 47, 48, 111-112
in Lagos, 72
in Yorubaland, 77
Othman’s jihad, 99
formative of Nigerian civilization, 103, 140-141, 149
morning prayer in Hausaland, 111-112
etiquette at Mohammedan Courts, 130
Emir of Kano’s views, 133-135
inadvisability of interference with, 153
as a reforming force, 156-157
as a spiritual influence, 164-165
and Christianity in Southern Nigeria, 213-220
as a preservative to national life, 213-220, 260

Kabba, province of, 202, 203.

(See under Mining.)
Kaduna, river, 31, 180
Kakandas, the, 171
Kano, Province and Emirate of, 115-116, 130, 138-139, 145,
147, 153, 167, 177, 192-193, 202-206, 229, 232, 236, 239,
241
city of, 45, 91, 121, 123-129, 133, 146, 163, 166, 191, 195
Emir of, 45, 130-135, 148, 153, 164
native administration of, 145-150
Katagum, Emirate of, 130, 236, 239
Katsina, city, Emirate and Province of, 123, 124, 130, 153, 236,
239, 241-242
Kingsley, the late Miss Mary, Dedication, Introduction, 248
Kitson, Mr., 176
Kontagora, 138, 202

Lagos, 51, 63, 71-75, 76, 83, 84, 91, 110, 195, 203, 218
Land, Nigerian tenure of, Introduction, 83-84, 117, 140-144.
(See under British policy.)
and Natives’ Rights Proclamation, 143
legislation in Northern and Southern Nigeria, 188
Lander, Richard, 45
Lever Bros., Ltd., 54
Life, preservation of national, 151-154
Lignite, 175-176
Liquor traffic, problem of, 66, 245-261
Liruei-n-Delma, 177
Liruei-n-Kano, 121, 177, 178
Loko, 183
Lokoja, 46, 94, 97, 110, 163, 171, 203
Lugard, Sir Frederick, 46, 123, 131, 134, 136, 142

MacGregor Laird, 46
Merchants, British, 95, 96, 153, 172-174, 227, 243
Mining Development, 175-183.
(See under Tin and Bauchi.)
Minna, 195
Moor, Sir Ralph, 58
Mungo Park, 45
Muri, Province of, 138, 170, 177, 202-203

Naraguta, 180, 183-184, 191

Nassarawa, Province of, 138, 177, 231
national schools at, 161-165.
(See under Education.)
Native Races and Liquor Traffic United Committee, 254, etc.
(See under Liquor.)
Niger, delta of, 49-54, 218, 223
river, 51, 75, 91-97, 124, 180, 195, 202, 203
Province, 138, 167, 202, 243
old civilizations of, 155
company, 166, 172, 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 191
Nigeria, importance of, 47
size of, 47, 49, 63, 138
need for public interest in, 48
flora of, 10, 29, 36, 50, 51, 52, 113, 114, 170
history of, 98-104
self-sufficing character, 119, 171
a land of contrasts, 72, 184
anomalous position of Northern Protectorate, 190
comparison with American cotton belt, 222
Nigerian, perils which beset him, Introduction, 245-248
false ideas about, 247-249, 260
his alleged callousness, 13
as a carrier, 14-17
his modesty and courtesy, 19-23
his dancing, 31-32
as a fisherman, 34
as a trader, 50-52, 107-110, 125-127
his capacity for labour, 57-58, 181-182
his spiritual side, 24, 28, 67, 111-112, 155-159
 as an agriculturist, 112, 113, 118, 120, 172, 185, 224, 228,
231, 233-237
as a cotton manufacturer, 121, 127, 185
as a dyer, 121
as a tanner, 121, 127, 163-164
as an artisan, 119, 120, 121
as a smelter, 6, 120-121, 177-178, 185
as a potter, 128
as a herdsman, 118-119
his law-abiding character, 146-147
his probity in Kano, 147
as an intéllectuel and reformer, 157-158
his capacity for self-government on indigenous lines, 130-
159.
(See under British policy, Trade, Kano, Railways,
Education, Islam, Cotton, Tin, Hausa, Fulani, Yoruba,
Othman Fodio, etc.)
Ningi, country and people of, 184
Nupe, people of, 29-31, 126, 171, 218
soap, 129

Officials, labours of British, 6, 7, 30, 31, 41, 65-66, 104, 137,

143, 154, 190-191, 244
Oil palm and its products, 52-55.
(See under Trade.)
Old Calabar, 51, 73, 202
Onitsha, 176, 218
Oshogbo, 202-203, 224-225
Othman Fodio, 99-101, 118, 157, 159
Oyo, city of, 78, 203, 218, 225
Alafin of, 80, 81, 87
Railways and railway policy, 91, 167, 183, 194-200, 239
Rat-catchers of Kano, 146
Religions, African, 24-28, 35, 67-68, 218.
(See under Islam.)
Revenue, method of distribution in Northern Nigeria, 147-148.
(See under British policy and Amalgamation.)
Road, the great white, 7, 8-13, 28
the Riga-Chikum-Naraguta, 182, 183
its rôle in social life, 218
Roman Catholics, 11, 27, 252
Ross, Mr. W. A., 84
Rubber, in Bauchi and in the Benue region, 170-185
in Benin, 69

Salaries of officials in Northern Nigeria, 192

Sallah, the, at Zaria, 35-41
Sarbah, the late John Mensah, Introduction
Shuwas, the, 170
Sokoto, 12, 100, 116, 126, 138, 153, 170, 117, 203, 218
Songhay, Empire of, 156

Taxation, Hausa and Fulani system of, 120, 140.

(See under British policy and Fulani.)
Jangali or cattle tax, 169-170
Temple, Mr. Charles, Preface, 147
Thompson, Mr. H. N., 61
Thomson, Mr. Joseph, 45
Tin, 124, 127, 128, 166, 232.
(See under Mining.)
Trade, internal, 12, 107-110, 120-122, 127-128, 217-218
external, 50-53, 121-122, 154, 166-174
Trees, destruction of, 10-12, 59, 84
Tripoli, 124, 127, 128, 166, 232
Tugwell, Right Rev. Bishop, 250.
(See under Liquor traffic.)

Udi, district of, 176

Vischer, Mr. Hanns, 164.

(See under Education and Nassarawa.)

Wallace, Sir William, 150, 178

Warri, 51, 203
Wesleyan Missionaries, 252
Williams, Hon. Sapara, 253
Women, European, in Nigeria, 192
Wyndham Dunstan, Professor, 150, 178

Yola, province of, 138, 163, 202

Yorubas, the, and their country, 74-88, 99, 140, 171, 203, 218,
221, 227, 229.
(See under Abeokuta, Ibadan, Oyo.)
Young, Mr., 79

Zaria, Province and Emirate of, 167, 202-203, 229, 236, 237,
241
city of, 35, 46, 127, 237-238
Emir of, 39, 40
 Court fool of, 38
learned families of, 100
old pagan customs of, 157
missionaries in, 153
Zinder, 239, 241
Zungeru, 148, 191, 195, 202

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