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Emil Vassev
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144
Nature of Computation
and Communication
International Conference, ICTCC 2014
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, November 24–25, 2014
Revised Selected Papers
123
Lecture Notes of the Institute
for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics
and Telecommunications Engineering 144
Editorial Board
Ozgur Akan
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
Paolo Bellavista
University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Jiannong Cao
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Falko Dressler
University of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
Domenico Ferrari
Universitá Cattolica Piacenza, Piacenza, Italy
Mario Gerla
UCLA, Los Angels, USA
Hisashi Kobayashi
Princeton University, Princeton, USA
Sergio Palazzo
University of Catania, Catania, Italy
Sartaj Sahni
University of Florida, Florida, USA
Xuemin (Sherman) Shen
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
Mircea Stan
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA
Jia Xiaohua
City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Albert Zomaya
University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Geoffrey Coulson
Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8197
Phan Cong Vinh · Emil Vassev
Mike Hinchey (Eds.)
Nature of Computation
and Communication
International Conference, ICTCC 2014
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
November 24–25, 2014
Revised Selected Papers
ABC
Editors
Phan Cong Vinh Mike Hinchey
Nguyen Tat Thanh University Irish Software Engineering Research Centre
Ho Chi Minh City Lero at University of Limerick
Vietnam Limerick
Ireland
Emil Vassev
Lero at University of Limerick
Limerick
Ireland
ISSN 1867-8211 ISSN 1867-822X (electronic)

Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics
and Telecommunications Engineering
ISBN 978-3-319-15391-9 ISBN 978-3-319-15392-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-15392-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015930815
Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

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Preface
ICTCC 2014 was an international scientific conference for research in the field of
nature of computation and communication held during November 24–25, 2014 in
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The aim of the conference was to provide an internation-
ally respected forum for scientific research related to the natural aspects of computation
and communication. This conference provided an excellent opportunity for researchers
to discuss natural approaches and techniques for computation and communication. The
proceedings of ICTCC 2014 were published by Springer in series Lecture Notes of the
Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineer-
ing (LNICST) (indexed by DBLP, EI, Google Scholar, Scopus, Thomson ISI).
For this edition, the Program Committee received over 100 submissions from 20
countries and each paper was reviewed by at least three expert reviewers. We chose 34
papers after intensive discussions held among the Program Committee members. We re-
ally appreciate the excellent reviews and lively discussions of the Program Committee
members and external reviewers in the review process. This year we chose three promi-
nent invited speakers, Prof. Mike Hinchey, Director of Lero (the Irish Software Engi-
neering Research Centre) at University of Limerick in Ireland; Prof. Giacomo Cabri
from University of Modena and Reggio Emilia in Italy and Dr. Phan Cong Vinh from
Nguyen Tat Thanh University in Vietnam. The abstracts of their talks were included in
these proceedings.
ICTCC 2014 was jointly organized by The European Alliance for Innovation (EAI)
and Nguyen Tat Thanh University (NTTU). This conference could not have been or-
ganized without the strong support from the staff members of both organizations. We
would especially like to thank Prof. Imrich Chlamtac (University of Trento and Create-
NET), Sinziana Vieriu (EAI), and Elisa Mendini (EAI) for their great help in organizing
the conference. We also appreciate the gentle guidance and help from Dr. Nguyen Manh
Hung, Chairman and Rector of NTTU.
November 2014 Phan Cong Vinh

Emil Vassev
Mike Hinchey
Organization
Steering Committee
Imrich Chlamtac CREATE-NET and University of Trento, Italy
Phan Cong Vinh Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Vietnam
Organizing Committee
General Chair
Phan Cong Vinh Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Vietnam
Technical Program Committee Chairs

Dang Quang A Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology,
Vietnam
Nguyen Thanh Tung Ha Noi Vietnam National University, Vietnam
Technical Program Committee Session or Track Leader

Nguyen Van Phuc Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Vietnam
Workshops Committee Chair

Nguyen Van Luong Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Vietnam
Publications Committee Chair

Nguyen Kim Quoc Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Vietnam
Marketing and Publicity Committee Chair

Le Tuan Anh Posts and Telecommunications Institute
of Technology, Vietnam
Patron Sponsorship and Exhibits Committee Chair

Bach Long Giang Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Vietnam
VIII Organization
Panels and Keynotes Committee Chairs

Vangalur Alagar Concordia University, Canada
Emil Vassev University of Limerick, Ireland
Demos and Tutorials Committee Chairs

Ashish Khare University of Allahabad, India
Nguyen Thanh Binh Ho Chi Minh City University
Posters Committee Chair

Do Nguyen Anh Thu Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Vietnam
Industry Forum Committee Chair

Le Huy Ba Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Vietnam
Special Sessions Committee Chair

Jason Jung Yeungnam University, South Korea
Local Arrangements Committee Chair

Nguyen Tuan Anh Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Vietnam
Web Site Committee Chair

Thai Thi Thanh Thao Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Vietnam
Technical Program Committee

Abdur Rakib The University of Nottingham, UK
Aniruddha Bhattacharjya Amrita University, India
Asad Masood Khattak Kyung Hee University, South Korea
Ashad Kabir Swinburne University of Technology, Australia
Ashish Khare University of Allahabad, India
Charu Gandhi Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, India
Chien-Chih Yu National ChengChi University, Taiwan
David Sundaram The University of Auckland, New Zealand
Organization IX
Dinh Duc Anh Vu University of Information Tecnology – HCMVNU,

Vietnam
Do Thanh Nghi Can Tho University, Vietnam
Emil Vassev University of Limerick, Ireland
Gabrielle Peko The University of Auckland, New Zealand
Giacomo Cabri University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
Govardhan Aliseri Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
Hyderabad, India
Hoang Huu Hanh Hue University, Vietnam
Huynh Quyet Thang Hanoi University of Science and Technology,
Vietnam
Huynh Trung Hieu Ho Chi Minh City University of Industry, Vietnam
Huynh Xuan Hiep Can Tho University, Vietnam
Issam Damaj American University of Kuwait, Kuwait
Jason Jung Yeungnam University, South Korea
Jonathan Bowen Birmingham City University, UK
Krishna Asawa Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, India
Kurt Geihs University of Kassel, Germany
Le Tuan Anh Posts and Telecommunications Institute
Ly Quoc Ngoc Ho Chi Minh City University of Science-
HCMVNU, Vietnam
Mubarak Mohammad Concordia University, Canada
Ngo Quoc Viet Ho Chi Minh City Pedagogical University, Vietnam
Nguyen Dinh Thuc Ho Chi Minh City University of
Science – HCMVNU, Vietnam
Nguyen Thanh Thuy University of Engineering and
Technology – HNVNU, Vietnam
Nong Thi Hoa Thai Nguyen University of Information Technology
and Communication, Vietnam
Ondrej Krejcar University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Pham Ngoc Hung University of Engineering and
Technology – HNVNU, Vietnam
Pham The Bao Ho Chi Minh City University of
Science – HCMVNU, Vietnam
Tran Dinh Que Posts and Telecommunications Institute of
Technology, Vietnam
Tran Van Lang Institute of Applied Mechanics and Informatics,
Vietnam
Vangalur Alagar Concordia University, Canada
Vikas Saxena Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, India
Vo Thanh Tu Hue University, Vietnam
Vo Viet Minh Nhat Hue University, Vietnam
Waralak V. Siricharoen UTCC, Thailand
Yaser Jararweh Jordan University of Science and Technology,
Jordan
X Organization
List of Reviewers
Anuranjan Misra Bhagwant Institute of Technology, India
Apostolos Syropoulos Freelance Researcher, Greece
Chandresh Chhatlani Janardan Rai Nagar Rajasthan
Vidyapeeth University, India
Christer Karlsson South Dakota School of Mines and Technology,
USA
Do Anh Tuan Hung Yen University of Technology and Education,
Vietnam
Hatem Zakaria Benha University, Egypt
Ibrahim Kucukkoc University of Exeter, UK
Ingyu Lee Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology,
South Korea
José Santos Reyes University of A Coruña, Spain
Maha Abdelhaq National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Masoud Rahiminezhad
Galankashi University of Technology, Malaysia
Nguyen Dang University of Information Technology –
HCMVNU, Vietnam
Nguyen Le Thu People Security Academy, Vietnam
Nguyen Thanh Phuong Polytechnic University of Bari, Italy
Rajiv Singh University of Allahabad, India
Ramu Balu Bharathiar University, India
Shervan Fekri Ershad Amin University, Iran
Suleman Khan University of Malaya, Malaysia
The Anh Han Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
Vishal Gupta Utttarakhand Technical University, India
Walter Delashmit Independent Consultant, USA
Yilun Shang Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
Contents
Formal Methods for Self-Adaptive Systems
Modular Design and Verification of Distributed Adaptive

Real-Time Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Thomas Göthel and Björn Bartels
Modeling Swarm Robotics with KnowLang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Emil Vassev and Mike Hinchey
Reasoning on Data Streams: An Approach to Adaptation

in Pervasive Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Nicola Bicocchi, Emil Vassev, Franco Zambonelli, and Mike Hinchey
Autonomic Computing Software for Autonomous Space Vehicles . . . . . . . . 33

Carlos C. Insaurralde and Emil Vassev
Logic-Based Modeling of Information Transfer in Cyber-Physical

Multi-Agent Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Christian Kroiß and Tomáš Bureš
Nature of Computation and Communication
Categorical Structures of Self-adaptation in Collective Adaptive Systems . . . 55

Phan Cong Vinh
Self-adaptive Traits in Collective Adaptive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Phan Cong Vinh and Nguyen Thanh Tung
A Context-Aware Traffic Engineering Model for Software-Defined

Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Phuong T. Nguyen, Hong Anh Le, and Thomas Zinner
Efficient k-Nearest Neighbor Search for Static Queries Over High Speed
Time-Series Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Bui Cong Giao and Duong Tuan Anh
Reconstructing Low Degree Triangular Parametric Surfaces Based on Inverse

Loop Subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Nga Le-Thi-Thu, Khoi Nguyen-Tan, and Thuy Nguyen-Thanh
Maximizing the Lifetime of Wireless Sensor Networks with the Base

Station Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Nguyen Thanh Tung, Dinh Ha Ly, and Huynh Thi Thanh Binh
XII Contents
Establishing Operational Models for Dynamic Compilation

in a Simulation Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Nghi Quang Huynh, Tram Huynh Vo, Hiep Xuan Huynh,
and Alexis Drogoul
MetaAB - A Novel Abundance-Based Binning Approach

for Metagenomic Sequences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Van-Vinh Le, Tran Van Lang, and Tran Van Hoai
An Application of PCA on Uncertainty of Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Santi Phithakkitnukoon
Sensing Urban Density Using Mobile Phone GPS Locations: A Case Study
of Odaiba Area, Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Teerayut Horanont, Santi Phithakkitnukoon, and Ryosuke Shibasaki
Co-modeling: An Agent-Based Approach to Support the Coupling

of Heterogeneous Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Nghi Quang Huynh, Hiep Xuan Huynh, Alexis Drogoul,
and Christophe Cambier
Adaptive Distributed Systems with Cellular Differentiation Mechanisms . . . . 171

Ichiro Satoh
Slowdown-Guided Genetic Algorithm for Job Scheduling in Federated

Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Eloi Gabaldon, Josep L. Lerida, Fernando Guirado, and Jordi Planes
Measurement of Cloud Computing Services Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Jakub Pavlik, Vladimir Sobeslav, and Ales Komarek
Security Aspects of Cloud Based Mobile Health Care Application . . . . . . . . 202

Richard Cimler, Jan Matyska, Ladislav Balik, Josef Horalek,
and Vladimir Sobeslav
New NHPP SRM Based on Generalized S-shaped Fault-Detection

Rate Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Nguyen Hung-Cuong and Huynh Quyet-Thang
Enhancement of Innovation Co-creation Processes and Ecosystems

Through Mobile Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Tracey Yuan Ting Wong, Gabrielle Peko, and David Sundaram
Design and Implementation of Sustainable Social Shopping Systems . . . . . . 233

Claris Yee Seung Chung, Roman Proskuryakov, and David Sundaram
Contents XIII
Developing Method for Optimizing Cost of Software Quality Assurance

Based on Regression-Based Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Vu Dao-Phan, Thang Huynh-Quyet, and Vinh Le-Quoc
Un-normlized and Random Walk Hypergraph Laplacian

Un-supervised Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Loc Hoang Tran, Linh Hoang Tran, and Hoang Trang
Graph Based Semi-supervised Learning Methods Applied to Speech

Recognition Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Hoang Trang and Loc Hoang Tran
Updating Relational Databases with Linguistic Data

Based on Hedge Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Le Ngoc Hung, Vu Minh Loc, and Hoang Tung
Primacy of Fuzzy Relational Databases Based on Hedge Algebras . . . . . . . . 292

Le Ngoc Hung and Vu Minh Loc
Reducing Impurities in Medical Images Based on Curvelet Domain . . . . . . . 306

Vo Thi Hong Tuyet and Nguyen Thanh Binh
Increasing the Quality of Medical Images Based on the Combination

of Filters in Ridgelet Domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Nguyen Thanh Binh, Vo Thi Hong Tuyet, and Phan Cong Vinh
Efficient Pancreas Segmentation in Computed Tomography

Based on Region-Growing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Tran Duc Tam and Nguyen Thanh Binh
Object Classification Based on Contourlet Transform in Outdoor

Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Nguyen Thanh Binh
Motion Detection Based on Image Intensity Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

Pham Bao Quoc and Nguyen Thanh Binh
Vehicle Tracking in Outdoor Environment Based on Curvelet Domain . . . . . 360

Nguyen Thanh Binh
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Formal Methods
for Self-Adaptive Systems
Modular Design and Verification of Distributed
Adaptive Real-Time Systems
Thomas Göthel(B) and Björn Bartels
Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany

{thomas.goethel,bjoern.bartels}@tu-berlin.de
Abstract. We present and apply a design pattern for distributed adap-

tive real-time systems using the process calculus Timed CSP. It provides
a structured modelling approach that is able to cope with the complex-
ity of distributed adaptive real-time systems caused by the interplay
of external stimuli, internal communication and timing dependencies.
The pattern allows to differentiate between functional data and adaptive
control data. Furthermore, we enable the modular verification of func-
tional and adaptation behaviour using the notion of process refinement
in Timed CSP. The verification of refinements and crucial properties is
automated using industrial-strength proof tools.
Keywords: Adaptive Systems · Modelling · Verification · Timed CSP
1 Introduction
Modern adaptive systems are distributed among different network nodes. One of
the advantages of (distributed) adaptive systems is their robustness, which must
not be corrupted by single points of failures as provoked by centralized compo-
nents. Thus, adaptation of the entire network’s behaviour should be distributed
as well. This means that adaptive components should be able to adapt both,
their local behaviour and the behaviour of the overall network. This, however,
makes these systems very complex to design and analyse.
In this paper, we present a generic design pattern for distributed adaptive
real-time systems. Its aim is threefold. First, it describes an architecture, which
helps formally designing adaptive systems. Second, it enables a strict separa-
tion of functional and adaptation behaviour. Third, due to this separation, it
allows for modular refinement of adaptive systems and thereby facilitates formal
verification of possibly crucial properties.
As in our previous work [3], we enable the refinement-based verification
of adaptation and functional behaviour. However, in this work we focus on a
strict distinction between functional data and control data following [4]. This
enables the separate verification of functional and adaptive properties. A func-
tional component manipulates its functional data but may be controlled by pos-
sibly dynamic control data that can only be changed by some corresponding
adaptation component. The adaptation component gathers information of the

P.C. Vinh et al. (Eds.): ICTCC 2014, LNICST 144, pp. 3–12, 2015.
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-15392-6 1
4 T. Göthel and B. Bartels
functional component, which it uses for an analysis concerning whether or not

adaptation is necessary. Then, a plan is created that results in new control data,
which is finally set in the functional component or sent to another distributed
adaptive component. The separation of functional and control data allows for
the clear separation of functional and adaptation components, which allows for
modular verification. We show how this idea can be modelled and verified with
Timed CSP in a modular and stepwise manner using automatic tool support.
The rest of this paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, we briefly intro-
duce the process calculus Timed CSP and then discuss related work in Section 3.
In Section 4, we introduce our timed adaptive specification pattern and discuss
its refinement and verification capabilities. We illustrate the benefits of our app-
roach using an example in Section 5. Finally, we conclude the paper in Section 6
and give pointers to future work.
2 Timed CSP
Timed CSP is a timed extension of the CSP (Communicating Sequential Processes)
process calculus [9]. It enables the description and the compositional refinement-
based verification of possibly infinite-state real-time systems. To this end, process
operators like Prefix (a -> P), Sequential Composition (P ; Q), External Choice (P
[] Q), Internal Choice (P |~| Q), Parallel Composition (P [|A|] Q), Hiding (P \
A), and special timed operators like WAIT(t) are used. A discretely-timed dialect
of Timed CSP that is amenable to automatic model checking techniques is tock-
CSP. Here, the passage of time is explicitly modelled using a distinguished event
tock. In FDR3 [5], which is the standard tool for CSP, tock-CSP is supported via
timed operators and the prioritise operator with the internal τ event and other
events can be given priority over tock. This is necessary to inherit the notion of
refinement and its compositional features from Timed CSP. Refinement is usually
considered in the semantical traces or failures model. This means, for example, that
the refinement P T Q expresses that traces(Q) ⊆ traces(P ) where traces( )
denotes all finite traces of a process.
3 Related Work
Dynamic reconfiguration of systems is supported by the architecture description
language (ADL) Dynamic Wright presented in [2]. Reconfiguration of interact-
ing components is modelled separately from steady-state behaviour in a central
specification. Our work aims to support the stepwise construction of distributed
adaptive systems in which adaptation is realised in a decentralised way.
The work in [1] provides a development approach for adaptive embedded
systems starting with model-based designs in which adaptation behaviour is
strictly separated from functional behaviour. Verification is based on transition
systems which are connected by input and output channels. Our approach aims
to support development processes for adaptive systems with the powerful notion
of CSP refinement and the mature proof tools for automatic refinement checking.
Modular Design and Verification of Distributed Adaptive Real-Time Systems 5
In [7], CSP is used to model self-adaptive applications where nodes in a network

learn from the behaviour of other nodes. Behavioural rules of nodes are described
by CSP processes, which are communicated between the nodes and used to adapt
the individual behaviour. Our work focusses on modelling entire adaptive systems
and verifying properties of the modelled systems.
Timed automata are used in [6] for modelling and verifying a decentralised
adaptive system. Verification of crucial properties is done using the Uppaal model
checker. In contrast, we focus on the stepwise development of and modular ver-
ification of distributed timed adaptive systems.
In [8], a UML-based modelling language for untimed adaptive systems is
presented. Based on its formal semantics, deadlock freedom and stability can
be verified. Our work enables the stepwise development and furthermore the
verification of general functional and adaptation properties in a timed setting.
In [3], we have presented an approach for the specification and verification of
untimed distributed adaptive systems in CSP. A main goal of this work was the
separation of functional behaviour from adaptation behaviour. The application
of this framework in [10] has shown that the high level of abstraction becomes
problematic when supplementing the adaptive system model with functional
behaviours. While functional and adaptation events and also their respective
parts of the system variables are separated, it remains rather unclear how the
interface between them can be modelled in a systematic manner. This drawback
is addressed in this paper. Furthermore, we introduce mechanisms to specify and
verify timed adaptive behaviour.
4 Timed Adaptive System Pattern

In this section, we introduce an abstract pattern for timed adaptive systems.
It describes a general structure of timed adaptive systems, which is amenable
to modular refinement-based verification. In Figure 1, the overall architecture is
illustrated. We consider adaptive systems that consist of a network of adaptive
components (AC(i)) that communicate using channels. Communication chan-
nels are categorised, depending on their origin, as either functional channels
(FE) or adaptation channels (EA). A single component can perform some com-
putation (also depicted by FE) or adapt its internal behaviour (IA) due to the
violation of some (local) invariant. Internal adaptation can also be triggered by
an internal timeout (TO). Timeouts can, for example, be used to indicate that
during a certain amount of time, functional events of a certain class have not
been communicated. When some internal adaptation takes place, other compo-
nents can be triggered to adapt their behaviour accordingly using EA events
as introduced above. The environment interacts with the adaptive system using
functional events only. As it might be necessary to restrict the behaviour of the
environment, it can be constrained using the process ENV.
In a model-driven development process, an abstract design is continuously
refined until an implementation model is reached. To start with more abstract
models offers the advantage that properties can be verified, whose verifica-
tion would be too complex on more concrete levels. Below, we sketch how the

Fig. 1. Architecture of our Adaptive Pattern
described pattern can be formally defined on an abstract level in Timed CSP

and how it can be refined in a stepwise way so that the verification of properties
can be performed in a modular manner. The primary focus of the models lies
on the separation of functional behaviour and adaptation behaviour. The refine-
ment calculus of Timed CSP allows us to verify both of these aspects separately
while leaving out concrete details of the respective other part. In addition to
functional and adaptive behaviour, also timing behaviour can be specified and
verified. To this end, we use the real-time capabilities of Timed CSP and FDR3.
4.1 Abstract Model

The overall adaptive system consists of a set of (distributed) adaptive compo-
nents. Each such component consists of an adaptation component, a functional
component, and, if necessary, a timer.
AdaptiveComponent ( i ) = (AC( i ) [ | { t i m e o u t } | ] TIMER( i ) )
[ | union (FE( i ) , { | getData , s e t C o n t r o l D a t a | } ) | ] FC( i )
The adaptation component checks whether adaptation of the functional com-

ponent is necessary every t(i) time units. As the adaptation component has no
direct access on the functional or control data, it has to explicitly fetch the
data from the functional component using the getData event, analyse it, plan
adaptation and execute the plan by setting the control data and possibly notify-
ing other adaptive components, thereby implementing IBM’s MAPE (monitor,
analyse, plan, execute) approach. This is captured in the CHECKADAPT and ADAPT
processes described below. The adaptation component can also be triggered by
some external adaptation event or be notified that the timeout has elapsed. The
timeout can for example be used to denote that during the last timer(i) time
units no functional event took place (see TIMER below).
AC( i ) = [ ] WAIT( t ( i ) ) ; CHECKADAPT( i )
[ ] ( [ ] x :EA( i ) @ x −> getData ?d?cd −> ADAPT( i , x ) )
[ ] t i m e o u t −> getData ?d?cd −> ADAPT( i , t i m e o u t )
To check whether adaptation is necessary, the current (necessary) functional

data and control data is fetched from the functional component. According to
local violations of the invariant, actual adaptation of control data takes place.
On this level of abstraction, the invariant is not explicitly captured but possible
violations are modelled via internal choices.
CHECKADAPT( i ) = getData ?d?cd −>
( | ˜ | x : IA ( i ) @ x −> ADAPT( i , x )
| ˜ | AC( i ) )
Adaptation takes some time ta(i,x), depending on the component in which

adaptation takes i place and depending on the cause of adaptation x. After the
plan is created, the corresponding control data is set in the functional compo-
nent and further adaptive components are notified using external adaptation EA
events. Notification is realised in NotifyACs process.
ADAPT( i , x ) = WAIT( t a ( i , x ) ) ;
| ˜ | cd : CD @ s e t C o n t r o l D a t a . cd −>
( NotifyACs ( i , x ) ; AC( i ) )
The timer keeps track of whether some functional event took place within
the last timer(i) time units.
TIMER( i ) = [ ] x :FE( i ) −> TIMER( i )
[ ] WAIT( t i m e r ( i ) ) ; t i m e o u t −> TIMER( i )
The functional component provides information about the internal data to

the adaptation component and the control data can be set by the adaptation
component. On this abstract level, we abstract away state information using
constructions based on internal choices. The functional component can also com-
municate with other functional components or manipulate its functional data.
FC( i ) = | ˜ | ( d , cd ) : { ( d , cd ) | d <− D , cd <− CD}
@ getData . d . cd −> FC( i )
[ ] s e t C o n t r o l D a t a ?cd ’ −> FC( i )
[ ] | ˜ | x :FE( i ) @ x −> FC( i )
The abstract components have a far smaller state space than the refined
components that we introduce in the following subsection. Only by this, the
verification on the abstract level is possible in reasonable time. The relatively
complicated construction for coping with state information based on internal
choices (e.g. getData in the functional component) is necessary to allow for
later refinements in the failures model of CSP. It is certainly a radical way to
leave out all of the state information here. However, it would be possible to keep
at least a part of the state information.
4.2 Refined Model
In the abstract model, state information of the components is not present. A

refined model needs to make clear when the actions actually take place. To do
this in the context of CSP, non-determinism is usually reduced by replacing
internal choices (|~|) with guarded deterministic choices ([]). For the adapta-
tion component, the adaptation logic is refined by reducing non-determinism in
CHECKADAPT and ADAPT. In the CHECKADAPT’ subcomponent, the invariant is now
explicitly modelled by the g(i,d,cd,ia) predicate. Note that CHECKADAPT’ and
ADAPT’ now depend on the functional (d) and control data (cd).
AC’ ( i ) = WAIT( t ) ; CHECKADAPT’ ( i )
[ ] ( [ ] x :EA @ x −> getData ?d? cd −> ADAPT’ ( i , d , cd , x ) )
[ ] t i m e o u t −> getData ?d? cd −> ADAPT’ ( i , d , cd , t i m e o u t )
CHECKADAPT’ ( i ) = getData ?d? cd −>

( [ ] i a : IA ( i ) @ g ( i , d , cd , i a ) & i a −> ADAPT’ ( i , d , cd , i a )
[ ] e l s e & none −> AC’ ( i ) )
ADAPT’ ( i , d , cd , x ) = WAIT( t a ( i , x ) ) ;
s e t C o n t r o l D a t a . f ( i , d , cd , x ) −>
NotifyACs ’ ( i , d , cd , x ) ; AC’ ( i )
The functional component no longer abstracts from the data, but makes use
of it to implement the actual functional logic using, e.g., guards (gf(...)).
FC’ ( i , d , cd ) = getData . d . cd −> FC’ ( i , d , cd )
[ ] s e t C o n t r o l D a t a ?cd ’ −> FC’ ( i , d , cd ’ )
[ ] ( [ ] f e : FE( i ) @ g f ( i , d , cd , f e ) & f e −> FC’ ( i , h ( d , x ) , cd ) )
In the next section, we explain the refinement and verification process in the
context of the presented adaptive system pattern. This makes it also clearer why
it is beneficial for a designer to provide models on different abstraction levels.
4.3 Proving Refinement
The aim of the described pattern is to facilitate the modular refinement and ver-
ification of adaptive real-time systems. By separating functional from adaptive
behaviour, we are able to verify the respective properties separately.
The most abstract system model leaves out most of the details concerning
adaptation and functional behaviour. When adaptation takes place, it has no
direct influence on the functional behaviour of the components. Thus, the most
abstract model is suited to verify properties, which focus neither on the adapta-
tion behaviour nor the functional behaviour. By introducing detailed adaptation
or functional behaviour, we refine the abstract model to a refined model that
fulfils more required properties w.r.t. adaptation behaviour or w.r.t. functional
behaviour due to the preservation of properties. The key point is that for many
properties only the functional behaviour or the adaptation behaviour needs to
be refined, not necessarily both at the same time.
A refinement-based verification approach has two major advantages. First, we
can verify functional correctness and adaptation correctness separately. On the
most abstract level, we have a system that is composed of a functional component
F C and an adaptation component AC. Both of these abstract components leave
out most of the details. By refining the functional component to F C and the
adaptive component to AC , we can verify functional properties and adaptation

properties while leaving out details of the respective component, which is not of
interest for the respective property. Formally, we have F C ⊗ AC F D F C ⊗ AC
and F C ⊗AC F D F C ⊗AC . Furthermore, we have that F C ⊗AC F D F C ⊗
AC and F C ⊗AC F D F C ⊗AC . This means that all properties that are valid
on the partly refined models F C ⊗AC and F C ⊗AC remain valid in the refined
model F C ⊗AC . The second advantage is related to the environment model. In
CSP, a model is more abstract than another when it contains fewer constraints.
This means that a refined system has fewer behaviours than an abstract one.
Ideally, we would like to verify an adaptive system with a most abstract or most
unconstrained environment. However, this is almost never possible especially
in the context of adaptive systems. Refinement allows us to include necessary
constraints to the environment to prove the overall system correct.
5 Example
In this section, we present a simple adaptive system with which we illustrate the
main ideas of the adaptive system pattern from the previous section. It consists
of two adaptive components: a light dimmer and a daylight sensor. When the
daylight sensor recognises a change in light intensity that stays stable for a
certain amount of time, the dimmer is notified that it possibly should adapt to
the new situation by changing the dim intensity. Furthermore, the dimmer can
be adjusted manually, which represents the actual functional behaviour of the
dimmer. On the abstract level, we omit details concerning the state information
in the components. This means that all choices, which should depend on the
state information are realised by internal choices.
The dimmer is adjusted manually using the higher and lower events. Fur-
thermore, the dim intensity can be set using the setGoal event leading to an
automatic adjustment phase thereafter. Finally, the current dim value can be
queried. The obs event is used as an observation event for later verification only.
DimmerFC 0 ( y ) = h i g h e r −> obs ?x −> DimmerFC 0 ( y )
[] l o w e r −> obs ?x −> DimmerFC 0 ( y )
[] s e t G o a l ?ny −> DimmerFC 0 ( 9 )
[] ( y>0 & ( a d j u s t −> DimmerFC 0 ( y−1)
| ˜ | DimmerFC 0 ( 0 ) ) )
[ ] y==0 & obs ?x −> DimmerFC 0( −1)
[ ] g e t C u r r e n t ?x −> DimmerFC 0 ( y )
The corresponding adaptation component can be notified that the intensity of

the surrounding light has changed such that it subsequently adapts the behaviour
of the functional component.
DimmerAC 0 = n e w I n t e n s i t y ?y −>
g e t C u r r e n t ?x −> ( DimmerAC 0
| ˜ | s e t G o a l ?x −> DimmerAC 0 )
AdaptiveComponent1 00 =
DimmerAC 0 [ | {| g e t C u r r e n t , s e t G o a l |} | ] DimmerFC 0( −1)
The light sensor recognises the daylight intensity. If it remains stable for 5
time units, the dimmer is possibly notified using the newIntensity event. On
this abstraction level, details of the check are hidden through an internal choice.
LightSensorTimer = WAIT( 5 ) ; t i m e o u t −> L i g h t S e n s o r T i m e r
[] l i g h t ?y −> L i g h t S e n s o r T i m e r
LightSensorAC 0 = t i m e o u t −>
g e t I n t e n s i t y ?y −> ( n e w I n t e n s i t y ?x −> LightSensorAC 0
| ˜ | LightSensorAC 0 )
LightSensorFC 0 = l i g h t ?x −> L i g h t S e n s o r F C 0
[ ] g e t I n t e n s i t y ?x −> L i g h t S e n s o r F C 0
AdaptiveComponent2 00 =
( ( LightSensorAC 0 [ | { t i m e o u t } | ] L i g h t S e n s o r T i m e r ) \{ t i m e o u t } )
[ | {| g e t I n t e n s i t y |} | ] L i g h t S e n s o r F C 0
The environment model formalises the restriction that at most once a second
the system is interacted with. This is a severe restriction but eases presentation.
Finally, the system model assembles the adaptive components and the environ-
ment model according to the architecture given by our adaptive pattern.
ENV = WAIT( 1 ) ; ( l i g h t ?y−>ENV [ ] h i g h e r−>ENV [ ] l o w e r−>ENV)
System abs = ( ( AdaptiveComponent1 00 [ | { | n e w I n t e n s i t y | } | ]

AdaptiveComponent2 00 )
[ | {| l i g h t , higher , lower |} | ]
ENV) \ { | n e w I n t e n s i t y , g e t C u r r e n t , g e t I n t e n s i t y | }
We have modelled three safety properties as CSP processes. Thus, trace

refinement is sufficient to express that a system fulfils them. Due to the lack
of space, we omit their CSP definitions here. The first property states that two
consecutive setGoal events always occur with different values. The second one
states that there is a delay of at least 4 time units between consecutive setGoal
events. Finally, the third property states that there are only small jumps in the
dimmer. The dim value before and after setting it can differ by two at most.
These properties are not valid in the abstract model presented above. We
first need to refine the model to be able to show them. All three properties are
concerned with the adaptation behaviour of the two components. So we need to
refine the adaptation mechanisms accordingly.
DimmerAC 1 =
n e w I n t e n s i t y ?y −>
g e t C u r r e n t ?x −> i f ( x−y < 0 ) o r ( x−y > 9 ) then DimmerAC 1
e l s e s e t G o a l . ( x−y ) −> DimmerAC 1
LightSensorAC 1 ( x ) =
t i m e o u t −> g e t I n t e n s i t y ?y −>
i f ( y !=x ) then n e w I n t e n s i t y . l D i f f ( x , y ) −> LightSensorAC 1 ( y )
else LightSensorAC 1 ( x )
The adaptation components above are updated with these refined parts
accordingly (taking 0 as the initial value for x). The corresponding new sys-
tem description System abs2 is sufficiently refined to show the second property
using FDR3. Note that we need to prioritise internal events over tock and have
to specify that the setGoal and obs events are urgent but visible.
a s s e r t P2 [ T= p r i o ( System abs2 ,< { | s e t G o a l , obs | } , { t o c k }>)
The first and the third property do not hold on this model, because they
depend on the functional behaviour of the dimmer. So, we also refine DimmerFC.
DimmerFC 1 ( x , y ) =
x<9 & h i g h e r −> obs . ( x+1) −> DimmerFC 1 ( x+1,−1)
[ ] x>0 & l o w e r −> obs . ( x−1) −> DimmerFC 1 ( x−1,−1)
[ ] s e t G o a l ?ny −> DimmerFC 1 ( x , ny )
[ ] y>=0 and y>x & a d j u s t −> DimmerFC 1 ( x+1 ,y )
[ ] y>=0 and x>y & a d j u s t −> DimmerFC 1 ( x −1 ,y )
[ ] y>=0 and x==y & obs . x −> DimmerFC 1 ( x , −1)
[ ] g e t C u r r e n t . x −> DimmerFC 1 ( x , y )
With this refined version, we can finally show the first and the third property.
a s s e r t P1/P3 [ T= p r i o ( System abs3 ,< { | s e t G o a l , obs | } , { t o c k }>)
Note that the last property is not as obvious as it appears at first glance. If we
did not have the environmental assumptions that there is a delay of at least one
time unit between external events, a setGoal event could be arbitrarily delayed
while higher and lower events have an effect on the dimmer.
For completeness, we also give the refined version of the functional component
of the light sensor. Here, the last intensity value that has been recognised is
memorised and can be given to the adaptation component accordingly.
LightSensorFC 1 ( x ) = l i g h t ?y −> L i g h t S e n s o r F C 1 ( y )
[ ] g e t I n t e n s i t y . x −> L i g h t S e n s o r F C 1 ( x )
In summary, we have shown that it is possible to verify the example above in

a modular way by focussing especially on adaptation behaviour while abstract-
ing from functional behaviour as much as possible. Although being a relatively
simple example, we are confident that we benefit from applying our approach to
more complex systems as described in the next section.
6 Conclusion and Future Work

In this paper, we have presented a design pattern that supports the modular
design and verification of distributed adaptive real-time systems. It clarifies how
functional and control data is processed and communicated within the individ-
ual components of a distributed adaptive system. Adaptation is achieved in a
decentralised fashion. Moreover, we have demonstrated how timing dependen-
cies of adaptation behaviours can be modelled and analysed. Using an example,
we have shown how the approach facilitates the stepwise development of dis-
tributed adaptive real-time systems and helps to cope with the complexity of
such systems by using automated verification methods.
In future work, we plan to apply our approach to an adaptive multicore
system, which was previously only incompletely verified [10], because of lim-
ited scalability due to not separating functional from adaptation behaviour. As
another piece of work, we want to analyse whether we can exploit the composi-
tional structure of systems in our approach to enable runtime verification. This
would especially enable the integration of more flexible adaptation strategies at
design time such that the system could apply the correct strategies at runtime
while preserving functional and adaptation correctness.
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Master thesis, Technische Universität Berlin (2013)
Modeling Swarm Robotics with KnowLang
Emil Vassev and Mike Hinchey
Lero–the Irish Software Engineering Research Centre,

University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
{emil.vassev,mike.hinchey}@lero.ie
Abstract. Swarm robotics has emerged as a paradigm whereby intelli-

gent agents are considered to be autonomous entities that interact either
cooperatively or non-cooperatively. The concept is biologically-inspired
and offers many advantages compared with single-agent systems, such
as: greater redundancy, reduced costs and risks, and the ability to dis-
tribute the overall work among swarm members, which may result in
greater efficiency and performance. The distributed and local nature of
these systems is the main factor in the high degree of parallelism dis-
played by their dynamics that often results in adaptation to changing
environmental conditions and robustness to failure. This paper presents
a formal approach to modeling self-adaptive behavior for swarm robotics.
The approach relies on the KnowLang language, a formal language ded-
icated to knowledge representation for self-adaptive systems.
1 Introduction
Aside from complex mechanics and electronics, building robots is about the chal-
lenge of interacting with a dynamic and unpredictable world, which requires the
presence of intelligence. In swarm robotics systems, in addition to this challenge,
we also need to deal with the dynamic local interactions among robots, often
resulting in emergent behavior at the level of the entire swarm. Real swarm
intelligence systems such as social insects, bird flocks and fish schools, leverage
such parallelism to achieve remarkable efficiency and robustness to hazards. The
prospect of replicating the performance of natural systems and their incredible
ability of self-adaptation is the main motivation in the study of swarm robotics
systems.
Swarm robotics brings most of the challenges that the theories and method-
ologies developed for self-adaptive systems are attempting to solve. Hence, self-
adaptation has emerged as an important paradigm making a swarm robotics
system capable of modifying the system behavior and/or structure in response
to increasing workload demands and changes in the operational environment.
Note that robotic artificial intelligence (AI) mainly excels at formal logic, which
allows it, for example, to find the appropriate action from hundreds of possible
actions.
In this paper, we present a formal approach to modeling self-adaptive behav-
ior of swarm robotics. We use KnowLang, a formal framework under development

P.C. Vinh et al. (Eds.): ICTCC 2014, LNICST 144, pp. 13–22, 2015.
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-15392-6 2
14 E. Vassev and M. Hinchey
under the mandate of the FP7 project, ASCENS [1]. KnowLang’s notation is
a formal language dedicated to knowledge representation for self-adaptive sys-
tems, so the framework provides both a notation and reasoning to deal with
self-adaptation.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the ARE app-
roach that helps us capture the requirements for self-adaptive behavior. Section
3 describes our swarm robotics case study. Section 4 presents our approach to
specifying the self-adaptive behavior of swarm robots with KnowLang. Finally,
Section 5 provides brief concluding remarks and a summary of our future goals.
2 Requirements for Self-adaptive Behavior

We aim to capture self-adaptive behavior so that it can be properly designed
and subsequently implemented. To do so, we consider that self-adaptive behavior
extends the regular objectives of a system upstream with special self-managing
objectives, also called self-* objectives [6]. Basically, the self-* objectives provide
autonomy features in the form of a system’s ability to automatically discover,
diagnose, and cope with various problems. This ability depends on the system’s
degree of autonomicity, quality and quantity of knowledge, awareness and mon-
itoring capabilities, and quality characteristics such as adaptability, dynamic-
ity, robustness, resilience, and mobility. The approach for capturing all of these
requirements is called Autonomy Requirements Engineering (ARE) [4–6]. This
approach aims to provide a complete and comprehensive solution to the problem
of autonomy requirements elicitation and specification. Note that the approach
exclusively targets the self-* objectives as the only means to explicitly determine
and define autonomy requirements. Thus, it is not meant to handle the regular
functional and non-functional requirements of the systems, presuming that those
might by tackled by the traditional requirements engineering approaches, e.g.,
use case modeling, domain modeling, constraints modeling, etc. Hence, func-
tional and non-functional requirements may be captured by the ARE approach
only as part of the self-* objectives elicitation.
The ARE approach starts with the creation of a goals model that represents
system objectives and their interrelationships for the system in question. For this,
we use GORE (Goal-Oriented Requirements Engineering) where ARE goals are
generally modeled with intrinsic features such as type, actor, and target, with
links to other goals and constraints in the requirements model. Goals models
may be organized in different ways copying with the system’s specifics and the
engineers’ understanding of the system’s goals. Thus we may have hierarchical
structures where goals reside at different level of granularity and concurrent
structures where goals are considered as being concurrent to each other.
The next step in the ARE approach is to work on each one of the system
goals along with the elicited environmental constraints to come up with the self-
* objectives providing the autonomy requirements for this particular system’s
behavior. In this phase, we apply a special Generic Autonomy Requirements
model to a system goal to derive autonomy requirements in the form of the goal’s
Modeling Swarm Robotics with KnowLang 15
supportive and alternative self-* objectives along with the necessary capabilities
and quality characteristics.
Finally, the last step after defining the autonomy requirements per the sys-
tem’s objectives is the formalization of these requirements, which can be con-
sidered as a form of formal specification or requirements recording. The formal
notation used to specify the autonomy requirements is KnowLang [7]. The pro-
cess of requirements specification with KnowLang extends over a few phases:
1. Initial knowledge requirements gathering – involves domain experts to deter-

mine the basic notions, relations and functions (operations) of the domain
of interest.
2. Behavior definition – identifies situations and behavior policies as “control
data”, helping to identify important self-adaptive scenarios.
3. Knowledge structuring – encapsulates domain entities, situations and behav-
ior policies into KnowLang structures such as concepts, properties, function-
alities, objects, relations, facts and rules.
To specify self-* objectives with KnowLang, we use special policies associated

with goals, special situations, actions (eventually identified as system capabili-
ties), metrics, etc.[7]. Hence, self-* objectives are represented as policies describ-
ing at an abstract level what the system will do when particular situations arise.
The situations are meant to represent the conditions needed to be met in order
for the system to switch to a self-* objective while pursuing a system goal. Note
that policies rely on actions that are a priori defined as functions of the system.
In the case that such functions have not been defined yet, the needed functions
should be considered as autonomous functions and their implementation will be
justified by the ARE’s selected self-* objectives.
According to the KnowLang semantics, in order to achieve specified goals
(objectives), we need to specify policy-triggering actions that will eventually
change the system states, so the desired ones, required by the goals, will become
effective [7]. Note that KnowLang policies allow the specification of autonomic
behavior (autonomic behavior can be associated with self-* objectives), and
therefore, we need to specify at least one policy per single goal; i.e., a policy
that will provide the necessary behavior to achieve that goal. Of course, we may
specify multiple policies handling same goal (objective), which is often the case
with the self-* objectives and let the system decide which policy to apply taking
into consideration the current situation and conditions. The following is a formal
presentation of a KnowLang policy specification [7].
Policies (Π) are at the core of autonomic behavior (autonomic behavior
can be associated with autonomy requirements). A policy π has a goal (g),
policy situations (Siπ ), policy-situation relations (Rπ ), and policy conditions
(Nπ ) mapped to policy actions (Aπ ) where the evaluation of Nπ may eventually
(with some degree of probability) imply the evaluation of actions (denoted with
[Z]
Nπ → Aπ (see Definition 2). A condition is a Boolean function over ontology
(see Definition 4), e.g., the occurrence of a certain event.
16 E. Vassev and M. Hinchey
Definition 1. Π := {π1 , π2 , ...., πn }, n ≥ 0 (Policies)
Definition 2. π :=< g, Siπ , [Rπ ], Nπ , Aπ , map(Nπ , Aπ , [Z]) >

[Z]
Aπ ⊂ A, Nπ → Aπ (Aπ - Policy Actions)
Siπ ⊂ Si, Siπ := {siπ1 , siπ2 , ...., siπn }, n ≥ 0
Rπ ⊂ R, Rπ := {rπ1 , rπ2 , ...., rπn }, n ≥ 0
∀rπ ∈ Rπ • (rπ :=< siπ , [rn], [Z], π >) , siπ ∈ Siπ
[Rπ ]
Siπ → π → Nπ
Definition 3. Nπ := {n1 , n2 , ...., nk }, k ≥ 0 (Conditions)
Definition 4. n := be(O) (Condition - Boolean Expression)
Definition 5. g := ⇒ s |s ⇒ s (Goal)
Definition 6. s := be(O) (State)
Definition 7. Si := {si1 , si2 , ...., sin }, n ≥ 0 (Situations)

← ←
Definition 8. si :=< s, A si , [E si ], Asi > (Situation)
← ←
A si ⊂ A (A si - Executed Actions)
Asi ⊂ A (Asi - Possible Actions)
← ←
E si ⊂ E (E si - Situation Events)
Policy situations (Siπ ) are situations that may trigger (or imply) a policy π,
[Rπ ]
in compliance with the policy-situations relations Rπ (denoted with Siπ → π),
thus implying the evaluation of the policy conditions Nπ (denoted with π →
Nπ )(see Definition 2). Therefore, the optional policy-situation relations (Rπ )
justify the relationships between a policy and the associated situations (see Def-
inition 2). In addition, the self-adaptive behavior requires relations to be specified
to connect policies with situations over an optional probability distribution (Z)
where a policy might be related to multiple situations and vice versa. Proba-
bility distribution is provided to support probabilistic reasoning and to help the
KnowLang Reasoner choose the most probable situation-policy “pair”. Thus, we
may specify a few relations connecting a specific situation to different policies to
be undertaken when the system is in that particular situation and the probabil-
ity distribution over these relations (involving the same situation) should help
[Rπ ]
the KnowLang Reasoner decide which policy to choose (denoted with Siπ → π
- see Definition 2).
A goal g is a desirable transition to a state or from a specific state to another
state (denoted with s ⇒ s ) (see Definition 5). A state s is a Boolean expression
over ontology (be(O))(see Definition 6), e.g., “a specific property of an object
must hold a specific value”. A situation is expressed with a state (s), a history
←
of actions (A si ) (actions executed to get to state s), actions Asi that can be
←
performed from state s and an optional history of events E si that eventually
occurred to get to state s (see Definition 8).
Modeling Swarm Robotics with KnowLang 17
Ideally, policies are specified to handle specific situations, which may trigger
the application of policies. A policy exhibits a behavior via actions generated
in the environment or in the system itself. Specific conditions determine which
specific actions (among the actions associated with that policy - see Definition
2) shall be executed. These conditions are often generic and may differ from
the situations triggering the policy. Thus, the behavior not only depends on the
specific situations a policy is specified to handle, but also depends on additional
conditions. Such conditions might be organized in a way allowing for synchro-
nization of different situations on the same policy. When a policy is applied,
it checks what particular conditions are met and performs the mapped actions
(see map(Nπ , Aπ , [Z])) - see Definition 2). An optional probability distribution
can additionally restrict the action execution. Although initially specified, the
probability distribution at both mapping and relation levels is recomputed after
the execution of any involved action. The re-computation is based on the conse-
quences of the action execution, which allows for reinforcement learning.
3 The Ensemble of Robots Case Study

The ensemble of robots case study targets swarms of intelligent robots with self-
awareness capabilities that help the entire swarm acquire the capacity to reason,
plan, and autonomously act. The case study relies on the marXbot robotics
platform [2], which is a modular research robot equipped with a set of devices
that help the robot interact with other robots of the swarm or the robotic envi-
ronment. The environment is defined as an arena where special cuboid-shaped
obstacles are present in arbitrary positions and orientations. Moreover, the envi-
ronment may contain a number of light sources, usually placed behind the goal
area, which act as environmental cues used as shared reference frames among all
robots.
Each marXbot robot is equipped with a set of devices to interact with the
environment and with other robots of the swarm:
• a light sensor, that is able to perceive a noisy light gradient around the robot
in the 2D plane;
• a distance scanner that is used to obtain noisy distances and angular values
from the robot to other objects in the environment;
• a range and bearing communication system, with which a robot can com-
municate with other robots that are in line-of-sight;
• a gripper, that is used to physically connect to the transported object;
• two wheels independently controlled to set the speed of the robot.
Currently, the marXbots robots are able to work in teams where they coordinate
based on simple interactions in group tasks. For example, a group of marXbots
robots may collectively move a relatively heavy object from point A to point B
by using their grippers.
For the purpose of the Ensemble of Robots case study, we developed a simple
scenario that requires self-adaptive behavior of the individual marXbot robots
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The affinities with the order Stolonifera are clearly seen in the genera
Xenia and Telesto. Some species of Xenia form flattened or domed
colonies attached to stones or corals, with non-retractile anthocodiae
and body-walls united for only a short distance at the base. Young
Xenia colonies are in fact Stolonifera in all essential characters. In
Telesto prolifera we find a network of stolons encrusting coral
branches and other objects after the manner of the stolons of many
species of Clavularia, although the zooids do not arise from these
stolons singly, but in groups, with their body-walls fused together for
a certain distance. In Telesto rubra the spicules of the body-walls are
fused together to form a series of perforated tubes very similar in
some respects to the tubes of Tubipora.
A remarkable genus is Coelogorgia. Here we find a branching colony

arising from a basal stolon, and the axis of the main stem and of
each branch consists of a single very much elongated zooid bearing
on its thickened walls the branches of the next series and other
zooids. It is true that in this genus there is very little fusion of
neighbouring zooids, and the amount of true coenenchym is so small
that it can hardly be said to exist at all. Bourne[373] has united this
genus with Telesto into a family Asiphonacea, which he joins with the
Pennatulida in the order Stelechotokea; but their affinities seem to
be closer with the Alcyonacea than with the Pennatulacea, from
which they differ in many important characters.
Fig. 154.—Alcyonium digitatum, a single-lobed specimen, with some of the
zooids expanded.
The genus Alcyonium not only contains the commonest British

Alcyonarian (A. digitatum), but it is one of the most widely distributed
genera of all Alcyonaria that occur in shallow water.
The genera Sarcophytum and Lobophytum occur in shallow water in

the tropics of the old world. The former frequently consists of huge
toad-stool shaped masses, soft and spongy in consistency, of a
green, brown, or yellow colour. On some reefs the colonies of
Sarcophytum form a very conspicuous feature, and from their very
slimy, slippery surface, add to the minor dangers of wading in these
regions. Both genera are dimorphic. Some species of the genus
Sclerophytum,[374] which occur in the Indian Ocean, are so hard and
brittle that they might readily be mistaken for a Zoantharian coral.
This character is due to the enormous number of tightly packed
spicules borne by the coenenchym. Some of these spicules in S.
querciforme are 7 mm. × 1.7 mm.; the largest, though not the longest
(vide p. 335) of any spicules occurring in the order.
Another very important genus occurring on coral reefs, and of very

wide distribution, is Spongodes. This genus forms bushy and rather
brittle colonies of an endless variety of beautiful shapes and colours.
Arising from the neck of each anthocodia there are one or two long,
sharp, projecting spicules, which give the surface a very spiny or
prickly character.
The genera Siphonogorgia and Chironephthya form large brittle,

branching colonies which might readily be mistaken for Gorgonians.
The strength of the branches, however, is mainly due to the large,
densely packed, spindle-shaped spicules at the surface of the
coenenchym, the long coelenteric cavities of the zooids penetrating
the axis of both stem and branches. Siphonogorgia is usually
uniformly red or yellow in colour. Chironephthya, on the other hand,
exhibits a great variety of colour in specimens from the same reef,
and indeed in different branches of the same colony.
Fam. 1. Xeniidae.—Alcyonacea with non-retractile zooids. Spicules

very small discs, usually containing a relatively small proportion of
lime.
Xenia, Savigny; Indian Ocean and Torres Straits. Heteroxenia,

Kölliker; Red Sea, Cape of Good Hope, and Torres Straits.
Fam. 2. Telestidae.—Colonies arising from an encrusting

membranous or branching stolon. The erect stem and branches are
formed by the body-walls of two or three zooids only, from which
secondary zooids and branches of the next order arise.
Telesto, Lamouroux, widely distributed in warm waters of the

Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The genus Fascicularia, Viguier,
from the coast of Algiers, seems to be related to Telesto, but the
groups of zooids are short, and do not give rise to branches.
Fam. 3. Coelogorgiidae.—The colony arborescent, attached by

stolon-like processes. The stem formed by an axial zooid with
thickened body-walls. Branches formed by axial zooids of the
second order, and branchlets by axial zooids of the third order, borne
either on two sides or in spirals by the main stem. Genus
Coelogorgia, Zanzibar.
Fam. 4. Alcyoniidae.—The colonies of this family are usually soft

and fleshy, and the spicules, evenly distributed throughout the
coenenchym, do not usually fuse or interlock to form a continuous
solid skeleton. They may be unbranched or lobed, never dendritic in
form. The principal genera are:—Alcyonium, Linnaeus,
cosmopolitan, but principally distributed in temperate and cold
waters. Alcyonium digitatum is the commonest British Alcyonarian. It
is found in shallow water, from the pools left at low spring tides to
depths of 40 or 50 fathoms, at most places on the British shores. It is
stated by Koehler to descend into depths of over 300 fathoms in the
Bay of Biscay. There are two principal varieties; one is white or pale
pink in the living condition, and the other yellow. In some localities
the two varieties may be found in the same pools. Another species,
Alcyonium glomeratum, placed in a distinct genus (Rhodophyton) by
Gray, and distinguished from the common species by its red colour
and long digitate lobes, is found only off the coast of Cornwall.
Paralcyonium, Milne Edwards; Mediterranean. Sclerophytum, Pratt;
sometimes dimorphic, Indian Ocean. Sarcophytum, Lesson;
dimorphic, principally tropical. Lolophytum, Marenzeller; dimorphic,
tropical. Anthomastus, Verrill; dimorphic, Atlantic Ocean, deep water.
Acrophytum, Hickson; dimorphic, Cape of Good Hope.
Fam. 5. Nephthyidae.—Colonies dendritic. Usually soft and flexible

in consistency. Nephthya, Savigny; Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Spongodes, Lesson; widely distributed in the Indian and Pacific
Oceans.
Fam. 6. Siphonogorgiidae.—Colonies often of considerable size.

Dendritic. Spicules usually large and abundant, giving a stiff, brittle
consistency to the stem and branches. Siphonogorgia, Kölliker; Red
Sea, Indian, and Pacific tropics. Chironephthya, Wright and Studer;
Indian and Pacific Oceans. Lemnalia, Gray; Zanzibar. Agaricoides,
Simpson;[375] Indian Ocean, 400 fathoms.
Order IV. Gorgonacea.

This order contains a very large number of dendritic and usually
flexible corals occurring in nearly all seas and extending from
shallow waters to the very great depths of the ocean. A large
proportion of them are brightly coloured, and as the principal
pigments are fixed in the spicules, and are therefore preserved when
the corals are dead and dried, they afford some of the most
attractive and graceful objects of a natural history museum.
The only character that separates them from the Alcyonacea is that
they possess a skeletal axis that is not perforated by the coelenteric
cavities of the zooids. The coelenteric cavities are usually short. The
order may conveniently be divided into two sub-orders.
Sub-Order 1. Pseudaxonia.
The axis in this sub-order consists of numerous spicules tightly
packed together, or cemented together by a substance which is
probably allied to horn in its chemical composition. This substance
may be considerable in amount, in which case it remains after
decalcification as a spongy, porous residue; or it may be so small in
amount, as in Corallium, that the axis appears to be composed of
solid carbonate of lime. The statement is usually made that the axis
is penetrated by nutritive canals in certain genera, but the evidence
upon which this is based is unsatisfactory and in some cases
unfounded. There can be no doubt, however, that in some genera
the axis is porous and in others it is not, and this forms a useful
character for the separation of genera.
Fam. 1. Briareidae.—The medullary substance consists of closely

packed but separate spicules embedded in a soft horny matrix,
which is uniform in character throughout its course. Nearly all the
genera form dendritic colonies of considerable size.
The principal genera are:—Solenocaulon, Gray; Indian Ocean and

North Australia. Many of the specimens of this genus have fistulose
stems and branches. The tubular character of the stem and
branches is probably caused by the activity of a Crustacean,
Alpheus, and may be regarded as of the nature of a gall-formation.
[376] Paragorgia, M. Edwards; Norwegian fjords, in deep water. This
genus forms very large tree-like colonies of a ruby-red or white
colour. It is perhaps the largest of the dendritic Alcyonarians. It is
dimorphic. Spongioderma, Kölliker; Cape of Good Hope. The surface
of this form is always covered by an encrusting sponge. Iciligorgia,
Ridley; Torres Straits. The stem and branches are compressed and
irregular in section.
Fam. 2. Sclerogorgiidae.—The medullary mass forms a distinct

axis consisting of closely packed elongate spicules with dense horny
sheaths.
Suberogorgia, Gray, has a wide distribution in the Pacific Ocean,

Indian Ocean, and the West Indies. Keroeides, W. and S., comes
from Japan.
Fam. 3. Melitodidae.—The axis in this family exhibits a series of

nodes and internodes (Fig. 155), the former consisting of pads
formed of a horny substance with embedded spicules, the latter of a
calcareous substance with only traces of a horny matrix. The
internodes are quite rigid, the nodes however give a certain degree
of flexibility to the colony as a whole. Neither the nodes nor the
internodes are penetrated by nutritive canals, but when dried the
nodes are porous.
Fig. 155.—Melitodes dichotoma, showing the swollen nodes and the internodes.
The principal genera are:—Melitodes, Verrill; widely distributed in the

Indian and Pacific Oceans, Cape of Good Hope, etc. This genus is in
some localities extremely abundant and exhibits great brilliancy and
variety of colour. The branching is usually dichotomous at the nodes.
Wrightella, Gray. This is a delicate dwarf form from Mauritius and the
coast of South Africa. Parisis, Verrill; Pacific Ocean from Formosa to
Australia but not very common. One species from Mauritius. The
branches arise from the internodes.
Fam. 4. Coralliidae.—The axis is formed by the fusion of spicules

into a dense, solid, inflexible, calcareous core.
Corallium, Lamarck. Corallium nobile, Pallas, the "precious coral,"

occurs in the Mediterranean, chiefly off the coast of North Africa, but
also on the coasts of Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, and it extends to the
Cape Verde Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. C. japonicum, Kishinouye,
called Akasango by the fishermen, occurs off the coast of Japan,
and C. reginae, Hickson, has recently been described from deep
water off the coast of Timor.[377] The genus Pleurocorallium, Gray, is
regarded by some authors as distinct, but the characters that are
supposed to distinguish it, namely, the presence of peculiar "opera-
glass-shaped spicules," and the occurrence of the verrucae on one
side of the branches only, are not very satisfactory. The following
species are therefore placed by Kishinouye[378] in the genus
Corallium:—C. elatius, Ridley (Momoirosango); C. konojoi,
Kishinouye (Shirosango); C. boshuensis, K.; C. sulcatum, K.; C.
inutile, K.; and C. pusillum, K.,—all from the coast of Japan. Of the
coral obtained from these species, the best kinds of Momoirosango
vary in price from £30 per pound downwards according to the quality.
The Shirosango is the least valuable of the kinds that are brought
into the market, and is rarely exported.[379] Three species of
Corallium (Pleurocorallium) have been described from Madeira,[380]
and one of these, C. johnsoni, has recently been found in 388
fathoms off the coast of Ireland.[381] Other species are C.
stylasteroides, from Mauritius; C. confusum, Moroff,[382] from
Sagami Bay in Japan; and an undescribed species obtained by the
"Siboga," off Djilolo. These corals range from shallow water to
depths of 300-500 fathoms. Pleurocoralloides, Moroff, differs from
the others in having very prominent verrucae and in the character of
the large spindle-shaped and scale-like spicules. It was found in
Sagami Bay, Japan. Specimens attributed to the genus
Pleurocorallium have been found fossil in the white chalk of France,
but Corallium has been found only in the tertiaries.[383]
Sub-Order 2. Axifera.
The axis in this sub-order may be horny, or horny with a core of
calcium carbonate, or composed of horn impregnated with calcium
carbonate, or of nodes of horn alternating with internodes of calcium
carbonate. It may be distinguished from the axis of the Pseudaxonia
by the fact that in no case have definite spicules been observed to
take part in its formation. It has been suggested that as the Axifera
represent a line of descent distinct from that of the Pseudaxonia they
should be placed in a separate order. Apart from the character of the
axis, however, the two sub-orders show so many affinities in their
general anatomy that it is better to regard the two lines of descent as
united within the Gorgonacean limit. It is very improbable that the
two groups sprang independently from a stoloniferous ancestor.
Fam. 1. Isidae.—This family includes all those Axifera in which the
axis is composed of alternate nodes of horn and internodes of
calcareous substance.
There can be little doubt of the close affinities of many of the genera
of this family with the Melitodidae among the Pseudaxonia. In both
the coenenchym is thin and the coelenteric cavities short. No
important differences have been observed between the structure of
the zooids of the two families, and now that we know that the
"nutritive canals" of Melitodes do not perforate the nodes there is no
important difference left between the coenosarcal canal systems.
The structure and method of calcification of the internodes of the two
families are very similar. The main difference between them is that
the nodes of the Isidae are purely horny, whereas in the Melitodidae
the horny substance of the nodes contains calcareous spicules.
The principal genera are:—Isis, Linnaeus; Pacific Ocean. This genus

forms substantial fan-shaped colonies with, relatively, a thick
coenenchym, short stout internodes and black horny nodes.
Mopsea, Lamouroux; Coast of Australia. The verrucae are club-
shaped and are arranged in spiral rows round the stem. Acanella,
Gray; principally found in deep water in the Atlantic Ocean but also
in the Pacific. The internodes are long and the branches arise from
the nodes. Most of the species occur in deep water, some in very
deep water (A. simplex, 1600 to 1700 fathoms). In this and the
following genera the coenenchym is thin and the zooids imperfectly
or not retractile. Ceratoisis, Wright; Atlantic Ocean, extending from
shallow to deep water. The branches arise from the nodes.
Chelidonisis, Studer; deep water off the Azores. Isidella, Gray;
Mediterranean Sea. Bathygorgia, Wright; off Yokohama, 2300
fathoms. This genus is unbranched, with very long internodes and
short nodes. The zooids are arranged on one side only of the stem.
Fam. 2. Primnoidae.—This is a well-marked family. The axis of the

colonies is horny and calcareous. The coenenchym and the non-
retractile zooids are protected by scale-like spicules, which usually
overlap and form a complete armour for the protection of the soft
parts. On the aboral side of the base of each tentacle there is a
specialised scale, and these fit together, when the tentacles are
folded over the peristome, to form an operculum.
The principal genera are:—Primnoa, Lamouroux; Atlantic Ocean,

occurring also in the Norwegian fjords. This genus is usually found in
moderately deep water, 100 to 500 fathoms. Primnoella, Gray. This
genus seems to be confined to the temperate seas of the southern
hemisphere. It is unbranched. The zooids are arranged in whorls
round the long whip-like stem. Plumarella, Gray; southern
hemisphere, in moderately deep water. This is branched pinnately in
one plane. The zooids are small and arise at considerable intervals
alternately on the sides of the branches. Stenella, Gray; widely
distributed in deep water. The zooids are large and are arranged in
whorls of three situated at considerable distances apart. Stachyodes,
W. and S.; Fiji, Kermadecs, Azores, in deep water. Colony feebly
branched. Zooids in regular whorls of five. Other genera belonging to
this group of Primnoidae are Thouarella, Gray, and Amphilaphis,
Antarctic seas.
The following genera are placed in separate sub-families:—

Callozostron, Wright; Antarctic Sea, 1670 fathoms. The axis is
procumbent and the zooids are thickly set in rows on its upper
surface. The zooids are protected by large imbricate scales, of which
those of the last row are continued into long spine-like processes.
Calyptrophora, Gray; Pacific Ocean, in deep water. The base of the
zooids is protected by two remarkably large scales. Primnoides, W.
and S.; Southern Ocean. The opercular scales are not distinctly
differentiated and the calyx is therefore imperfectly protected.
Fam. 3. Chrysogorgiidae.[384]—The axis in this family is composed

of a horny fibrous substance with interstratified calcareous particles,
and it springs from a calcareous plate, which sometimes gives off
root-like processes. It may be unbranched or branched in such a
way that the branches of the second, third, and subsequent orders
assume in turn the direction of the base of the main axis. The axis is
frequently of a metallic iridescent appearance. The zooids usually
arise in a single straight or spiral row on the branches, and are not
retractile. The coenenchym is thin. The spicules vary considerably,
but in a very large proportion of the species they are thin, oval, or
hour-glass plates (Fig. 149, 10, p. 336).
By some authors this family is considered to be the simplest and

most primitive of the Axifera; but the delicate character of the axis of
the main stem and branches, the thinness of the coenenchym, the
position of the zooids on one side of the branches only, and the
tenuity of the calcareous spicules may be all accounted not as
primitive characters, but as special adaptations to the life in the slow
uniform currents of deep water.
The principal genera are:—Lepidogorgia, Verrill; Atlantic and Pacific

Oceans, 300 to 1600 fathoms. Axis unbranched. Zooids large and
arranged in a single row. Trichogorgia, Hickson; Cape of Good Hope,
56 fathoms. Colony branching in one plane. Zooids numerous and
on all sides of the branches. Chrysogorgia, D. and M.; deep water.
Axis branched. Spicules on the zooids always large. Metallogorgia,
Versluys; Atlantic Ocean, 400 to 900 fathoms. Basal part of the stem
unbranched (monopodial). Iridogorgia, Verrill. Spiral stem and
branches. Pleurogorgia, Versluys. Axis branched in one plane.
Coenenchym thick. Riisea, D. and M. Monopodial stem and thick
coenenchym.
Fam. 4. Muriceidae.—This is a large family, exhibiting very great

variety of habit. The spicules are often very spiny, and project
beyond the surface of the ectoderm, giving the colony a rough
appearance. A great number of genera have been described, but
none of them are very well known. The family requires careful
revision.
The more important genera are:—Acanthogorgia, Gray; principally in

deep water in the Atlantic Ocean. The calices are large, cylindrical,
and spiny. Villogorgia, D. and M.; widely distributed. Delicate,
graceful forms, with thin coenenchym. Echinomuricea, Verrill;
Muricea, Lamouroux; Paramuricea, Köll; Acamptogorgia, W. and S.;
Bebryce, Philippi.
Fam. 5. Plexauridae.—In this family we find some of the largest and

most substantial Gorgonids. The axis is usually black, but its horny
substance may be impregnated with lime, particularly at the base.
The coenenchym is thick, and the zooids are usually completely
retractile, and the surface smooth. The species of the family are
principally found in shallow water in warm or tropical regions.
The principal genera are:—Eunicea, Lamouroux. The calices are

prominent, and not retractile. Plexaura, Lamouroux; Euplexaura,
Verrill. Eunicella, Verrill. With an outer layer of peculiar torch-shaped
spicules. The only British species of this order is Eunicella cavolini
(formerly called Gorgonia verrucosa). It is found in depths of 10 to 20
fathoms off the coast of the English Channel and west of Scotland.
Occasionally specimens are found in which a gall-like malformation
with a circular aperture is seen, containing a Barnacle. Such gall
formations, common enough in some species of Madreporaria, are
rarely found in Alcyonaria.
Fig. 156.—Eunicella cavolini. Some branches of a large dried specimen, showing

a gall formed by a Cirripede.
Fam. 6. Gorgoniidae.—This family contains some of the

commonest and best-known genera of the order. They usually form
large flexible branched colonies with delicate horny axes and thin
coenenchym. The zooids are usually completely retractile.
The principal genera are:—Gorgonia, Linn. This genus includes

Gorgonia (Rhipidogorgia) flabellum, the well-known fan Gorgonia
with intimately anastomosing branches, from the warm waters of the
Atlantic Ocean. The genera Eugorgia, Verrill, and Leptogorgia, Milne
Edwards, differ from Gorgonia in the character of the spicules. In
Xiphigorgia, Milne Edwards, from the West Indies, the branches are
much compressed, forming at the edges wing-like ridges, which bear
the zoopores in rows. Malacogorgia, Hickson, has no spicules. Cape
of Good Hope.
Fam. 7. Gorgonellidae.—In this family the horny axis is

impregnated with lime. The surface of the coenenchym is usually
smooth, and the spicules small. The colonies are sometimes
unbranched (Juncella). In the branching forms the axis of the
terminal branches is often very fine and thread-like in dimensions.
Fig. 157.—Verrucella guadaloupensis, with an epizoic Brittle star (Oph.) of similar

colour.
The principal genera are:—Gorgonella, with a ramified flabelliform

axis; Ctenocella, with a peculiar double-comb manner of branching;
and Juncella, which forms very long unbranched or slightly branched
colonies, with club-shaped spicules. All these genera are found in
shallow water in the tropical or semi-tropical regions of the world.
Verrucella is a genus with delicate anastomosing branches found
principally in the shallow tropical waters of the Atlantic shores. Like
many of the Gorgonacea, with branches disposed in one plane
(flabelliform) Verrucella frequently carries a considerable number of
epizoic Brittle stars, which wind their flexible arms round the
branches, and thus obtain a firm attachment to their host. There is
no reason to suppose that these Brittle stars are in any sense
parasitic, as a specimen that bears many such forms shows no sign
of injury or degeneration, and it is possible they may even be of
service to the Verrucella by preying upon other organisms that might
be injurious. An interesting feature of the association is that the
Brittle stars are of the same colour as the host, and the knob-like
plates on their aboral surface have a close resemblance to the
verrucae (Fig. 157).
Order V. Pennatulacea.
The Sea-pens form a very distinct order of the Alcyonaria. They are
the only Alcyonarians that are not strictly sedentary in habit, that are
capable of independent movement as a whole, and exhibit a bilateral
symmetry of the colony. No genera have yet been discovered that
can be regarded as connecting links between the Pennatulacea and
the other orders of the Alcyonaria. Their position, therefore, is an
isolated one, and their relationships obscure.
The peculiarities of the order are due to the great growth and
modification in structure of the first formed zooid of the colony. This
zooid (Oozooid, Hauptpolyp, or Axial zooid) increases greatly in
length, develops very thick fleshy walls, usually loses its tentacles,
digestive organs, and frequently its mouth, exhibits profound
modification of its system of mesenteries, and in other ways
becomes adapted to its function of supporting the whole colony.
Fig. 158.—Diagram of a Sea-pen. L, leaves composed of a row of autozooids; R,
rachis; St, stalk; T, anthocodia of the axial zooid, usually suppressed. (After
Jungersen.)
The axial zooid shows from an early stage of development a division

into two regions: a distal region which produces by gemmation on
the body-wall numerous secondary zooids, and becomes the rachis
of the colony; and a proximal region which becomes the stalk or
peduncle, and does not produce buds (Fig. 158). The secondary
zooids are of two kinds: the autozooids and the siphonozooids. The
former have the ordinary characters of an Alcyonarian zooid, and
produce sexual cells; the latter have no tentacles, a reduced
mesenteric system, and a stomodaeum provided with a very wide
siphonoglyph.
The arrangement of the autozooids and siphonozooids upon the

axial zooid is subject to great modifications, and affords the principal
character for the classification of the order. In the Pennatuleae the
autozooids are arranged in two bilaterally disposed rows on the
rachis, forming the leaves or pinnae of the colony (Fig. 158). The
number in each leaf increases during the growth of the colony by the
addition of new zooids in regular succession from the dorsal to the
ventral side of the rachis[385] (Fig. 159). In other Pennatulacea the
autozooids are arranged in rows which do not unite to form leaves
(Funiculina), in a tuft at the extremity of a long peduncle (Umbellula),
scattered on the dorsal side of the rachis (Renilla, Fig. 160), or
scattered on all sides of the rachis (Cavernularia, Fig. 161). In those
forms in which the autozooids are scattered the bilateral symmetry of
the colony as a whole becomes obscured. The siphonozooids may
be found on the leaves (Pteroeides), but more frequently between
the leaves or rows of autozooids, or scattered irregularly among the
autozooids. Usually the siphonozooids are of one kind only, but in
Pennatula murrayi there is one specially modified siphonozooid at
the base of each leaf,[386] which appears to have some special but
unknown function.
Fig. 159.—Diagram of a portion of a rachis of a Sea-pen, aut, The rows of

autozooids; 1-6, the order of age of the autozooids composing a leaf; D, the
dorsal side of the rachis; Si, the siphonozooids; V, the ventral side of the
rachis. (After Jungersen.)
In Umbellula gracilis each siphonozooid bears a single pinnate

tentacle, and in some other species of the same genus there is a
tentacle which is not pinnate.[387]
The zooids and coenenchym are usually protected by a crust of

coloured or colourless, long, smooth, needle-like, calcareous
spicules, situated principally in the superficial layer, so as to leave
the subjacent tissues soft and spongy in texture. In some cases the
spicules are smooth double clubs, rods, discs, or irregular granules,
and in Sarcophyllum, Chunella, some species of Umbellula and
others, there is no calcareous skeleton. The tuberculated spindles,
so common in other Alcyonaria, are not found in any species. In
most genera a horny, or calcified horny rod is embedded in the
central part of the axial polyp, serving as a backbone or support for
its muscles. It is absent, however, in Renilla, and reduced or absent
in Cavernularia.
The sexual organs are borne by the mesenteries of the autozooids
only, and each colony is either male or female. There is no record of
hermaphroditism in the order. The eggs contain a considerable
amount of yolk, and fertilisation is effected in the sea-water after their
discharge. The segmentation is irregular, and the free-swimming
ciliated larva (of Renilla) shows the rudiments of the first buds from
the axial polyp before it settles down in the mud.
The Sea-pens are usually found on muddy or sandy sea-bottoms,

from a depth of a few fathoms to the greatest depths of the ocean. It
is generally assumed that their normal position is one with the
peduncle embedded in the mud and the rachis erect. Positive
evidence of this was given by Rumphius, writing in 1741, in the case
of Virgularia rumphii and V. juncea at Amboina,[388] and by Darwin in
the case of Stylatula darwinii at Bahia Blanca.[389]
"At low water," writes Darwin, "hundreds of these zoophytes might be

seen projecting like stubble, with the truncate end upwards, a few
inches above the surface of the muddy sand. When touched or
pulled they suddenly drew themselves in with force so as nearly or
quite to disappear."
It is not known whether the Pennatulids have the power of moving

from place to place when the local conditions become unfavourable.
It is quite probable that they have this power, but the accounts given
of the Sea-pens lying flat on the sand do not appear to be founded
on direct observation. The fable of Pennatula swimming freely "with
all its delicate transparent polypi expanded, and emitting their usual
brilliant phosphorescent light, sailing through the still and dark abyss
by the regular and synchronous pulsations of the minute fringed
arms of the whole polypi," appears to be based on a statement made
by Bohadsch in 1761, and picturesque though it be, is undoubtedly
erroneous.
The brilliant phosphorescence of many species of Pennatulacea has
been observed by many naturalists, and it is very probable that they
all exhibit this property to some degree. The phosphorescence
appears to be emitted by the mesenteric filaments of the autozooids,
but it is not yet determined whether the phenomenon is confined to
these organs or is more generally distributed.
The Pennatulacea are usually devoid of epizoites, but occasionally

the parasitic or semi-parasitic Entomostracan Lamippe is found in
the zooids. A small crab is also frequently found between the large
leaves of species of Pteroeides. The most remarkable case of
symbiosis, however, has recently been observed in the form of an
encrusting Gymnoblastic Hydroid[390] living on the free edge of the
leaves of a species of Ptilosarcus.
The order Pennatulacea is divided into four sections.
Sect. 1. Pennatuleae.—In this section the colony is distinctly

bilaterally symmetrical, and the autozooids are arranged in rows with
their body-walls fused to form leaves.
The genus Pteroeides, the representative genus of the family

Pteroeididae, is a fleshy Sea-pen found in shallow sea water in the
warm waters of the Pacific Ocean and in the Mediterranean. It has
large leaves with long spiny, projecting spicules, and the
siphonozooids are borne by the leaves. Pennatula, the
representative genus of the family Pennatulidae, has a wider
distribution in area and in depth. Pennatula phosphorea is a common
British species, found in depths of 10 to 20 fathoms in many
localities off our coasts. It is about 5 inches in length. There are
several varieties of this species distributed in Atlantic waters.
Pennatula grandis is a magnificent species found in Norwegian
fjords, in the Faeroe Channel, and off the northern coasts of N.
America, in depths of from 50 to 1255 fathoms. Specimens have
been obtained no less than 2½ feet in length. P. murrayi and P.
naresi are species of the genus found at depths of a few hundred
fathoms in tropical seas.
The genus Virgularia, belonging to the family Virgulariidae, is

represented in the British seas by V. mirabilis, a long slender Sea-
pen found in many localities off the Scottish coasts.
Sect. 2. Spicatae.—This section includes those Sea-pens in which

the autozooids are arranged bilaterally on the axial zooid in rows or
more irregularly, but do not unite to form leaves. It is a large section
and contains many widely divergent genera.
The family Funiculinidae is represented on our coasts by Funiculina

quadrangularis, a long and slender Sea-pen 2 to 3 feet in length. The
autozooids are arranged in oblique rows, and the siphonozooids are
on the ventral side of the rachis. There is one point of special interest
in this genus. The siphonozooids appear to change as the colony
grows and to become autozooids. If this is the case it may be more
correct to describe the genus as devoid of true siphonozooids.
The family Anthoptilidae contains the species Anthoptilum

grandiflorum, which has a wide distribution in depths of 130 to 500
fathoms in the N. and S. Atlantic Ocean. It is perhaps the largest of
all the Pennatulacea, specimens having been obtained from the
Cape of Good Hope over 4 feet long with expanded autozooids,
each more than half an inch in length.
The family Kophobelemnonidae contains a number of forms with

remarkably large autozooids arranged in irregular rows on the two
sides of the rachis. The siphonozooids are numerous and scattered,
and their position is indicated by small papilliform calices on the
coenenchym. The surface of these pens is usually rough, owing to
the presence of numerous coarse projecting spicules.
Kophobelemnon occurs in the Mediterranean in deep water, off the
coasts of Ireland and Scotland, and in other regions.
The family Umbellulidae contains some of the most remarkable and

interesting examples of the deep-sea fauna. The peduncle is very
long and the rachis stunted and expanded. The autozooids are of
great size, non-retractile, and arranged in a cluster or rosette on the
terminal rachis. There is a wide structural range between the
species. Some species have numerous large spicules, others have
none. In some species the siphonozooids have a single pinnate or
digitate tentacle, in others the siphonozooids are of the usual type.
Umbellula appears to be a somewhat rare but cosmopolitan genus in
deep water, extending from the Arctic to the Antarctic region in water
ranging from 200 to 2500 fathoms.
The interesting genus Chunella was discovered by the German

"Valdivia" Expedition at a depth of about 420 fathoms off the coast of
E. Africa, and subsequently by the Dutch "Siboga" Expedition at a
depth of about 500 fathoms in the Malay Archipelago. According to
Kükenthal,[391] this genus with another closely allied genus
Amphianthus should form a new section of Pennatulacea, the
Verticilladeae. Chunella has a long and very delicate rachis and
peduncle, and the former terminates in a single autozooid and has
five or six whorls of three autozooids, situated at considerable
distances from one another. Spicules are absent. The full description
of this genus has not yet been published, but it is clear that it
occupies a very isolated position in the order.
Fig. 160.—Renilla reniformis, a small specimen (34 mm.), showing the dorsal
side of the expanded rachis. A, autozooid; H, the mouth of the axial zooid;

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Nature of Computation and

Context-Aware Systems and Applications, and Nature of

Context-Aware Systems and Applications, and Nature of

Future Data and Security Engineering First

Context Aware Systems and Applications 4th

Computational Data and Social Networks 8th

Future Data and Security Engineering 5th International

Industrial Networks and Intelligent Systems 3rd

International Conference on Security and Privacy in

ISSN 1867-8211 ISSN 1867-822X (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015930815

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Printed on acid-free paper

November 2014 Phan Cong Vinh

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Dinh Duc Anh Vu University of Information Tecnology – HCMVNU,

Formal Methods for Self-Adaptive Systems

Modular Design and Verification of Distributed Adaptive

Modeling Swarm Robotics with KnowLang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Reasoning on Data Streams: An Approach to Adaptation

Autonomic Computing Software for Autonomous Space Vehicles . . . . . . . . 33

Logic-Based Modeling of Information Transfer in Cyber-Physical

Nature of Computation and Communication

Categorical Structures of Self-adaptation in Collective Adaptive Systems . . . 55

Self-adaptive Traits in Collective Adaptive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

A Context-Aware Traffic Engineering Model for Software-Defined

Reconstructing Low Degree Triangular Parametric Surfaces Based on Inverse

Maximizing the Lifetime of Wireless Sensor Networks with the Base

Establishing Operational Models for Dynamic Compilation

MetaAB - A Novel Abundance-Based Binning Approach

An Application of PCA on Uncertainty of Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Co-modeling: An Agent-Based Approach to Support the Coupling

Adaptive Distributed Systems with Cellular Differentiation Mechanisms . . . . 171

Slowdown-Guided Genetic Algorithm for Job Scheduling in Federated

Measurement of Cloud Computing Services Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Security Aspects of Cloud Based Mobile Health Care Application . . . . . . . . 202

New NHPP SRM Based on Generalized S-shaped Fault-Detection

Enhancement of Innovation Co-creation Processes and Ecosystems

Design and Implementation of Sustainable Social Shopping Systems . . . . . . 233

Developing Method for Optimizing Cost of Software Quality Assurance

Un-normlized and Random Walk Hypergraph Laplacian

Graph Based Semi-supervised Learning Methods Applied to Speech

Updating Relational Databases with Linguistic Data

Primacy of Fuzzy Relational Databases Based on Hedge Algebras . . . . . . . . 292

Reducing Impurities in Medical Images Based on Curvelet Domain . . . . . . . 306

Increasing the Quality of Medical Images Based on the Combination

Efficient Pancreas Segmentation in Computed Tomography

Object Classification Based on Contourlet Transform in Outdoor

Motion Detection Based on Image Intensity Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

Vehicle Tracking in Outdoor Environment Based on Curvelet Domain . . . . . 360

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Definition 5. g := ⇒ s |s ⇒ s (Goal)