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NOURISHED
PLANET
Sustainability in the
GLOBAL FOOD SYSTEM

Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition

E d it e d b y DANIELLE NIERENBERG
 About Island Press

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Nourished Planet
Sustainability in the Global Food System

Edited by Danielle Nierenberg, Food Tank

Laurie Fisher, Brian Frederick, and Michael Peñuelas

Washington | Covelo | London

© 2018, Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition

All rights reserved under International and Pan-­American Copyright

Conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by
any means without permission in writing from the publisher: Island Press,
Suite 650, 2000 M Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036

Island Press is a trademark of the Center for Resource Economics.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017960090

All Island Press books are printed on environmentally responsible materials.

Manufactured in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Keywords: regenerative agriculture, food access, food deserts, soil health,

pesticides, water conservation, sustainability of well-­being, the double
pyramid, supply chain, nutrition, culinary traditions
 Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition

BCFN Advisory Board

Barbara Buchner, Ellen Gustafson, Danielle Nierenberg, Livia Pomo-
doro, Gabriele Riccardi, Camillo Ricordi, Riccardo Valentini, and Ste-
fano Zamagni

Food Tank Staff

Danielle Nierenberg, Bernard Pollack, Vanesa Botero-­Lowry, McKenna
Hayes, Emily Payne, Michael Peñuelas, and Brian Frederick

Nourished Planet is based on and has content from Eating Planet Food
and Sustainability: Building Our Future, written by the Barilla Center for
Food & Nutrition (Edizioni Ambiente, 2016). To discover more: www​
.barillacfn​.com
 Contents
Foreword: Valuing the True Cost of Food by Pavan Sukhdev and Alexander
Müller  ix
Preface by Guido Barilla  xiii
Preface by Danielle Nierenberg  xvii
Acknowledgments  xix
Chapter 1. Food for All  1
A Recipe for Sustainable Food Systems   1
Ingredients for Sustainability   3
Soil Degradation around the Globe   5
Food for All   14
Barriers to Food Access and Affordability   20
Precarious Prices for Food   25
Conclusion and Action Plan   30
Voices from the New Food Movement  36
Hilal Elver  36
Hans R. Herren   40
Sieglinde Snapp  44
Vandana Shiva  50
Chapter 2. Food for Sustainable Growth  55
The Food Pyramid Reimagined   56
How Our Diets Affect the Environment   60
Our Environmental Foodprints  61
The Water Economy: How Much Do We Have?   70
Managing Our Supply: The “Virtual Water” Trade and Water
Privatization  73
Soil Loss and Degradation   76

vii
viii contents

Food Loss and Food Waste   81

Agricultural Systems: Sustainability Is More Important Than
Ever  84
Revolutionizing the Practices of the Past   85
Farming for the Future   87
Conclusion and Action Plan   89
Voices from the New Food Movement  96
Dario Piselli  96
Steve Brescia  104
Shaneica Lester and Anne-­Teresa Birthwright   109
Chapter 3. Food for Health  115
Building the Foundation for Health   119
A Lifetime of Health, and Preventing the Paradox   122
Corporate Influence on Dietary Choices   134
The Food Business Can Do Better   141
Conclusion and Action Plan   144
Voices from the New Food Movement  147
Alexander Müller  147
Bruce Friedrich  150
Tristram Stuart  156
Chapter 4. Food for Culture  159
Going Forward by Going Back   160
Selected Endangered Foods Worldwide and Efforts
to Save Them  165
Controlling Food: Food and Power Roles   171
The Great Culinary Tradition of the Mediterranean Diet and the
Reality of Food Today   178
Conclusion and Action Plan   185
Voices from the New Food Movement  190
Natasha Bowens  190
Lindsey Shute  197
Stephen Ritz  201
Ruth Oniang’o  205
Notes  209
Index  241
foreword

Valuing the True

Cost of Food
Pavan Sukhdev and Alexander Müller

Food is more than sustenance. It is an integral part of the economic and

sociocultural ecosystem in which we all live and work.
Unfortunately, there are significant externalities, both positive and
negative, that prevent many of us from understanding the true cost of
the food in our bowls or on our plates. Indeed, many of the largest
impacts on the health of humans, ecosystems, agricultural lands, waters,
and seas arising from various types of agricultural and food systems are
economically invisible. As a result, they do not get the attention they
deserve from decision makers in policy and business—­or from eaters.
There is an urgent need to evaluate all significant externalities of
eco-­agri-­food systems, to better inform decision makers in governments,
businesses, and farms. And there is a need to evaluate the eco-­agri-­food
system complex as a whole, not as a set of silos. The book you hold in
your hands right now, Nourished Planet, represents a significant step in
the right direction for enlightening policymakers, businesses, and society
at large about the many dimensions of our eco-­agri-­food systems. This

ix
x va lu i n g t h e t r u e c o s t o f f o o d

book focuses on not only the problems—­of hunger, obesity, climate

change, and poor nutrition—­but also on the solutions.
As part of our work with TEEBAgriFood, a global endeavor to
understand the size and scale of externalities along the value chain in
different types of eco-­agri-­food systems, we have learned that we must
understand not only the negative impacts of food production but also
the diverse benefits that come from growing, transporting, distributing,
and eating food in environmentally, economically, and socially sustain-
able ways.
Many of the benefits and costs attributable to agriculture are invisible;
they are not traded in global markets and are not part of a price consum-
ers pay at the checkout counter. But they do affect human well-­being
and the well-­being of the planet. All these impacts, visible and invisi-
ble, must be assembled and evaluated through a universal framework in
order to provide analytical consistency and comparability across systems,
across policies, and across business strategies—­in other words, across
every aspect of our lives. And although this is no small feat, it can and
should be done.
One exciting outcome of TEEBAgriFood’s work is our analysis of
rice production systems. Worldwide, about 80 million hectares of irri-
gated lowland rice provides 75 percent of global rice production. This
predominant type of rice system receives about 40 percent of the world’s
total irrigation water and 30 percent of the world’s freshwater resources
withdrawn from the natural cycle. Our study compared the System of
Rice Intensification (SRI) with conventional production methods and
found that in Senegal, the cost of water consumption under conven-
tional systems was significantly higher than it was under SRI. Switching
to SRI methods, the study said, could reduce water consumption–­related
health and environmental costs in Senegal by about US$11 million a
year. At the same time, the rice-­producing community would gain about
US$17 million through yield increases. This sort of win–­win scenario
 va lu i n g t h e t r u e c o s t o f f o o d xi

has far-­reaching benefits that can’t be always be measured in real time,

including multigenerational benefits as children see the value of this type
of farming in their daily lives.
Top-­down solutions rarely have the same economic or environmental
impact that those coming from the ground up can have, and Nourished
Planet makes it clear that discovering solutions means listening to com-
munities and understanding their needs and wants.
In addition, Nourished Planet highlights the importance of reviving
the fundamental aspects of eating that are most focused on the bond
between food, the individual, and her community. At the environmen-
tal and ecological level, this will be about protecting local crop variet-
ies, preserving biological diversity. At the social level, this will be about
transferring the culinary expertise and know-­how about preparing and
serving foods in unique and culturally enriching ways, returning to a
healthy relationship with the land and with the raw material by focusing
on the excellence in quality of the ingredients, recovering age-­old flavors,
perhaps even making contemporary variants, and thus leading to the
preservation of the best of the local culinary tradition.
Together with economic analysis of these challenges and
solutions—­including the work of TEEBAgriFood—­Nourished Planet
will be among the important works that contribute to a much better
and holistic understanding of our food challenges. It will help create
better and lasting food solutions for all—­for the poor, for development,
for the planet, and for society and culture—­for generations to come.

Pavan Sukdev is the UNEP Global Ambassador and, on behalf of this

UN agency, has led the project on The Economics of Ecosystems and Bio­
diversity (TEEB), commissioned to the United Nations by the European
Commission and the German government. He is the founder–­CEO of
GIST Advisory, an environmental consulting firm helping governments
and corporations manage their impact on natural and human capital.
xii va lu i n g t h e t r u e c o s t o f f o o d

Alexander Müller, a graduate sociologist, is directing a global study for

the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) on “The Economics of Eco-
systems and Biodiversity for Agriculture and Food” and managing the
TMG: Töpfer, Müller, Gaßner GmbH, ThinkTank for Sustainability.
From 2006 to 2013, he was assistant director-­general of the Natural
Resources Management and Environment Department at the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
 Preface
by Guido Barilla

The Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition (BCFN) was set up in 2009
as a research center to deepen our understanding of the complex global
issues related to food, agriculture, and nutrition.
Thanks to the BCFN’s multidisciplinary studies, we soon became
aware of the paradoxes in the world’s food system. People are starving, but
obesity levels are rising and we still waste a huge amount of food. People
go to bed hungry, but we increasingly use crops to feed animals and cars.
Meanwhile, unsustainable farming pushes the environment to the limit.
The BCFN therefore started to develop ways to respond to these
problems, in the context of the United Nations Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals. The breakthrough came with a model that highlights the
strong impact our food choices have on the environment. The message
delivered by the BCFN’s double food and environmental pyramid is
simple: If we eat well, by reducing our meat consumption and focusing
on a more plant-­based diet full of whole grains and good fats such as
olive oil, we can improve our own health and the health of the planet.
In 2014, the BCFN Foundation developed the Milan Protocol to raise
awareness among institutions and the wider public on the need to tackle
the world’s food paradoxes, proposing ways to promote healthy lifestyles,
encourage more sustainable agriculture, and reduce food waste.

xiii
xiv p r e fa c e

The Milan Protocol inspired the Milan Charter, a global agreement

to guarantee healthy, safe, and sufficient food for all, which the Ital-
ian government presented to Secretary-­General of the United Nations
Ban Ki-­moon during Expo2015 (a global gathering of 145 countries in
Milan around the theme “Feeding the Planet, Energy for Life”).
The BCFN also encouraged young people to have a strong leadership
role as part of the Expo2015 experience, with the creation of the Youth
Manifesto, which calls for new policies to end the current paradoxes
ruling food production, distribution, and consumption.
Youth have always played an important role at the BCFN. In addition
to having several young researchers on staff, we have made a commit-
ment to cultivate the next generation of food system leaders through the
BCFN Young Earth Solutions (BCFN YES!) contest. To foster net-
working among contestants, the BCFN also started the BCFN Alumni
Association.
The joint efforts of the BCFN’s Scientific Committee and the Alumni
have recently yielded two important projects aimed at helping to fix the
world’s broken food system.
The Food Sustainability Index (FSI), developed in 2016 with the
Economist Intelligence Unit, highlights gaps and provides replicable
examples of practices and policies to promote sustainable food systems.
The FSI compares the work of countries using defined indicators to
reveal the frontrunners—­and how they got there—­against three pillars:
sustainable agriculture, nutritional challenges, and food loss and waste.
The FSI is designed to be a reference point for policymakers and experts
to orient their action and a tool to educate members of the public and
inspire behavior changes for the good of our health and of our planet.
Born as a result of the Youth Manifesto, the Food Sustainability
Media Award is the first international prize of its kind to reward excel-
lence in journalism about food and sustainability. By informing and
shedding light on today’s food paradoxes, we believe the media at large
 p r e fa c e xv

can engage consumers so that in turn they can contribute to the cre-
ation of a more equitable and sustainable future, starting from their
food choices. It was launched in partnership with the Thomson Reuters
Foundation, and the first prizes to professional journalists and emerging
talents in the media were awarded at the BCFN’s international forum
in December 2017.
This edition of Nourished Planet is meant as a guide for youth who
care about where their food comes from, who produced it, how it was
grown, and the sorts of policies and practices that will not only feed
future generations but nourish them as well.

Guido Barilla is chairman of the Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition
Foundation.
 Preface
by Danielle Nierenberg

As I write this, I’m watching the devastating images of Hurricane Har-

vey in Texas, Florida, and Puerto Rico. Thousands of residents were
displaced in the fourth largest city in the United States, and although
the current situation is beyond difficult, the impacts will be felt for
years to come.
And while politicians and climate change deniers will debate whether
this hurricane is a result of climate change, for millions around the globe
climate change isn’t a myth but a reality that threatens their future and
their children’s future they need to deal with every day. It’s clear that
more extreme weather events, whether from too much rain or too little,
are affecting the economy, farming, conflict, and migration.
But if climate change is the most important global challenge of our
time and a threat to our future, it is a particular threat to our food
systems. Fortunately, farmers—­both small and large—­are coming
up with their own innovative strategies to improve crop yields, raise
incomes, and protect the environment. They’re forming cooperatives
and growing indigenous crops; they’re using cell phone and Global Posi-
tioning System (GPS) technologies to get better information about mar-
kets, weather, and applying inputs; they’re creating equality by valuing
women’s contributions as food producers and businesspeople; they’re

xvii
xviii p r e fa c e

mentoring youth and passing on traditional and new skills to the next
generation; and they’re breaking down silos by working with scientists,
nutritionists, researchers, funders and donors, and development agencies
to create more participatory research practices.
This book identifies the ingredients that, when combined, can help
us to decrease hunger, prevent micronutrient deficiencies, protect water
supplies, preserve seeds, prevent food loss and waste, and protect biodi-
versity. And it highlights the need to invest more in farmers, women, and
youth so that they can make the necessary discoveries and innovations.
It is my honor to work closely with the Barilla Center for Food &
Nutrition Foundation. As a global research and funding organization,
the BCFN is doing important work to develop research on hunger and
obesity, nutrition, food loss and food waste, agroecology, global migra-
tion, and other projects. And it is building partnerships and collabo-
rations with organizations across the world to help make that research
become a reality in fields, kitchens, and boardrooms across the globe.
We all know that preaching to the choir is not the best recipe for
change. By bringing this information to a wide audience—­of farmers,
eaters, businesses, policymakers, academics, youth, funders, media, and
civil society—­we hope to create the dialogue and the uncomfortable
conversations that will help make the food system better for us all.

Danielle Nierenberg is the president of Food Tank and a member of the

Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition Advisory Group.
 Acknowledgments

We thank Barilla, the Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition, Blue Apron,
CARE International, The Christensen Fund, Clif Bar, Clover, Del Mar
Global Trust, the Eula Mae and John Baugh Foundation, Fairfield
County’s Community Foundation, Fair Trade USA, Fazenda da Toca,
The Fink Family Foundation, the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, GRACE Communications Foundation, Great
Performances, the International Fund for Agricultural Development,
The McKnight Foundation, Naked Juice, Nature’s Path, Niman Ranch,
Panera Bread, Organic Valley, The Overbrook Foundation, The Repub-
lic of Tea, The Rockefeller Foundation, Sealed Air, Sombra Mezcal, the
Stuart Foundation, and WhatsGood.
I’m grateful to the Food Tank Board and our Advisory Group for pro-
viding much-­needed criticism and encouragement for Nourished Planet,
especially board members Bernard Pollack, our chair, and Dr. William
Burke, the newest member of the Food Tank family. Both are my biggest
supporters and champions.
I’d also like to thank my parents, Joyce and Fred Nierenberg. They
bought me my first notebook and pen and the kid-­sized typewriter I
tapped out my first stories on. They made me believe I could be a writer
and a storyteller, and although my mother continues to be surprised by
my dedication to the world’s farmers—­I couldn’t wait to leave Defiance,

xix
xx acknowledgments

Missouri, the farming community I grew up in—­she always told me I

could be anything I wanted.
And last but not least, this book is for the farmers, small and large,
around the globe who work every day to fill our plates and bowls while
stewarding the world’s biodiversity and other natural resources. I’m
grateful that they help nourish both people and the planet.
chapter 1

Food for All

A Recipe for Sustainable Food Systems

In Chipata, Zambia, a revolution is taking place. The organiza-
tion Zasaka is getting farmers in that southern African country access
to corn grinders, nut shellers, solar lights, and water pumps. Although
these technologies might not seem revolutionary, they are producing
game-­changing results, helping Zambian farmers increase their incomes,
prevent food loss and waste, and reduce their load of backbreaking man-
ual labor. But Zasaka is doing more than helping farmers become more
prosperous; it is showing the country’s young people how farming can
be an opportunity, something they want to do, not something they feel
forced to do simply because they have no other options.1
This project in Zambia is but one ingredient in a recipe for something
truly revolutionary: a radically different worldwide food and agriculture
system, one built on practical, innovative, and, most important, sustain-
able solutions to the problems plaguing our current agri-­food system.
Farmers, eaters, businesses, funders, policymakers, and scientists are con-
tinually learning better ways to increase food’s nutritional value and nutri-
ent density, protect natural resources, improve social equality, and create

Barilla Center for Food and Nutrition and Danielle Nierenberg (eds.), Nourished Planet: 1
Sustainability in the Global Food System, 10.5822/ 978-1-61091-895-4_ 1, © 2018 Barilla
Center for Food and Nutrition
2 nourished planet

better markets—­in short, to develop a recipe for sustainable agriculture

for both today and tomorrow. This recipe is being developed in fields and
kitchens, in boardrooms and laboratories, by farmers, researchers, gov-
ernment leaders, nongovernment organizations (NGOs), journalists, and
other stakeholders in sub-­Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Experts
from a variety of socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds are finding ways,
firsthand, to overcome hunger and poverty and other problems—­while also
protecting the environment—­in their countries.
Ironically, their recommendations are not that different from those
that could be reasonably offered to farmers in North America. Despite
all the differences between the developed and developing worlds,
there is a growing realization that the Global North’s way of feeding
people—­relying heavily on the mechanized, chemical-­intensive, mass
production of food—­isn’t working, and that policymakers and donors
might be wise to start following the lead of farmers in the Global South
rather than insisting that they follow ours.
In Ethiopia, for example, farmers who are part of a network created by
Prolinnova, an international NGO that promotes local innovation in eco-
logically oriented agriculture and natural resource management, are using
low-­cost rainwater harvesting and erosion control projects to battle drought
and poverty, increasing both crop yields and incomes. In India, women
entrepreneurs working with the Self-­Employed Women’s Association are
providing low-­cost, high-­quality food to the urban poor. In Gambia, fisher
folk are finding ways to simultaneously protect marine resources and main-
tain fish harvests. And hardworking, innovative farmers from all over the
world are encouraging more investment in smallholder and medium-­holder
agriculture and telling policymakers that farmers deserve to be recognized
for the ecosystem services they provide, which benefit us all.2
There are countless others whose work is showing the world what a sus-
tainable, global food system, or recipe, could look like. They know that the
way the food system works today isn’t the way it has to work in the future.
 food for all 3

They understand that we can help build a food system that com-
bats poverty, obesity, food waste, and hunger, not by treating a healthy
environment as an obstacle to sustainable growth but by understanding
that it’s a precondition for that growth. A food system where science is
our servant—­not our master—­and where it’s understood that costly,
complicated technology often isn’t the most appropriate technology. A
food system that honors our values—­where women, workers, and eaters
all have a seat at the table and none are left on the outside looking in.
The world has a real opportunity and an obligation to build that kind
of system, and we don’t have a minute to waste. We need to gather the
ingredients today so that future generations can build on the recipe for
a food system that provides healthful food for all, promotes a healthy
planet, and preserves and appreciates food culture.

Ingredients for Sustainability

There are a variety of ingredients to consider if we are to come up with a
successful recipe for sustainable agriculture. First, though, we must under-
stand what we mean by “sustainable,” which is a term that can encompass
so much but is often overused and misused. For us, sustainable agricul-
tural systems are able to efficiently and comprehensively meet the food,
fuel, and fiber needs of today without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet the needs of tomorrow. What we hope to highlight in
this book is how we can create a food system that is not only environmen-
tally sustainable but also economically, socially, and culturally sustainable
and that helps ensure that we are nourishing people as well as the planet.
This chapter will introduce the ingredients necessary for sustainability
in food and agriculture and explore how the components of sustain-
ability can add up to better food production, more opportunities for
farmers, and a healthier planet and population. This section will also
discuss in depth a critical ingredient of a sustainable food system: safe
and stable access to nutritious food for all. The following sections are
4 nourished planet

Figure 1.1. Model developed by the International Assessment of Agricultural

Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD) to
represent the complex system of agriculture. B, balancing; O, opposite;
R, reinforcing; S, same. Source: IAASTD, “Agriculture at a Crossroads: Global
Report,” International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for
Development (IAASTD) Project (2008), http://​www​.weltagrarbericht​.de/​reports/​
Global​_Report/​Global​_content​.html

devoted to a deeper analysis of the elements crucial to sustainability. This

book is much like a cookbook, offering not only a recipe but also insight
from experts as well as illuminating real-­life examples. Together, this
information can provide a well-­rounded look at how more sustainable
food systems are made.
Exploring sustainability means exploring the foundation on which
food production is built (see Chapter 2, “Food for Sustainable Growth”).
Air, water, and soil are all important components, and soil—­literally the
foundation of a healthy food system—­is the one most often overlooked.
Besides being the physical land beneath our feet, soil stores and filters
 food for all 5

water, provides resilience to drought, and sequesters carbon. One of the

biggest threats to the food supply is the loss of topsoil. Indeed, in the past
150 years, roughly half of Earth’s topsoil has been lost.3
Nearly 40 percent of all land on Earth is used for activities related to
agriculture and livestock, and all told, some 4.4 billion hectares (roughly
10.8 billion acres, or about 146 times the area of Italy) is suitable for
farming. Yet in the past 40 years, 30 percent of the planet’s arable land has
become unproductive. In many regions, problems related to soil quality
affect more than half of the acreage being cultivated, as seen in sub-­
Saharan Africa, South America, Southeast Asia, and northern Europe.
Each year, the planet loses an agricultural area as big as the Philippines
(put another way, we are losing a Berlin-­size plot of land every day).4

Soil Degradation around the Globe

North America (Iowa, United States)
• In Iowa, soil is eroding 10 times faster than regeneration rates.5
• Farm fields’ ability to retain water has decreased due to sedi-
ment loss; the average 5-­ton loss of topsoil per acre per year
translates to 300–­400 gallons of water retention lost per acre.6
• Iowa reservoirs are being filled with sediment that has run off
from agricultural fields, which reduces their capacity to hold
water.7
• Soil degradation costs the United States $37.6 billion each
year.8
Europe (Italy)
• Across Europe, soil is eroding 3 to 40 times faster than regen-
eration rates.9
• About 30% of Italy’s agricultural area is at risk for erosion,
evidenced by an increase in suspended sediment in rivers from
runoff and gully erosion.10
6 nourished planet

• Additional soil degradation is caused by a reduction in organic

matter, overgrazing, and nonsustainable agricultural practices.11
Asia (China, India)
• In China, soil is eroding 30 to 40 times faster than regenera-
tion rates.12
• In India, economic losses from soil degradation are estimated
at 1–­7% of agricultural gross domestic product (GDP).13
Africa (Zimbabwe, Niger, Ghana, Kenya, Ethiopia)
• In Zimbabwe, 70% of farmland has been degraded because of
erosion.14
• Degraded soils are less responsive to fertilizers because of defi-
ciencies in calcium, zinc, nitrogen, and phosphorus.15
• In Niger, 40–­50% of land was deforested between 1958 and
1997; current estimates of degradation are 80,000 to 120,000
hectares annually, causing extensive soil loss.16
• In Ghana, between 2006 and 2015, soil degradation was
projected to reduce agricultural income by approximately
US$4.2 billion, or 5% of agricultural GDP over that 10-­year
period.17
• In Kenya, 65% of soil has been degraded, and 19% of agricul-
tural land is experiencing serious degradation.18
• The average cost of replacing nutrients to degraded soil is
equivalent to 32% of average net farm income in Kenya.19
• In Ethiopia, the gross discounted cumulative soil loss (assumes
continued degradation over time) ranges from 36% to 44%.20
• The rocky northern highlands of Ethiopia receive unpredict-
able rain, causing extreme erosion that strips nutrients from
the soil, devastating crops and livelihoods.21
Central America (Costa Rica)
• In Costa Rica, uncontrolled soil erosion has led to predictions
that coffee yields would decline by half in 3 years and to zero
 food for all 7

in 20 years, potato yields would decline by 40% after 50 years,

and cocoyam yields would decline by more than half after
1 year and to zero after 4 years.22
• Soil degradation has reduced agricultural productivity in Cen-
tral America by 37%—­the largest loss of any global region.23
South America (Chile)
• In Chile, soil degradation has caused a 50% reduction in
wheat yields and a 23% decrease in goat rearing.24
• Soil degradation and erosion can negatively impact tourism, a
major source of income.25
Australia (Australia)
• Since 1950, populations on “fragile lands” in Australia have
doubled; these environments are prone to land degradation
and are less suitable for agriculture.26
• The livelihoods of agricultural families living on these
degraded lands are seriously threatened, placing them in a
“poverty-­environment trap.”27

Wes Jackson, an agronomist and the co-­founder and president emer-

itus of the Land Institute, an organization studying the best ways to
improve soils worldwide, says we’re plowing through our soil bank
account and sending those riches downstream to the ocean.28 Still,
there are solutions. For example, the Land Institute touts the value
of growing more perennial crops. Agronomist Jerry Glover, formerly
at the Land Institute and now part of the Africa RISING project at
the U.S. Agency for International Development, also calls for more
research into perennial crops, which, unlike annuals, survive from sea-
son to season and have deep root structures that can stabilize soils
and hold water.29 Some perennials are also very nutritious, provid-
ing an extra source of high-­quality food to families in the developing
world. According to Glover, more than half the world’s population
Another random document with
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 The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be
suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public
Safety may require it.
No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.
No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in
Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to
be taken.
No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.
No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or
Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall
Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or
pay Duties in another.
No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence
of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and
Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall
be published from time to time.
No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no
Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without
the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument,
Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or
foreign State.
Section. 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or
Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money;
emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a
Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto
Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title
of Nobility.
No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any
Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be
absolutely necessary for executing it’s inspection Laws: and the net
Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or
Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States;
and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the
Congress.
No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of
Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into
any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign
Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such
imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.

Article. II.

Section. 1. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of

the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the
Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for
the same Term, be elected, as follows:
Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature
thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number
of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled
in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person
holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be
appointed an Elector.
The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by
Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an
Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a
List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for
each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to
the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the
President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the
Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the
Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having
the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number
be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there
be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal
Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall
immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no
Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the
said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing
the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation
from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall
consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a
Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every
Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the
greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President.
But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the
Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President.
The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors,
and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be
the same throughout the United States.
No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United
States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be
eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible
to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five
Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.
In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his
Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties
of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and
the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death,
Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President,
declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer
shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President
shall be elected.
The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a
Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished
during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall
not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United
States, or any of them.
Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the
following Oath or Affirmation:—“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I
will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States,
and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the
Constitution of the United States.”
 Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several
States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he
may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of
the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties
of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant
Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States,
except in Cases of Impeachment.
He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the
Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators
present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice
and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public
Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other
Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but
the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior
Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of
Law, or in the Heads of Departments.
The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may
happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions
which shall expire at the End of their next Session.
Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress
Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their
Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and
expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both
Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between
them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn
them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive
Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the
Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of
the United States.
Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of
the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for,
and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and
Misdemeanors.
 Article III.

Section. 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested

in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress
may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the
supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good
Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a
Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their
Continuance in Office.
Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law
and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United
States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their
Authority;—to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public
Ministers and Consuls;—to all Cases of admiralty and maritime
Jurisdiction;—to Controversies to which the United States shall be a
Party;—to Controversies between two or more States;—between a
State and Citizens of another State;—between Citizens of different
States,—between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under
Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens
thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.
In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and
Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme
Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before
mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both
as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such
Regulations as the Congress shall make.
The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be
by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said
Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within
any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress
may by Law have directed.
Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in
levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving
them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason
unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or
on Confession in open Court.
The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of
Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood,
or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

Article. IV.

Section. 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the
public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State.
And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in
which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the
Effect thereof.
Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all
Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.
A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other
Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State,
shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which
he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having
Jurisdiction of the Crime.
No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or
Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but
shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or
Labour may be due.
Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this
Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the
Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the
Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the
Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the
Congress.
The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all
needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other
Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this
Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the
United States, or of any particular State.
Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this
Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of
them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of
the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against
domestic Violence.

Article. V.

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it

necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the
Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States,
shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either
Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this
Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the
several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one
or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress;
Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year
One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the
first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and
that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of it’s equal
Suffrage in the Senate.

Article. VI.

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the

Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United
States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.
This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall
be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall
be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the
supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be
bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to
the Contrary notwithstanding.
 The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the
Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and
judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States,
shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution;
but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any
Office or public Trust under the United States.

Article. VII.

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be

sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the
States so ratifying the Same.
The Word, “the,” being interlined between the seventh and
eighth Lines of the first Page, The Word “Thirty” being partly
written on an Erazure in the fifteenth Line of the first Page,
The Words “is tried” being interlined between the thirty
second and thirty third Lines of the first Page and the Word
“the” being interlined between the forty third and forty fourth
Lines of the second Page.
Attest William Jackson Secretary
done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States
present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord
one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the
Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth. In
witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names,
Go Washington—Presidt and deputy from Virginia
John Langdon
New Hampshire
Nicholas Gilman
Nathaniel Gorham
Massachusetts
Rufus King
Wm. Saml. Johnson
Connecticut
Roger Sherman
New York Alexander Hamilton
Wil: Livingston
David Brearley.
New Jersey
Wm Paterson.
Jona: Dayton
B Franklin
Thomas Mifflin
Robt Morris
Geo. Clymer
Pennsylvania
Thos FitzSimons
Jared Ingersoll
James Wilson
Gouv Morris
Geo: Read
Gunning Bedford jun
Delaware John Dickinson
Richard Bassett
Jaco: Broom
James McHenry
Maryland Dan of St Thos Jenifer
Dan. Carroll
John Blair
Virginia
James Madison Jr.
Wm Blount
North Carolina Richd Dobbs Spaight.
Hu Williamson
South Carolina J. Rutledge
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
 Charles Pinckney
Pierce Butler.
William Few
Georgia
Abr Baldwin
 APPENDIX II
THE RESOLUTION WHICH PROPOSED THE CONSTITUTION TO THE
CONVENTIONS OF THE PEOPLE OF AMERICA

In Convention Monday September 17th 1787.

Present
The States of
New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Mr. Hamilton from
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.
Resolved,
That the preceding Constitution be laid before the United States in
Congress assembled, and that it is the Opinion of this Convention,
that it should afterwards be submitted to a Convention of Delegates,
chosen in each State by the People thereof, under the
Recommendation of its Legislature, for their Assent and Ratification;
and that each Convention assenting to, and ratifying the Same,
should give Notice thereof to the United States in Congress
assembled.
Resolved, That it is the Opinion of this Convention, that as soon as
the Conventions of nine States shall have ratified this Constitution,
the United States in Congress assembled should fix a Day on which
Electors should be appointed by the States which shall have ratified
the same, and a Day on which the Electors should assemble to vote
for the President, and the Time and Place for commencing
Proceedings under this Constitution. That after such Publication the
Electors should be appointed, and the Senators and Representatives
elected: That the Electors should meet on the Day fixed for the
Election of the President, and should transmit their Votes certified,
signed, sealed and directed, as the Constitution requires, to the
Secretary of the United States in Congress assembled, that the
Senators and Representatives should convene at the Time and
Place assigned; that the Senators should appoint a President of the
Senate, for the sole Purpose of receiving, opening and counting the
Votes for President; and, that after he shall be chosen, the
Congress, together with the President, should, without Delay,
proceed to execute this Constitution.
By the Unanimous Order of the Convention
Go Washington Presidt

W. Jackson Secretary.
 APPENDIX III
THE FIRST SEVENTEEN AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION

1. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of

religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the
freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people
peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress
of grievances.
2. A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free
State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be
infringed.
3. No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house,
without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner
to be prescribed by law.
4. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses,
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures,
shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable
cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing
the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
5. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand
Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the
Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor
shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in
jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to
be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or
property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be
taken for public use, without just compensation.
6. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to
a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall
have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the
nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the
witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining
witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his
defence.
7. In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved,
and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any
Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the
common law.
8. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines
imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
9. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not
be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
10. The powers not delegated to the United States by the
Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the
States respectively, or to the people.
11. The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed
to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted
against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by
Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.
12. The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by
ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall
not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall
name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in
distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall
make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all
persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for
each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to
the seat of the government of the United States directed to the
President of the Senate;—The President of the Senate shall, in the
presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the
certificates and the votes shall then be counted;—The person having
the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if
such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors
appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the
persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list
of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall
choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the
President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from
each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist
of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a
majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the
House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever
the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of
March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President,
as in the case of death or other constitutional disability of the
President.—The person having the greatest number of votes as
Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a
majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person
have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the
Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose
shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a
majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no
person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.
13. Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as
a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly
convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to
their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce
this article by appropriate legislation.
14. Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States,
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United
States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or
enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of
citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person
of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to
any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the
several States according to their respective numbers, counting the
whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed.
But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors
for President and Vice President of the United States,
Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a
State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of
the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age,
and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for
participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation
therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such
male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-
one years of age in such State.
Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in
Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any
office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State,
who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or
as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State
legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to
support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in
insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to
the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of
each House, remove such disability.
Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States,
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion,
shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State
shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of
insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for
the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations
and claims shall be held illegal and void.
Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by
appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
15. Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote
shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State
on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude—
Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article
by appropriate legislation—
 16. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on
incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment
among the several States, and without regard to any census or
enumeration.
17. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two
Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six
years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each
State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most
numerous branch of the State legislatures.
When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the
Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of
election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any
State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary
appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the
legislature may direct.
This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election
or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the
Constitution.
 APPENDIX IV
THE ALLEGED EIGHTEENTH AMENDMENT

Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the
manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the
importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United
States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage
purposes is hereby prohibited.
Sec. 2. The Congress and the several States shall have
concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Sec. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been
ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of
the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven
years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the
Congress.
 APPENDIX V
THE NINETEENTH AMENDMENT

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be

denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account
of sex.
Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
legislation.
 Transcriber’s Notes
Minor punctuation errors have been fixed.
Page xvii: “state legislalatures” changed to “state legislatures”
Page 34: “independent governernments” changed to “independent governments”
Page 76: “This govermnent” changed to “This government”
Page 290: “entire subesquent” changed to “entire subsequent”
Page 432: “the semblence of” changed to “the semblance of”
Page 448: “he appointed” changed to “be appointed”
Page 456: “of the Independance” changed to “of the Independence”
Page 457: “Pensylvania” changed to “Pennsylvania”
Page 458: “the preceeding Constitution” changed to “the preceding Constitution”