Among Cultures: The Challenge of

Communication Bradford J. Hall

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/among-cultures-the-challenge-of-communication-brad
ford-j-hall/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

The Moral Psychology of Guilt Bradford Cokelet

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-moral-psychology-of-guilt-
bradford-cokelet/

The Nexus among Place Conflict and Communication in a

Globalising World Pauline Collins

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-nexus-among-place-conflict-
and-communication-in-a-globalising-world-pauline-collins/

Nonneoplastic Dermatopathology 2nd Edition Brian J.

Hall

https://textbookfull.com/product/nonneoplastic-
dermatopathology-2nd-edition-brian-j-hall/

Sauer s Manual of Skin Diseases 11th Edition Brian J.

Hall

https://textbookfull.com/product/sauer-s-manual-of-skin-
diseases-11th-edition-brian-j-hall/
Brain vs computer the challenge of the century is now
launched Second Edition J P Fillard

https://textbookfull.com/product/brain-vs-computer-the-challenge-
of-the-century-is-now-launched-second-edition-j-p-fillard/

Environmental Communication and the Public Sphere J.

Robert Cox

https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-communication-and-
the-public-sphere-j-robert-cox/

Suicide Among Diverse Youth: A Case-Based Guidebook 1st

Edition Andres J Pumariega

https://textbookfull.com/product/suicide-among-diverse-youth-a-
case-based-guidebook-1st-edition-andres-j-pumariega/

The Challenge of Being Human Michael Eigen

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-challenge-of-being-human-
michael-eigen/

Literary Cultures and Medieval and Early Modern

Childhoods Naomi J. Miller

https://textbookfull.com/product/literary-cultures-and-medieval-
and-early-modern-childhoods-naomi-j-miller/
 p.i

Among Cultures

Among Cultures: The Challenge of Communication, Third Edition explores intercultural

communication and the relationship between communication and culture, using narrative as a
common and compelling thread for studying intercultural interactions. Anchored in the
position that people make sense of their worlds through choosing and telling narratives to
themselves and others, this text is replete with narratives and stories. Chapters address key
aspects of intercultural communication, including verbal and nonverbal communication;
stereotypes and bias; identity; conflict; diversity; and ethics. Using an interpretive approach to
intercultural communication, the text helps students understand that although a person may
appear different, his/her common sense is quite reasonable within a particular interpretive
context. Resources are included to help students understand and explain the reasonableness of
other cultural systems.

The text includes activities for students to complete while reading, including self-
assessments and nonverbal self-knowledge tests. Reflection questions within and at the end of
each chapter promote thinking and discussion on each topic. With its unique approach to
studying intercultural communication via real-life narratives, this text facilitates a deep
understanding of the cultural aspects of communication. In providing the narratives of others,
it encourages students to tell their own stories and build a strong foundation for
communicating across cultures.

New to the Third Edition:

• New chapter—“How Does Culture Impact Applied Contexts?”—explores intercultural

communication as it relates to the environment, health, and technology.
• New sections on identity, silence, and terms of address as important communicative
practices in intercultural settings.
• Updated sections on honorifics, key terms, social dramas and the golden approaches to
ethics.

2
 p.ii

Bradford J. Hall is Head of the Department of Languages, Philosophy, and Communication

Studies at Utah State University. He teaches in the areas of intercultural communication and
communication theory, focusing on the link between our talk, thoughts, and actions. His
research deals with issues of culture, identity, membership, conflict, and everyday
conversation.

Patricia O. Covarrubias is Associate Professor in the Department of Communication and

Journalism at the University of New Mexico where she teaches cultural and intercultural
communication, cultural discourse analysis, global metaphors, qualitative research methods,
and the ethnography of communication. Her research has been dedicated to understanding
the linkages among culture, communication, and peoples’ unique ways of life.

Kristin A. Kirschbaum is Associate Professor at East Carolina University, and has taught
courses in health communication, intercultural communication, organizational health
communication, interpersonal communication, and communication theory. Her research
includes measures of communication in physician populations with structured research
protocols aimed to increase collaboration and medical communication among physicians.

3
 p.iii

Third Edition

Among
Cultures
The Challenge of
Communication
Bradford J. Hall
Patricia O. Covarrubias
Kristin A. Kirschbaum

4
5
 p.iv

Third edition published 2018

by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2018 Taylor & Francis

The right of Bradford J. Hall, Patricia O. Covarrubias, and Kristin A. Kirschbaum to be identified as the authors of this
work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Harcourt College Pub 2002

Second Edition published by Wadsworth Publishing 2004

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Names: Hall, Bradford J., author. | Covarrubias, Patricia Olivia, author. | Kirschbaum, Kristin A., author.
Title: Among cultures : the challenge of communication / Bradford J. Hall, Patricia Covarrubias, and Kristin A.
Kirschbaum.
Description: Third edition. | New York : Routledge, 2018.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017004574| ISBN 9781138657816 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138657823 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Intercultural communication. | Culture conflict.
Classification: LCC GN345.6 .H34 2018 | DDC 303.6—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017004574

ISBN: 978-1-138-65781-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-65782-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-62117-3 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman

by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK

Visit the companion website: www.routledge/cw/Hall

6
7
 p.v

Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments

1 What Is Meant by Intercultural Communication?

Culture
System
Historically Shared
Symbolic Resources
Make Our World Meaningful
Selection
Organization
Evaluation
Communication
Interdependent
Situational
Intercultural Communication
Intercultural Communication as a Field of Study
Hazards of Intercultural Study
Oversimplification
Overgeneralization
Exaggeration
Benefits of Intercultural Study
Personal Empowerment
Freedom from Ignorance
Productive Relationships

8
 Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities

p.vi

2 What Is the Relationship between Communication and Culture?

Manifestations of Culture
Worldviews
Individualism/Collectivism
Ascription/Achievement
Egalitarian/Hierarchical
Good/Evil
Mastery/Adaptive
Social Lubricant/Information
High Context/Low Context
Polychronic/Monochronic
Final Thoughts on Worldviews
Values
Norms
Two Perspectives on the Culture Communication Connection
Monolithic Force
Reflexive Force
Sense-Making
Situational
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities

3 How Can We Learn about Our Own and Others’ Cultures?

The Learning Process
Need
Precedent
The Etic/Emic Distinction
Hymes’ SPEAKING Framework: An Etic Grid
Scenes
Participants
Ends
Acts (Substance and Sequence)
Keys
Instrumentalities
Norms

9
 Genres
Narratives
Narrative Teaching Functions

p.vii

The Way the World Works

Our Place in the World
How to Act in the World
How to Evaluate What Goes On in the World
Interpreting Narratives
Ritual
(Mis)impressions about the Nature of Rituals
Just the Same Thing Over and Over
Outdated, Hypocritical, and Meaningless
Reserved for Specialized Settings
Engaged in by Those Less Sophisticated Than I
Recognizing Rituals around Us
The Worth of Rituals
Social Dramas
Key Terms
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities

4 How Is Culture Related to Our Identities?

Identity
Social and Personal Identities
Expectations Related to Ourselves and Others
Role Expectations
Language Expectations
Communication’s Relationship to Identity
Reflective
Constitutive
Pathways to Identity
Avowal
Ascription
Reactive
Proactive
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities

10
5 Where Can We Look to Explain Verbal Misunderstandings?
Verbal Communication and Context
Contextual Frames
Frames and Expected Forms of Communication
p.viii

Frames Evoking and Assuming Informal Rules

Frames Evoking and Assuming Identities
Verbal Communication: Structure and Content
Quality
Idioms
Quantity
Silence
Elaborated and Restricted Codes
Relevance
Forms of Address
Questions and Answers
Manner
Code-Switching
Gratuitous Concurrence
Terms of Address
Pronouns
Honorifics
Face Considerations
Direct/Indirect Communication
Language and Thought
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities

6 Where Can We Look to Explain Nonverbal Misunderstandings?

Roles of Nonverbal Communication
Repetition
Contradiction
Substitution
Accentuation
Complementary
Regulation
Forms of Nonverbal Communication
Kinesics
Facial Expressions

11
 Body Movements
Five Functions
Emblems
Illustrators

p.ix

Affect Displays
Regulators
Adaptors
Proxemics
Space
Touch
Paralanguage
Silence
Silence and Socio-Cultural Identities
Silence and Social Relationships
Silence and Conflict
Other Forms of Nonverbal Communication
Living Environment
Clothes
Food
Smell
Time
Intercultural Listening and Nonverbal Communication
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
Answers to Facial Expression Test and to Intercultural Kinesic Cues Quiz

7 Why Do So Many People Get Treated Poorly?

Stereotypes
Categorization
Fundamental Attribution Error
Five Points of Variance
Direction
Intensity
Specificity
Consensus
Accuracy
Ethnocentrism
Concern/Indifference
Involvement/Avoidance

12
 Enjoyment/Intolerance
Prejudice
Forms of Prejudice
Blatant

p.x

Conceit
Symbolic
Tokenism
Arm’s Length
Rationalizing Narratives of Prejudice
Morally Better
Story Line
Examples
Rationalizing Reasons
Personally Afflicted
Story Line
Examples
Rationalizing Reasons
Social Pressure
Story Line
Examples
Rationalizing Reasons
Their Turf
Story Line
Examples
Rationalizing Reasons
System Abuse
Story Line
Examples
Rationalizing Reasons
Functions of Prejudice
Utilitarian
Social Status
Ego-Defensive
Value-Expressive
Easy Knowledge
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities

8 How Can We Manage Conflict in Intercultural Settings?

13
Cultural Approaches to Conflict
Avoiding
Accommodating
Competing

p.xi

Compromising
Collaborating
Types of Intercultural Conflict
Object Conflicts
Relationship Conflicts
Priority Conflicts
Intergroup Conflict
Group Membership and Communication
Visual Distinctiveness
Oral Distinctiveness
Assignment of Representative Role
Large Differences in the Relative Numbers of Group Members
Assumptions That Our Values Are Different
Lack of Shared Interpersonal History
Perceived Simplicity of Our Communication Need
Perceived Competition
Group Membership and Conflict
Ingroup Bias
Fears Surrounding Intergroup Communication
Tangible Harm or Loss
Negative Evaluation by Ingroup
Negative Evaluation by Outgroup
Negative Self-Evaluation
Origins of Intergroup Conflict
Histories
Greek View
Turkish View
Dividing up the Pie: Competition and Power
Strategies for Managing Intercultural and Intergroup Conflict
Appropriate Conditions for Successful Contact
Joint Goals
Supportive Social Climate
Equal Status
Variety of Contexts
Desire for Contact

14
 Recognizing Reasonableness
Factoring in Face
One Final Point to Ponder: Forgiveness
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
p.xii

9 How Can We Succeed in Our Intercultural Travels?

Hierarchy of Human Needs
Acculturation
The U-Curve Model
Honeymoon
Crisis
Recovery
Adjustment
The Hero’s Journey: Osland’s Model of Working Abroad
Call to Adventure
In the Belly of the Whale
The Magical Friend
Road of Trials (Paradoxes)
Ultimate Boon and Return
Surprise and Sense-Making Model
Change
Contrast
Surprise
Sense-Making
Attribute Meaning
Update Expectations
Select Behavioral Approach
Kim’s Adaptation Model
Personal Communication
Predisposition
Environment
Social Communication
Intercultural Transformation
Returning Home: Readapting to Our Own Cultural Community
Reverse Culture Shock
Change in Self and Others
Unrealistic Expectations
Lack of Appreciation in Home Community

15
 Final Thoughts on Cultural Transitions
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities

10 How Does Culture Impact Applied Contexts?

Environmental Communication
Environmental Communication as a Symbolic Resource for Making Sense of Our
World
p.xiii

Environmental Communication as a Place of Conflict

Environmental Communication as Gendered
Environmental Communication in the Context of Ecotourism
Environmental Communication as Inherently Cultural
Healthcare and Intercultural Communication
Differing Cultural Expectations
Specific Applications of Cultural Communication in Healthcare
Sensitivity to Cultural Communication Considerations in Healthcare
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Healthcare
Organizational Leadership and Intercultural Communication
Social-Scientific Approach: Dimensions of Intercultural Leadership Success
Interpretive Approach: Leadership and Sense-Making in Intercultural Settings
Case Studies
Case Study ‘Take-away’ Messages
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities

11 What Diversity Exists in the Study of Intercultural Communication?

Major Perspectives in Intercultural Communication
Interpretive Perspective
Critical Perspective
Social-Scientific Perspective
Popular Culture
Easily Accessed
Commercial
What We Believe and What We Should Believe
Who We Are and Who We Should Be
Popular Cultural Artifacts
Real Icons
Imagined Icons

16
 Real Celebrities
Imaginary Celebrities
Critical Perspectives on Popular Culture and the Media
Social-Scientific Perspectives on Popular Culture and the Media
Impact of the Media on Culture

p.xiv

Impact of Culture on the Media

Culture as an Intervening Variable
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities

12 Can Judgments of Right and Wrong Be Made When Dealing with Other Cultures?
Ethics
General Perspective
Six Golden Approaches
Golden Purse
Golden Mean
Golden Public
Golden Law
Golden Consequence
Golden Rule
Ethics and Communication
Constraint
Empowerment
Ethics and Culture
Universalism
Relativism
Critique
Efforts to Find Universal Ethics That Acknowledge the Relativistic Nature of Cultures
Ethical Principles for Intercultural Relations
Effort to Understand
Teachable Attitude
Mutual Legitimacy
Dialogue
Considering Context
Peaceful Disagreement
Nonviolence
Truth and Openness
Loving Relationships
Intercultural Marriage Microcosm

17
 Good Motives for the Marriage
Common Goals
Sensitivity to Each Other’s Needs
A Liking for the Other’s Culture

p.xv

Flexibility
Solid, Positive Self-Image
Spirit of Adventure
Ability to Communicate
Commitment to the Relationship
Sense of Humor
Nature of Love
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities

Index

18
 p.xvi

Preface

BRAD

As I approached the writing of this third edition, I decided it would be a good idea to include
co-authors that could give a fresh perspective on what had been written in the past and
expand on what previous editions had covered. After making this decision, I asked two
individuals who I respect both as people and scholars, Patricia Covarrubias and Kris
Kirschbaum, to join me in this effort and they both graciously accepted the invitation. Their
contributions have been invaluable and I have greatly appreciated working with them and
their patience with me throughout this process.

This last year’s elective cycle in the United States involving Hillary Clinton and Donald
Trump in addition to the international struggles that are ongoing highlight the great need for
cultural understanding. A lack of knowledge about and empathy for others facilitates the
objectification of them that can lead us to ignore the common humanity we share, making it
easy to view our social relations in terms of a competition where greed and misunderstandings
rule the day. Misunderstandings all too easily lead to distrusting and hating other
communities, which creates cycles of emotional, social, economic, and physical violence that
injure the quality of life for us all. Although these problems are easy to see on a grand scale
and may seem beyond our power to change, these grand problems are built upon the small
actions and interactions that each of us engages in daily. Although it is important to work on
the large problems of our day, I believe it is just as important to work on the seemingly small
challenges that arise in our individual lives. I hope this book will aid you in this endeavor.
Intercultural communication is an emotional experience and writing this book is an act of

19
love and hope for the future on my part.

Intercultural Interaction: An Exercise in Serendipity

Intercultural experiences for me have always been marked by serendipity. Serendipities are
unexpected finds or discoveries that eventually turn out to be both pleasant and stimulating.
To me the field of intercultural communication has always been ripe with serendipities. The
study of intercultural communication inherently involves exposure to different ways through
which meaning is produced among and across communities. What better seed could there be
to grow serendipities? When I was still very young, I was essentially planted in a field which
forced interaction with many Native Americans. Some of my early experiences with this
group of people were surprising, but as I sorted through them and continued the interaction,
I developed not only a taste, but a love for these new perspectives. Later when I lived in
Europe for a couple of years, I continued to have these surprising but stimulating experiences
and was even introduced to the term serendipity, which I now use to describe them.

p.xvii

I suspect that for many of us it was just such serendipitous occurrences that helped our
interest in culture and intercultural interactions to grow. Discovering the unexpected and
then, despite any initial frustration, finding the new understanding acquired through that
discovery to be sweet and stimulating can be a great motivator for cultivating those
opportunities in the future.

It is my hope that each of you in your own lives and in working with this text will also
harvest serendipity. For, although by its very definition we cannot control or predict its exact
occurrence, we can encourage it by our involvement in and attention to a culturally diverse
world. I encourage you to share with others, as I have tried to do in this book, the
serendipities that occur in your own lives.

PATRICIA

As an immigrant to the United States from Mexico, for me, cultural and intercultural
communication have meant much more than learning about and enacting abstract concepts
and practices. Since the age of eight, my everyday life has involved confronting multiple and
divergent worlds. Along the way, these worlds have clashed on occasion because the ways that
some people in the United States do life was/is very different from the one I left in my

20
original homeland. Moreover, I have had the privilege of living in and visiting several states
in this country, traveling to various places around the world (Turkey, Canada, Sweden,
Denmark, Spain, and Germany), and spending 18 months living and working in France. So
my personal experience has meant that daily, whether in the United States or abroad, I have
had to negotiate the reality that other people’s lives are informed by worldviews, values,
attitudes, emotions, and rules for communicating that are similar to as well as radically
different from the ones with which I was raised. To give you an example, although I have
lived in the United States for several decades, to this day I struggle with treating elders in the
same manner as young persons. If an elder enters a room and I am sitting down I
immediately stand up, and I use honorifics to address the elder rather than using a first name
as is acceptable by many people here. The respectful treatment of elders is a value that was
taught to me from an early age and continues to serve as a deeply felt Mexican cultural
practice that I tried to pass on to my son. I am not necessarily saying that one culture is better
than another; but, rather, that each culture offers a different possibility.

p.xviii

Intercultural Communication as Possibility

What I appreciate most about the study of cultural and intercultural communication is the
fact that it offers myriad valuable, accessible, and useful possibilities for understanding one
another, for developing friendships, and for enjoying peace through our cultural differences.

You and we know that cultural differences can be used as a possibility for distinguishing
ourselves from others in affirming and disconfirming ways. Especially in moments of conflict,
differences can bring us to assert, “I am not like you!” In extreme situations, we might use our
differences to set up divisions, disenfranchisements, and oppressions at all levels of our
existence. However, we also know that being aware of and understanding others’ cultural
differences can also serve as powerful means for achieving affirmative social ends. In moments
of friendship and rapprochement we might be prompted to say, “We have more in common
than I thought.” One of the advantageous aspects about difference is that it can mean
introducing into our lives alternative ways of speaking and not speaking, eating, dressing,
managing conflict, using time, engaging nature, and making human connections, among
other possibilities. Again, to give you an example, prior to my research into communicative
silence, I thought that the absence of talk meant something was wrong among interactants;
that communication was empty and should be filled with words—the sooner the better.

21
Studying communicative silence has taught me a new way for appreciating it and for
integrating it into my own life. Now I realize that silence can help us communicate in ways
other than through words. I’ve learned that silence can help shape identities, and can help us
construct communal connectedness and continuity. And I’ve learned that silence can help
people protect their cherished cultures. In my college classrooms, my students are often
astonished, although not always pleased, by how long I can stand in silence waiting for them
to think through and respond to questions during group discussions. And I have learned to sit
still and listen to the sounds nature uses to communicate. This is not a skill I developed in
childhood where the clamor of Mexico City traffic was more familiar. Without question, my
own life and my intercultural agility have been richly enhanced through the possibility of
hearing silence differently.

It is beyond evident that our contemporary world is giving way to much painful possibility.
Our planet is hosting bloody wars on every continent, routinely tolerating mass attacks on
innocent civilians, generating thousands of homeless refugees, and producing countless
disenfranchised people at all levels of society. Still, intercultural communication bears the
promise of alternative outcomes. We have unprecedented opportunities for using our
knowledge, skills, and will to shape a better world; we can do this one intercultural
conversation at a time. Through the concepts, explanations, questions, suggested activities,
resources, and especially the personal narratives presented in this book, we offer useful tools
to help you achieve more productive intercultural relationships. It is our way of offering you a
new possibility.

p.xix

KRIS

Like my co-authors, I have had the good fortune to travel and live in others’ countries. Those
opportunities helped me recognize the wealth of diverse cultures that make each of us who we
are. When I was first introduced to the study of intercultural communication in college, I was
amazed! It seemed like the observations I had made throughout my life were shared and
explained by others. I felt like I had discovered a new section in the library with new
information to explore. I was and still am excited to travel the journey of intercultural
communication.

I have also come to realize that there are multicultural influences that are regionally as well

22
as nationally situated. I grew up in Southern California in the 1960s and 1970s. As a young
person I moved with my family to the Midwest. That move produced a huge culture shock
for me. Rather than sunshine and beaches, I was confronted by cold and damp weather. I was
also surrounded by people with ideas and behaviors that were much more conservative than
what I had experienced as a child.

I returned to Southern California in my teens and realized that even within that region
there were cultural differences. In my teens and 20s I lived in a different neighborhood than
where I grew up and again learned the cultural nuances of my new environment. These
experiences in my early life helped me learn about being curious about differences, and
keeping an open mind in order to travel the path of exploration, rather than isolation. That
sense of adventure has been foundational in my studies of intercultural communication.

As an adult I lived for 10 years in three very different geographical and cultural locations. I
lived and worked for three years in Abu Dhabi, one of the United Arab Emirates, three more
years in Manhattan, in New York City, and another three years in the state of Quintana Roo
in Mexico. In all of these locations, I learned about languages, appropriate behavior, and
other features of intercultural communication that are covered in our textbook. In a nutshell,
I learned the difference between assimilation and acculturation. I am a better person because
of the diversity I have been so fortunate to experience in my life. I say “better” since I feel
more curious than ever about different ways of thinking, acting, and communicating that I
encounter on a regular basis. It is ingrained in me to say and think “how interesting” when I
meet someone with different customs and different ways of approaching the world. I love the
feeling of adventure I experience as I take new journeys of exploration in the world of
intercultural communication.

p.xx

My hope for you as a student and reader of this textbook is that you will experience that
curiosity I have. I hope that you too will come to enjoy learning about new cultures, new
patterns of communication, and new ways of engaging with the world and people around
you. Welcome to the new section of the library!

WHAT HAS CHANGED AND WHAT HAS NOT IN THIS EDITION

The most apparent change in this edition includes a brand new chapter overviewing three
specific contexts in which intercultural communication plays a vital role, including

23
communication in and about environmental issues, healthcare, and leadership within
organizational settings. Many of the conflicts in our day center around the environment, our
different understandings of the environment, and how we approach issues related to our
environment. The new chapter helps to reveal many of the cultural differences that can lead
to misunderstanding and conflict. Healthcare is also a major area of concern for most people.
There are many different approaches to gaining and maintaining good health. Understanding
cultural differences in the way we approach issues surrounding healthcare is essential in
helping all communities to work together for a greater good. In a world beset with problems
in a wide variety of increasingly multicultural organizations, it is useful to understand
different perspectives on what constitutes effective leadership. Each culture has a unique way
of perceiving and enacting leadership in various organizational settings. Understanding these
differences can help us function more effectively in any organizational endeavor.

In addition, there are a series of new and updated examples dealing with many of the issues
that have been covered in the past. However, one thing that has not changed with the
updated examples and stories is the overall narrative perspective the book adopts. This text is
grounded in the idea that people make sense of their world through a process of choosing and
telling narratives to themselves and others. One of the basic communicative forms through
which we as humans understand our own and others’ lives is narrative. By narratives we refer
to any discourse which expresses actions that occur over time and are related to some point of
concern. Thus, even when we are telling others about what seem like ordinary experiences in
our lives, we are telling stories or narratives. We as humans are at heart storytellers. Indeed,
consciously or unconsciously, we are often engaged in choosing among competing narratives.
The very quality of our lives is thus inseparable from the quality of our stories.

p.xxi

In keeping with this belief, this text is unusually full of narratives or stories. Each chapter
begins with a narrative, and a variety of narratives are interwoven throughout the text. Instead
of simply giving examples, like African Americans are polychronic, we try as much as possible
to share a story that illustrates this and other related concepts. We believe this is a more
effective way to learn about these concepts because the stories provide not only illustrative
examples, but a context upon which discussion and analysis may be based. We hope that the
many narratives we include in the text encourage you to remember and be more aware of
related stories in your own lives. We always love to listen to and learn from good stories, so
please feel free to contact us and share any of your own stories.

24
OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK

The text has a variety of features that make it accessible to students. As noted above, one of
the main features of the text is that it is full of narratives that can be used both as illustrations
of concepts and discussion starters. The text includes various activities that students can do as
part of reading the text, such as the self-assessments in terms of students’ worldviews and
nonverbal self-knowledge tests. The text also includes other activity ideas at the end of each
chapter that are meant to provide ideas that the student or instructor may use to expand the
learning process. Each student and each class may only use a few of these activities, but there
are a variety of activities from which to choose. Some of them may need to be modified to
better fit the individual needs of the students. The text also includes reflection questions both
within the chapters and at the end of each chapter. Aside from personal reflection, these
questions may be used as part of a class discussion, or students may be asked to respond in
writing to one specific reflection question from each chapter.

Each of the chapter headings is phrased in a question format because learning is stimulated
and aided through the asking of questions. Learning to ask quality questions is an important
part of any educational process. The chapter questions come from a combination of what we
feel are important questions to ask to get a solid introduction into the field of intercultural
communication, and from areas with which our students have shown a particular concern
over the years. For example, we have found students to be particularly interested in the ethical
issues addressed in Chapter 12. To give a summary of the overall text, we briefly review each
of the chapter questions and provide an idea of the way we go about answering them.

p.xxii

Chapter 1: What Is Meant by Intercultural Communication? There are hundreds of

definitions of culture and communication in scholarly literature and just about as many
struggles over which definitions are best. This is because the ability to define what is or is not
covered in a concept is very powerful. Definitional work is also a very important step in our
efforts to organize our knowledge in a useful and memorable way. It is very difficult to deal
meaningfully with a concept if we do not at least have a rough understanding of what is
meant by it. This chapter does not directly concern itself with which definitions are best. It
does, however, lay an important foundation for understanding the concepts and issues that
will be considered throughout the rest of the text.

Chapter 2: What Is the Relationship between Communication and Culture? Given a basic

25
understanding of terms such as communication, culture, and intercultural, one of the next
logical steps is understanding how and to what extent they connect to each other. This
question also allows us to further explore some of the basic concepts in the field, such as
worldviews, norms, and values, which may be considered in any specific context.

Chapter 3: How Can We Learn about Our Own and Others’ Cultures? Many introductory
texts do not deal with this issue, or do so very briefly. However, we feel strongly that how we
learn about a topic influences what we can learn. We hope that our students will want to
learn about others outside of the classroom setting and continue learning after the course is
over. With this in mind, we introduce communicative forms, such as narratives and rituals,
that can help us learn about others without having an advanced degree. An added benefit of
this chapter is that it allows students to understand how they have been learning culture all of
their lives.

Chapter 4: How Is Culture Related to Our Identities? If we cannot connect the idea of
culture to ourselves, we believe it will have little lasting value in our lives. We first review
what is encompassed by the term identity, including discussions of different levels of identity
in our lives and the role of power in identity negotiation. We also consider the role of
communication in the formation of identities and pathways that lead to our various identities.

Chapter 5: Where Can We Look to Explain Verbal Misunderstandings? The frustrations

that arise from misunderstandings, even when we think we have been very clear, are at the
heart of many people’s desire to study intercultural communication. This chapter focuses on
the issues related to verbal misunderstandings. We consider the context of our speech, the
structure of our speech, and the content of our speech, providing resources for the confused
and frustrated to use in sorting out what has gone wrong. We also address issues related to
face maintenance during these misunderstandings. Finally, we discuss the relationship
between language and thought and the implications this has for our understanding of culture.

p.xxiii

Chapter 6: Where Can We Look to Explain Nonverbal Misunderstandings? In this

chapter we focus on nonverbal communication misunderstandings. We examine not only the
relationship of nonverbal and verbal communication, but also the functions of nonverbal
communication in different communities. The chapter reviews research on a wide variety of
different forms of nonverbal communication, including kinesics, paralanguage, proxemics,
and specific items, such as food, clothes, and smell.

26
 Chapter 7: Why Do So Many People Get Treated Poorly? It doesn’t take an overly careful
observer to realize that in many intercultural settings people are often treated very poorly.
Some communities or types of people seem to be targeted for frequent mistreatment. This
chapter tries to go beyond the usual discussions of ethnocentrism, stereotyping, and prejudice
to better understand why these things exist even when people agree that they are bad. We
discuss the distinctions between these three different areas in terms of their forms and
functions in society. We spend more time than is usual with issues of prejudice in terms of
how people justify and accept prejudice in their lives. The text deals with these areas in a way
that avoids the usual defensive responses that these discussions can provoke and tries to help
readers make personal discoveries and decisions about their own personal experiences with
prejudice, stereotyping, and ethnocentrism.

Chapter 8: How Can We Manage Conflict in Intercultural Settings? Conflict will happen
in intercultural interactions. Given that assumption, in this chapter we explore what
distinguishes intercultural conflict from other forms of conflict and discuss different types of
intercultural conflict. We also examine issues of fear, competition, power, and history in
relation to intergroup conflicts that are so often connected to intercultural settings. Finally,
we discuss and illustrate a variety of resources that people may adopt to manage intercultural
conflicts in positive or mutually satisfactory ways. We conclude by considering a concept that
is important to dealing positively with any form of conflict: forgiveness.

Chapter 9: How Can We Succeed in Our Intercultural Travels? Many, if not most, people
will have the experience of traveling to different cultural communities at some point in their
lives. This experience can be a critical incident in intercultural relations, affecting generations
of people. This chapter reviews four of the major models of acculturation and how they may
be used to improve our intercultural travels. We also spend some time dealing with the often
difficult process of returning home from our intercultural travels.

Chapter 10: How Does Culture Impact Applied Contexts? Intercultural communication is
always occurring in specific contexts that go beyond the cultural differences involved in the
interaction. In this chapter we examine three specific contexts that relate to common
concerns we find in the world today. First, we examine communication about the
environment. Second, we explore cultural differences and implications related to healthcare.
The third and final context to consider in this chapter is tied to the practice of leadership in
various organizational contexts. Understanding the culturally different ways of approaching
these contexts and how we may communicate in and about them provides a useful foundation

27
for intercultural interactions in these contexts.

p.xxiv

Chapter 11: What Diversity Exists in the Study of Intercultural Communication? This
chapter begins with an overview of the three main theoretical perspectives that exist in the
field of intercultural communication today: interpretive, critical, and traditional. The text as a
whole is largely written from an interpretive perspective so we spend a bit more time on the
critical and traditional, or social scientific, approaches. To deepen this discussion, we use
research surrounding the media in intercultural settings as well as popular culture to provide
examples of the different types of work and approaches that exist in the intercultural field.

Chapter 12: Can Judgments of Right and Wrong Be Made When Dealing with Other
Cultures? This chapter deals with the issues of ethics and building intercultural communities.
Various approaches to ethics and judgments of what is right and wrong or good and bad are
discussed in detail. In addition, we propose three ethical principles which we argue are
especially important in intercultural settings.

28
 p.xxv

Acknowledgments

BRAD

First and foremost, I wish to again acknowledge the consistent and invaluable help of my wife
Delpha. As always, she has been a source of support and strength, both emotionally and
technically, without which this book would not have happened. I am grateful to my
colleagues and particularly Patricia and Kris for their work and motivation in accomplishing
this project. I would also like to thank the many students (too numerous to try to name here),
both graduate and undergraduate, who have contributed so much to my learning over the
years, many of whom have contributed specific narratives and stories of their own
intercultural experiences that help bring this text to life.

PATRICIA

My deepest thanks to Brad who mentored me through his scholarship long before we met,
and later as a colleague and collaborator. I thank Brad and Kris for enabling me to experience
new dimensions of cultural/intercultural communication as we worked on this project. Of
course, my thanks to the many students, friends, and family whose stories invigorate the
materials for this book. Finally, my thanks to my teenage son, Isaac, and his richly diverse
generation who continually inspire my fresh intercultural explorations.

KRISTIN

I am indebted to Brad for multiple items. First, for being such an amazing professor during
my graduate school experience. He showed me how to bring scholarly material to “life.” The

29
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Mr Nuttall’s notice is as follows:—“The Dusky Grous breeds in the
shady forests of the Columbia, where we heard and saw them
throughout the summer. The male at various times of the day makes
a curious uncouth tooting, almost like the sound made by blowing
into the bung-hole of a barrel, boo wh’h, wh’h, wh’h, wh’h, the last
note descending into a kind of echo. We frequently tried to steal on
the performer, but without success, as, in fact, the sound is so
strangely managed that you may imagine it to come from the left or
right indifferently. They breed on the ground, as usual, and the brood
keep together nearly all winter. The Ruffed Grous also breeds here
commonly, and I one day found the nest concealed near a fallen log,
but it was at once forsaken after this intrusion, though I did not touch
the eggs.”
From the examination of specimens in my possession, I am
persuaded that this species, like Tetrao Cupido, has the means of
inflating the sacs of bare skin on the sides of the neck, by means of
which, in the breeding season, are produced the curious sounds
above described.

Tetrao obscurus, Dusky Grous, Ch. Bonaparte, Amer. Ornith. vol. iii. pl.
18.—Id. Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 127.—Richards. and Swains.
Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. ii. p. 344.
Dusky Grous, Nuttall, Manual, vol. i. p. 666.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXI. Fig. 1.

Bill short, robust, slightly arched, rather obtuse, the base covered by
feathers. Upper mandible with the dorsal line convex and declinate,
the ridge convex, the sides convex, the edges sharp and
overlapping, the tip thin-edged and rounded; lower mandible with the
angle long and wide, the dorsal line ascending and convex, the ridge
broad, the sides convex, the edges inflected, the tip rounded.
Nostrils in the fore part of the large and feathered nasal depression,
roundish.
Head small, ovate; neck of ordinary length; body large and full. Feet
stout, of moderate length; tarsus short, feathered; toes stout; the first
very small, the lateral about equal, and much shorter than the third;
the anterior toes connected by basal scaly membranes, partially
covered with feathers; all with broad and short scutella, margined,
but scarcely pectinate, the lateral scales not being prominent. Claws
rather large, arched, compressed, rather obtuse.
Plumage full, soft, rather blended, the feathers broad and rounded. A
bare papillate space around the eye. Feathers on the upper part of
the head narrow and elongated. Wings rather short, convex, much
rounded; the quills very strong; the third longest, the fourth next, the
third and sixth about equal, as are the first and seventh. Tail large, of
ordinary length, rounded, of twenty feathers, which are broader
toward the end, and abruptly rounded.
Bill brownish-black, lighter at the base. Iris dark hazel. Toes bluish-
grey, claws wood-brown. Papillar space around the eye vermilion.
Upper parts blackish-brown, the wings lighter. The elongated
feathers on the head greyish-brown; the hind neck minutely
undulated with bluish-grey; the scapulars, inner secondaries, and
smaller wing-coverts also minutely undulated with grey and
brownish-red, and most of the latter with a small greyish tip; the
rump and upper tail-coverts obscurely undulated with grey. Alula,
primary coverts and quills, clove-brown, the secondaries bordered
and tipped with yellowish-grey; the primaries mottled with grey on
their outer webs. The tail is black. The sides of the head, fore part
and sides of the neck, and fore part of the breast greyish-black; the
lore and throat are barred with white; the greyish-black of the breast
passes into blackish-grey, and finally into dull bluish-grey; the
feathers of the abdomen tipped with greyish-white, as are the lower
rump and tail-coverts, which have moreover one or two narrow bars
of the same; the flanks undulated with black and marked with an
elongated white spot along the central part and on the tip; axillary
feathers white, as are the inner wing-coverts; the tarsal feathers
brownish-grey. The concealed part of the plumage is light grey,
unless on the feathers around the bare space on each side of the
neck, which is of an orange colour, and which the bird inflates.
Length to end of tail 22 inches, to end of wings 15 1/2, to end of
claws 18 1/2; extent of wings 30; wing from flexure 9 1/2; tail 7 1/2; bill
along the ridge 1, along the edge of lower mandible 1 2 1/2/12; tarsus
1 9/12; hind toe 6/12, its claw 6/12; second toe 1 2/12 its claw 7/12; third
toe 1 10/12, its claw 8 1/2/12; fourth toe 1 5/12, its claw 6 1/2/12.

Female. Plate CCCLXI. Fig. 2.

The female is considerably smaller than the male. The bare papillar
space over the eye is of much less extent, but, as well as the bill and
feet, is coloured as in the male. The upper parts are dark greyish-
brown, barred on the neck with grey, on the other parts barred and
minutely undulated with yellowish-brown; the wings as in the male,
but lighter and more mottled; the tail greyish-brown, becoming black
toward the end, the middle feathers undulated like the back, and
having four grey bands with a terminal white one. The sides of the
head and the throat are greyish-white, undulatingly barred with
brown; the general colour of the fore neck is greyish-brown, with pale
sienna bands; on the breast the colour is brownish-grey, and the
colours and markings of the rest of the under parts are as in the
male, but paler.
Length to end of tail 19 1/4 inches; wing from flexure 9; tail 6 1/4; bill
along the ridge 10/12.
In a specimen in my possession, killed by Dr Townsend on the
“Columbia River, Sept. 26. 1834,” the tail is considerably rounded,
the lateral feathers being 7 twelfths shorter than the longest
remaining, the middle feathers being lost. The tail is deep black, with
a terminal band of ash-grey, half an inch in breadth. It is therefore
probable, that when the tail is unworn, it is distinctly rounded, and
tipped with grey.
 YELLOW-BILLED MAGPIE.

Corvus Nuttalli.
PLATE CCCLXII. Adult.

I have conferred on this beautiful bird the name of a most zealous,

learned, and enterprising naturalist, my friend Thomas Nuttall,
Esq., to whom the scientific world is deeply indebted for the many
additions to our zoological and botanical knowledge which have
resulted from his labours. It is to him alone that we owe all that is
known respecting the present species, which has not hitherto been
portrayed. In a note inserted by him in my journal, he says:
“As we proceed to the south in Upper California, around the village
of Sta. Barbara, we find the Common Magpie substituted by this
remarkable species, which is much more shy and cautious, as well
as more strictly insectivorous. It utters, however, nearly if not quite
the same chatter. In the month of April they were everywhere mated,
and had nearly completed their nests in the evergreen oaks of the
vicinity (Quercus agrifolia). The only one I saw was situated on a
rather high tree, towards the summit, and much concealed among
the thick and dark branches. Their call was pait, pait; and on
approaching each other, a low congratulatory chatter was heard.
After being fired at once, it seemed nearly impossible again to
approach them within gun-shot. When alighted in the thick oaks, they
remained for a considerable time silent, and occasionally even
wholly hid themselves; but after a while the call of recognition was
again renewed, and if the pair then met, they would often fly off a
mile or more, without stopping, in quest of insects. We often saw
them on the ground, but never near the offal of the oxen, so
attractive to the Crows and Ravens around.”

Corvus Nuttalli.

Adult. Plate CCCLXII. Fig. 1.

Bill almost as long as the head, straight, robust, compressed; upper
mandible with the dorsal line convex and declinate, the sides sloping
and slightly convex, the edges sharp, with a slight notch close to the
tip, which is rather sharp; lower mandible straight, the angle rather
long and wide, the dorsal outline very slightly convex and ascending,
the sides sloping outwards and slightly convex, the edges sharp and
inclinate, the tip narrow. Nostrils basal, lateral, roundish, covered by
bristly feathers, which are directed forwards.
Head large, ovate; eyes of moderate size; neck rather short; body
compact. Legs of moderate length, strong; tarsus with seven large
scutella in front, and two long plates behind, meeting so as to form a
sharp edge. Toes stout, with large scutella, and separated almost to
the base; first very strong; lateral toes nearly equal, third
considerably longer. Claws strong, arched, compressed, sharp, the
third with the inner edge somewhat dilated.
Plumage full, soft, blended; stiff bristly feathers, with disunited
filaments over the nostrils, some of them extending nearly half the
length of the bill; feathers on the throat with the shaft downy and
prolonged. Wings of moderate length, much rounded; the first quill
very short, extremely narrow, and falciform; the second two inches
and four and a half twelfths longer, and a little longer than the ninth;
the third an inch and one twelfth longer than the second, and three
twelfths shorter than the fourth, which is the longest. The tail is very
long, much graduated, the lateral feathers being four inches and
seven twelfths shorter than the middle.
Bill pure yellow, as is a bare space under and behind the eye. Iris
hazel. Feet black. The plumage of the head, neck, fore part of the
breast and back, brownish-black, the feathers on the latter part being
very long, those on the upper part of the head strongly glossed with
green; the shafts of the throat-feathers greyish, and those of the
feathers on the middle of the neck white. The feathers on the middle
of the back are light grey, some of them whitish, and those behind
tipped with black; rump and tail-coverts brownish-black. The
scapulars are white; the smaller wing-coverts splendent with bronzed
green; primaries black, glossed with shining green, their inner webs
white, excepting at the end, and for some way along the margin;
secondaries bright blue, changing to green, their inner webs
greenish-black. Tail splendent with bright green, changing to
greenish-yellow, purplish-red, bluish-purple, and dark green at the
end; the inner webs chiefly greenish-black, but with various tints. The
breast and sides are pure white; the legs, abdominal region, lower
tail coverts, and lower wing-coverts, black.
Length to end of tail 18 inches, to end of wings 11 1/2; wing from
flexure 7 3/4; tail 9 10/12; bill along the ridge 1 4/12; tarsus 1 11/12; first
toe 7/12, its claw 7/12; middle toe 1 2/12, its claw 6/12.

In form, proportion, and size, this Magpie is precisely similar to the

common species. Its bill has the sides less convex; the bare space
under the eye is of much greater extent, and the feathers of the tail
are much narrower. The colours are similar, and distributed in the
same manner; but the bill of the present species is yellow, instead of
black, and the black of the back and fore neck is tinged with brown.
The two species are wonderfully closely allied; but on comparing my
specimen with several others in the Museum of the Zoological
Society of London, I found that they all precisely agreed with it.
I have represented in the plate a twig of a species of Platanus
discovered by the excellent naturalist after whom I have named the
bird perched upon it.
 STELLER’S JAY.

Corvus Stelleri, Gmel.

PLATE CCCLXII. Adult.

Of this Jay, discovered by Steller, whose name it bears, Dr

Richardson states that it “is not uncommon in the summer time on
the Pacific coast of America, from the mouth of the Columbia to the
56th parallel. It also frequents the Rocky Mountains, where Mr
Drummond procured a specimen. In its manner it greatly resembles
the Garrulus cristatus.” Mr Nuttall’s account of it is as follows:—
“We first observed this bird in our Western route in the Blue
Mountains of the Columbia, east of Wallah Wallah. Here they were
scarce and shy, but we met them in sufficient abundance in the
majestic pine forests of the Columbia, where, in autumn, their loud
and trumpeting clangour was heard at all hours of the day, calling out
djay, djay, and sometimes chattering and uttering a variety of other
notes scarcely recognisable as distinct from the calls of our common
Blue Jay. They are, however, far more bold, irritable, and familiar.
Watchful as dogs, a stranger no sooner shews himself in their vicinity
then they neglect all other employment to come round, follow, peep
at and scold him, sometimes with such pertinacity and irritability as
to provoke the sportsman intent on other game to level his gun
against them in mere retaliation. At other times, stimulated by mere
curiosity, they will be observed to follow you in perfect silence, until
something arouses their ready ire, when the djay, djay, pay, pay, is
poured upon you without intermission, till you are beyond their view.
So intent are they on vociferating, that it is not uncommon to hear
them busily scolding even while engaged with a large acorn in the
mouth. Of their geographical limits we are as yet uncertain. They
were first found by Steller at Nootka; but they do not extend into
upper California, and scarcely to the west as far as the most western
of the true Rocky Mountain Chains. They feed on insects, acorns,
and the seeds of the gigantic pines which form a belt along the
Pacific and the rivers of the Oregon Territory. In the month of May, I
found a nest of this species in a small sapling of Douglas’s Fir, on
the borders of a dark and dense forest, and again some time after a
second nest with young, in an elevated branch of the same pine, on
the border of a rocky cliff. On approaching the nest, which contained
four eggs, of a pale green colour, with small olive-brown specks,
varied with others of rather a violet hue, both the male and female
flew at me with the utmost anger and agitation, deafening me almost
with their cries and entreaties. But though I took only two of their
eggs, I found next day that they had forsaken the nest, being too
fearful and jealous of the intrusion to remain any longer in the same
place. The nest as usual was bulky, made of interlaced twigs, and
roots, with a stout layer of mud, and lined with black root-fibres. I
saw the nest about ten days previous to the time of taking two of the
four eggs. On that occasion the female (probably) only followed me
in silence.”

Corvus Stelleri, Gmel. Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 370.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol.
i. p. 158.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 438.
Steller’s Jay, Garrulus Stelleri, Ch. Bonaparte, Amer. Ornith. vol. ii. p.
44.
Garrulus Stelleri, Steller’s Jay, Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. ii. p. 294.
Steller’s Jay, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 229.
Adult Male. Plate CCCLXII. Fig. 2.
Bill shorter than the head, strong, straight, a little compressed; upper
mandible with the dorsal line declinate and convex toward the end,
the sides sloping and becoming more convex toward the tip, which is
declinate, thin edged and obtuse, the edges sharp and overlapping,
with a slight notch; lower mandible straight, the angle short and
broad, the dorsal outline ascending and slightly convex, the sides
convex, the edges sharp and directed outwards, the tip narrow.
Nostrils basal, roundish, covered by reversed bristly feathers.
Head large, ovate, eyes of moderate size; neck rather short; body
compact. Legs of moderate length, strong; tarsus much compressed,
with seven large anterior scutella, and two long plates behind,
meeting so as to form a sharp edge. Toes stout, with large scutella,
the outer adherent as far as its second joint to the middle toe; first
very strong; lateral toes nearly equal, third much longer. Claws
strong, arched, compressed, sharp.
Plumage full, soft, blended; stiff bristly feathers with disunited barbs
over the nostrils, some of them extending a third of the length of the
bill; at the base of the upper mandible several longish slender
bristles. The feathers on the top of the head and occiput linear-
oblong, slightly recurved, and forming an erectile crest an inch and a
half in length. Wings of moderate length, convex, and much rounded;
the first quill very short, the second an inch and a quarter longer, the
third nine-twelfths longer than the second, and three-twelfths shorter
than the fourth, which is one-twelfth shorter than the fifth, the latter
being the longest, although scarcely exceeding the sixth. Tail long,
rounded, of twelve rather broad, rounded, and acuminate feathers, of
which the shafts are undulated.
Bill and feet black. Iris hazel. Head and neck, with the fore part and
middle of the back brownish-black, of a lighter tint on the back, and
on the throat streaked with dull grey; the feathers on the forehead
tipped with bright blue; the hind part of the back, the rump, and the
upper tail-coverts, light blue; as are the lower tail-coverts, the sides
and lower parts of the rump, the sides of the body, and the whole of
the breast; the middle of the abdomen paler, the tibial feathers, and
the lower wing-coverts dusky, tinged with blue. Wings blue, the
secondary coverts and quills rich indigo and ultra-marine, narrowly
barred with black, the outer coverts of the primaries pale; the inner
webs of the primaries and outer secondaries dusky; tail blue with
numerous narrow, inconspicuous dusky bars; the lower surface of
the wings and tail dusky.

Length to end of tail 13 inches; bill along the ridge 1 1 1/2/12, along the
edge of lower mandible 1 4 1/2/12; wing from flexure 5 11/12; tail 6;
1/2
tarsus 1 8/12; hind toe 7 /12, its claw 7/12; middle toe 11/12, its claw
5/ .
12

The Female is similar to the male, and scarcely inferior in colouring,

but somewhat smaller.
Length to end of tail 12 inches; bill along the ridge 1 1/2; wing from
flexure 5 1/2; tail 5 1/2; tarsus 1 8/12; middle toe 11/12 its claw 5/12.
Dr Townsend informs me that it is called Ass-ass by the Chinooks,
who regard it with a superstitious feeling, believing that should a
person hear it enunciating certain notes, which resemble the
syllables jaa-jaa, he will shortly die, whereas its other notes, kuc,
kuc, kuc, kuc, rapidly repeated, portend good. He further states that
it is gregarious, like the Blue Jay, and corroborates some of the
particulars above given.
Two eggs presented to me by Mr Nuttall measure an inch and an
eighth in length, and seven-eighths in breadth.
 ULTRAMARINE JAY.

Corvus Ultramarinus.
PLATE CCCLXII. Adult.

Although the Ultramarine Jay has been described by Mr Swainson,

in his Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico, under the name of Garrulus
sordidus, I retain the specific name “ultramarinus,” previously given
by the Prince of Musignano. The only observations respecting its
habits that I am aware of having been made, are the following, for
which I am indebted to my friend Thomas Nuttall.
“Early in October, on arriving in the forests of the Columbia, near
Fort Vancouver, an establishment of the Hudson’s Bay Company, we
saw in the same situations with the Steller’s Jay, the present
species. Its habits are much like those of the Common Jay. It usually
flies out to the tops of the lofty pines, jerks its tail, and perches
playfully on some extreme branch, where it utters at times, as if
excited by petulant anger, a strong whoit, woit, woit, woit, after which
expression it emits a sort of recognition-call at short intervals, twee,
and sometimes a shorter ’twee ’twee. When much pursued, it sits
still in the concealing shade of the lofty branches on which it seeks
refuge. It feeds on insects, acorns broken up, and probably pine
seeds. They appear to associate in roving families throughout the fall
and winter, like the other species, seldom if ever associating with the
more Common Steller’s Jay, though now and then perhaps in the
same tree. It is a graceful, active, and rather shy species, flying out
straight from tree to tree, remarkable by its long tail and rather short
wings; and its note is much less harsh and loud than that of Steller’s
Jay. They breed in the dark pine woods probably where we so
frequently saw them alight, and on the 15th of June they were
feeding their fully fledged young, two of which I pursued for some
time, but they skulked so effectually as to escape me after a long
and doubtful chase. The young had a great predominance of grey on
the back. The same species also extends into Upper California.”
Adult Male. Plate CCCLXII. Fig. 3.
Bill shorter than the head, strong, straight, compressed toward the
end; upper mandible with the dorsal line declinate and convex
toward the end, the sides sloping and becoming convex toward the
tip, which is declinate, thin-edged and obtuse, the edges sharp and
overlapping, with a slight notch; lower mandible straight, the angle
rather short and broad, the dorsal outline ascending and slightly
convex, the sides convex, the edges sharp and directed outwards,
the tip narrow. Nostrils basal, roundish covered by the reversed
bristly feathers.
Head large, ovate; eyes of moderate size; neck rather short; body
compact. Legs of moderate length, strong; tarsus much compressed,
with seven large anterior scutella, and two long plates behind,
meeting so as to form a sharp edge. Toes stout, with large scutella,
the outer adherent as far as its second joint to the middle toe; first
very strong; inner toe shorter than outer, third much longer. Claws
strong, arched, compressed, acute.
Plumage full, soft, blended. Stiff feathers with disunited barbs over
the nostrils, the longest scarcely extending to a third of the length of
the bill; at the base of the upper mandible several longish slender
bristles. Wings of moderate length, convex, and much rounded; the
first quill very short, an inch and two-twelfths shorter than the
second, which is eight-twelfths shorter than the third, the fourth
three-twelfths longer than the third, and a twelfth and a half shorter
than the fifth, which is the longest, but scarcely exceeds the sixth.
Tail long, much rounded, of twelve rather narrow, rounded and
acuminate feathers, of which the lateral is an inch and a quarter
shorter than the longest.
Bill and feet brownish-black. Iris hazel. Upper part of the head, sides
and hind part of the neck, wings, upper tail-coverts, and tail, light
blue; back light greyish-brown, the feathers of the rump whitish and
tinged with blue at the end; the inner webs of the quills dusky; the tail
transversely undulated, and having the appearance of being faintly
barred with a darker tint. A white band over the eye formed by the
tips of the feathers there; the cheeks dusky; the fore neck greyish-
white faintly streaked with dusky; and bounded below by a narrow
semilunar band of light blue continuous with that of the neck. The
lower parts are pale purplish-grey, passing into white on the
abdomen; lower tail-coverts tinged with blue.
1/2
Length to end of tail 12 inches; bill along the ridge 1 1 /12, along the
edge of lower mandible 1 4/12; wing from flexure 5 8/12; tail 6 2/12;
1/
tarsus 1 8/12; hind toe 7 /12, its claw 7/12; middle toe 1 1/12, its claw
2

6 1/2/ .
12

The Female is considerably smaller, but resembles the male in

colour.
Length to end of tail 11 1/2 inches; wing from flexure 5 3/12; tail 6 2/12;
1/
tarsus 1 7/12; middle toe 1, its claw 6 /12.
2

The resemblance which this species bears to the Florida Jay is so

close that one might readily confound the two. That species,
however, is distinguishable by its smaller size and its more rounded
tail; by its having a band of whitish across the forehead and
extended over the eye, where it is not in dots as in the Ultramarine
Jay.
 CLARKE’S NUTCRACKER.

Nucifraga columbiana.
PLATE CCCLXII. Adult.

No sooner had I examined perfect specimens of this somewhat

singularly coloured bird, than I felt assured, more especially from the
form of its bill, that it is with us a representative of the Nutcracker of
Europe; and I was much surprised, on comparing it with the figure
given of it by Alexander Wilson, to find the latter very defective,
the bill being nearly half an inch shorter than in four specimens
which I have inspected. All that is known of its habits is contained in
the following notes from Mr Nuttall and Dr Townsend.
“We first observed this species in a small pine grove, on the borders
of Bear River, in the table-land of the Rocky Mountains, where they
were probably breeding, in the month of July. We again saw a
considerable flock of the young birds early in August, in a lofty ravine
near the summit of one of the three belts or isolated mountains,
about thirty or forty miles west of the Shoshonee River. They
appeared somewhat shy, and scattered through a grove of aspens,
flying with a slight chatter, scarcely a caw, from the tops of the
bushes or trees, on to the ground, probably in quest of insect food.
We never saw this species either on the lower plains or forests of the
Columbia, or in any part of Upper California. It appears never to
descend below the mountain plains.” T. N.
“Clarke’s Crow, Corvus columbianus. First found on Bear River, and
afterwards on the Blue Mountains, plentiful. Its flight is very unlike
that of the Common Crow, being performed by jerks, like that of the
Woodpecker. When sitting, it is almost constantly screaming; its
voice is very harsh and grating, and consists of one rather prolonged
note. It breeds here in very high pine trees. The White Pelican also
seen here in July, no doubt breeds; also the Canvass-backed Duck,
the Shoveller, and Dusky Duck; found young of all of them. The
Corvus columbianus is never seen within five hundred miles of the
mouth of the Columbia. It appears generally to prefer a mountainous
country and pine trees; and feeds chiefly on insects and their larvæ.”
J. K. T.

Clarke’s Crow, Corvus columbianus, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. iii. p. 29. pl.
20, fig. 2.
Corvus columbianus, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p.
57.
Columbian Crow, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 218.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLXII. Fig. 4.

Bill as long as the head, stout, somewhat conical, compressed, at
the tip rather depressed. Upper mandible with its dorsal line slightly
arcuato-declinate, the ridge convex, the sides rounded, the edges
sharp and overlapping, without notæ, the tip flattened and obtuse;
lower mandible with the angle short and rounded, the dorsal line
straight, the sides convex, the edges sharp and a little inflexed, the
tip flattened, and rather obtuse. Nostrils basal, lateral, roundish,
covered by bristly feathers, which are directed forwards.
Head large, broadly ovate; eyes of moderate size; neck rather short;
body compact. Legs of moderate length, stout; tarsus compressed,
with seven large anterior scutella and two plates behind, meeting so
as to form a sharp edge. Toes stout, with large scutella; the first toe
very large, the inner a little shorter than the outer, the hind much
longer; the third and fourth united as far as the second joint of the
latter. Claws large, arched, much compressed, acute.
Plumage full, very soft and blended; the stiff bristly feathers over the
nostrils extend about one-fifth of the length of the bill; and there are
no distinct bristles at the base of the upper mandible; the feathers on
the head are very short. The wings are long, and much rounded; the
first quill two inches shorter than the second, which is ten-twelfths
shorter than the third, the latter exceeded two-twelfths by the fourth,
which is the longest; the outer primaries being narrow, give the wing,
when closed, the appearance of being pointed. Tail of moderate
length, rounded, of twelve rather broad feathers, of which the lateral
is half an inch shorter than the middle.
Bill and feet brownish-black. Iris hazel. The general colour above
and below is light brownish-grey, the forehead, throat, fore part of
cheeks, and a space around the eye white, tinged with yellow. Wings
black, glossed with blue; seven of the secondaries largely tipped with
white, upper tail-coverts greyish-black; tail pure white, excepting the
two middle feathers and the greater part of the inner webs of the
next pair, which are black glossed with blue; lower wing-coverts
dusky, some tipped with white; lower tail-coverts pure white.
Length to end of tail 12 inches; bill along the ridge 1 8/12, along the
edge of lower mandible 1 10/12; wing from flexure 7 11/12; tail 5 1/4;
1/2
tarsus 1 4/12; hind toe 7 /12; its claw 8/12; middle toe 11/12, its claw
6/ .
12

Adult Female. Plate CCCLXII. Fig. 5.

The Female is similar to the male.
 BOHEMIAN CHATTERER.

Bombycilla garrula, Vieill.

PLATE CCCLXIII. Male and Female.

The first intimations of the occurrence of this beautiful bird in North

America, were made by Mr Drummond and Dr Richardson, by the
former of whom it was found in 1826, near the sources of the
Athabasca, or Elk River, in the spring, and by the latter, in the same
season, at Great Bear Lake, in latitude 50°. Dr Richardson states,
in the Fauna Boreali-Americana, that “specimens procured at the
former place, and transmitted to England, by the servants of the
Hudson’s Bay Company, were communicated, by Mr Leadbeater to
the Prince of Musignano, who had introduced the species into his
great work on the Birds of the United States.” “In its autumn
migration southwards,” he continues, “this bird must cross the
territory of the United States, if it does not actually winter within it;
but I have not heard of its having been hitherto seen in America to
the southward of the fifty-fifth parallel of latitude. The mountainous
nature of the country skirting the Northern Pacific Ocean being
congenial to the habits of this species, it is probably more generally
diffused in New Caledonia and the Russian American Territories,
than to the eastward of the Rocky Mountain chain. It appears in
flocks at Great Bear Lake about the 24th of May, when the spring
thaw has exposed the berries of the alpine arbutus, marsh
vaccinium, &c., that have been frozen and covered during winter. It