Chapter 3

Introduction to Drilled Pier,

Caissons and Cofferdams

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 Drilled pier foundations, belong to the same category as pile
foundations. Because piers and piles serve the same purpose, no
sharp deviations can be made between the two. A drilled pier is a
foundation element composed of cast-in-place reinforced concrete
that is placed into an open drilled excavation. In general, drilled
shafts will have a higher resistance against axial and lateral loads
than driven piles. The additional capacity is a result of the size of
the drilled shaft. The shaft may be straight or the base may be
enlarged by underreaming.
 This structural member is also termed as follows:
 Drilled shaft, Drilled caisson, Bored pile (restricted to D < 760
mm).
 If the base is enlarged the member takes one of these names:
 Belled pier (or belled caisson) or Underreamed foundation

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 Advantage and Disadvantage of Drilled Piers
 Advantage
1. Pier of any length and size can be constructed at the site
2. Inspection of drilled holes is possible because of the larger diameter
of the shafts
3. Very large loads can be carried by a single drilled pier foundation thus
eliminating the necessity of a pile cap
4.The drilled pier is applicable to a wide variety of soil conditions
5. Changes can be made in the design criteria during the progress of a
job
6. Ground vibration that is normally associated with driven piles is
absent in drilled pier construction
7. Bearing capacity can be increased by under-reaming the bottom (in
non-caving materials)
8. They can go through a boulder soil where driven piles might be
deflected. Boulders of size less than about one-third the shaft diameter
can be directly removed.
9. It is easy to enlarge the top portion of the pier shaft to allow for
larger bending moments 5
Disadvantage
1. Installation of drilled piers needs a careful supervision and
quality control of all the materials used in the construction
2. The method is cumbersome. It needs sufficient storage space
for all the materials used in the construction
3. Bad weather conditions may make drilling and/or concreting
difficult
4. The advantage of increased bearing capacity due to compaction
in granular soil that could be obtained in driven piles is not there
in drilled pier construction
4. Construction of drilled piers at places where there is a heavy
current of ground water flow due to artesian pressure is very
difficult.
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 Types of drilled pier
Drilled shafts are classified according to the ways in which they are
designed to transfer the structural load to the substratum.
1. drilled straight shaft. It extends through the upper layer(s) of
poor soil, and its tip rests on a strong load-bearing soil layer or
rock. The shaft can be cased with steel shell or pipe when required
(as it is with cased, cast-in-place concrete piles). For such shafts,
the resistance to the applied load may develop from end bearing
and also from side friction at the shaft perimeter and soil interface.
2. A belled shaft consists of a straight shaft with a bell at the
bottom, which rests on good bearing soil. The bell can be
constructed in the shape of a dome, or it can be angled. For angled
bells, the underreaming tools that are commercially available can
make 30 to 45° angles with the vertical.
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Design of the elements of the pier
 The elements of the pier are the shaft with or without a bell.
A) Pier bells
 In order to reduce the soil pressure, drilled piers are normally
constructed with enlarged bases which are called bells.
 The slope of the bells should not be less than 60° in order to avoid
caving-in of excavated soils.
 Due to practical problems, it is advisable that bell diameter should not
exceed three times the shaft diameter.
 The bell should be proportioned so that it does not break out from the
shaft.
B) Pier shaft
 Since pier shafts are laterally supported by the surrounding soil, they
do not buckle. Hence they are designed using the formulas of short
columns.
 For plain concrete shafts, minimum reinforcement should be provided

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 Construction Procedures

Dry Method of Construction

This method is employed in soils and rocks that are above the
water table and that will not cave in when the hole is drilled to
its full depth.

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Casing Method of Construction
This method is used in soils or rocks in which caving or excessive
deformation is likely to occur when the borehole is excavated.
Step 1. The excavation procedure is initiated as in the case of the dry method
Step 2. When the caving soil is encountered, bentonite slurry is introduced
into the borehole. Drilling is continued until the excavation goes past the
caving soil and a layer of impermeable soil or rock is encountered.
Step 3. A casing is then introduced into the hole.
Step 4. The slurry is bailed out of the casing with a submersible pump
Step 5. A smaller drill that can pass through the casing is introduced into the
hole, and excavation continues.
Step 6. If needed, the base of the excavated hole can then be enlarged, using
an under reamer.
Step 7. If reinforcing steel is needed, the rebar cage needs to extend the full
length of the excavation. Concrete is then poured into the excavation and the
casing gradually pulled out.
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 Wet Method of Construction
This method is sometimes referred to as the slurry displacement
method. Slurry is used to keep the borehole open during the
entire depth of excavation.
Following are the steps involved in the wet method of
construction:
Step 1. Excavation continues to full depth with slurry
Step 2. If reinforcement is required, the rebar cage is placed in
the slurry.
Step 3. Concrete that will displace the volume of slurry is then
placed in the drill hole.

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Estimation of Load-Bearing Capacity
Drilled piers are widely used to carry compressive loads. They are
also used to carry tension loads—particularly under power line and
antenna tower legs. They may carry lateral loads or a combination
of vertical and lateral loads.
The load transfer mechanism from drilled shafts to soil is similar to
that of piles
The ultimate load-bearing capacity of a drilled shaft is:

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 Caissons
 Caissons are box-type structural elements of a foundation, consisting
of many cells built either of timber, steel, concrete or a combination of
them, which are wholly or partly constructed at higher level (or at
times in a different position) and sunk to their final position.
 They are used to transmit large loads through water and poor material
to firm strata.
 Major areas in which caissons are deployed are in bridge piers, quay
walls, shore protection structures, water-front structures, etc.
 Because of their construction costs, caissons are advantageously used
over other types of foundations when any or all of the following
conditions exist :

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 a. The soil contains large boulders which obstruct penetration of
piles or drilled piers.
b. A massive substructure is required to extend to or below a river
bed to provide resistance against destructive forces due to
floating objects, scour, etc.
c. The foundation is subjected to large lateral forces.
Type of Caisson
 Caissons may be divided into three categories according to their
methods of construction: These are
1. Open caisson
2. Pneumatic caissons and
3. Box caissons or floating caisson

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 Open Caissons
 An open caisson essentially consists of a box, open at top and
bottom .
 The material is removed by dredging or grabbing from
inside the caisson. The sinking of the caisson proceeds under
the caisson’s own weight by overcoming the skin friction,
which is assisted by the cutting edges of the walls.
 Depending on the size of the caisson, its interior may be
subdivided into cells by diaphragms.
 After the desired level of penetration has been arrived at,
concrete is poured at the bottom to serve as a seal. After the
concrete has set, the water is pumped out and cells are then
filled with concrete.
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  Major Advantage is their low cost and ability to be
extended to great depths.
 Disadvantage:
a) Commonly, the concrete seal is placed under water, its
function is not satisfactory.
b) The other problem associated with this method is that the
soil near the cutting edges may require hand excavation
by divers.

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 A. Bearing Capacity

 Caissons are placed in compacted sand, gravel, hard clay

or bedrock, and never in soft soil or decomposed rocks.
 The ultimate bearing capacity may be determined by
using those bearing capacity relationships used for mat
foundations.
 Or the following empirical relationships may be used:

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  It would be stated at this point that the bearing pressure of
caissons on bedrock should not exceed that of the concrete seal.
The bearing pressure for the seal is limited to about 350N/cm2
(3500kPa).

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 A. Concrete Seal
 Concrete seals are placed to plug the bottom of the caisson during
construction, and later they serve as permanent base of the foundation.
 Concrete Seals may be designed as thick plates subjected to a unit bearing
pressure.

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 Design Criteria
 External walls of concrete caissons should be designed
to withstand both the lateral and vertical loads.
 The internal walls should be so designed as to share
the vertical load with the external walls.
 The construction joints should be placed at sufficient
height, so that the weight of the caissons will be
sufficient to overcome the skin friction, and can sink
without additional loading.
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 Pneumatic Caissons
 The essential difference between open caissons and
pneumatic caissons is in the provision of a working
chamber filled with compressed air.
 Top of the caisson is closed and compressed air is
introduced to prevent water from entering the working
chamber.
 The excavation is done in dry conditions, thus giving the
workers a better chance to have control over the
construction work.
 Placement of the seal will also be carried out in dry
conditions, thus giving a reliable quality.
 Pneumatic caissons should be deployed as a last-resort
45 solution, due to high-cost and health hazard.
  The depth of penetration of the caisson below water is
limited to a chamber pressure of about 35 N/cm2, since
the human body cannot endure higher pressure.
 The bearing capacity and seal thickness may be
determined from equations given for open caissons.
 The following should also be considered in the overall
design, in addition to what is stated for open caissons:
a) Design of the roof of the excavation chamber;
b) Location of air locks and material locks;
c) Provision of decompression chamber and
d) Provision of means of removing excavated material.

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47  Fig: General arrange view of Pneumatic Caisson
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 Box Caissons (Floating Caissons)
 A box caisson, as its name implies, is basically a box with closed
bottom or base. Box caissons are usually cast on land and towed to
the site, and then sunk onto a previously leveled soil base.
 They may be constructed from reinforced concrete, steel or a
combination of both.
 Box caissons are used where the construction of an open caisson is
costly or not feasible.
 They are advantageously used in a site where the bearing stratum is
near the ground surface.
 The ground must be leveled or excavated so as to acquire a level
surface. It must also be protected against scouring.
 In addition, box caissons shall be checked for floating stability since
they are commonly towed on sites.
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  The bearing capacity may be estimated from the equations
given for open caissons.
 Since the bottom of the caisson is an integral part of the
caisson, one does not need a concrete seal. After the caisson
is sunk to the desired level, it is filled with sand, concrete,
gravel, etc., as found appropriate.
 The general criteria that apply for the design of the walls of
open caissons also apply for box caissons.

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 Cofferdams
Introduction
 A cofferdam is a temporary enclosure structure in a river, lake,
ocean etc., designed to keep water from the enclosed area in
order to construct a permanent structure.
 When construction must take place below the water level, a
cofferdam is built to give workers a dry work environment.
 A Cellular cofferdam is made by driving straight-web steel sheet
piles to form a series of cells which are subsequently filled with a
suitable soil. The cell are interconnected for water tightness and
are self-stabilizing against the lateral pressure of water and earth.
 Cellular cofferdams are not intended to be completely impervious
but rather provide sufficient resistance to water flow that the
quantity of water that does seep through can be readily pumped.
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  Cellular cofferdams are of three basic types: Circular, Diaphragm,
and Cloverleaf
 These structures are usually constructed of straight-web sheet
piling since a cell full of soil and/or water tends to split so that
tension stresses are produced in the web.

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 Cell Construction
Cofferdam cells are constructed by assembling the necessary number of
sheet piles around a wooden template that have been anchored into correct
position.
The sheet piling is then placed into position with the pile sections, which
have been fabricated to connect the cells (wyes or tees), set into position first
and as accurately as possible.
The circular cell cofferdam of consists of circles of different radii intersecting
The cell intersection angle a is usually either 30° or 45°. The joint is either a
90° T or a 30° Y, but other angles might be used for special cases. Sheet piling
interlocks allow a maximum of about 10° deflection between pieces.
Diaphragm cells are made of a series of circular arcs connected by cross walls
(diaphragms) using 120° intersection pieces.
The cloverleaf type has been used considerably as a corner, or anchor, cell in
61conjunction with circular cells.
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 The circular cell is generally preferable to the other cellular types
for the following reasons:
1. It is stable as a single unit and can be filled as soon as it is
constructed.
2. The diaphragm-type cell will distort unless the various units are
filled essentially simultaneously with not over 0.5 to 0.75 m of
differential soil height in adjacent cells;
3. The collapse of a diaphragm cell may cause the entire cofferdam
to fail, whereas the collapse of a circular cell is generally a local
cell failure.
4. The circular cell is easier to form using templates.
5. The circular cell usually requires less sheet piling, but this need
depends somewhat on the diaphragm cross wall spacing.

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 CELL FILL
 The cell fill provides mass (or weight) for stability and a reduced
coefficient of permeability k for retaining water without excessive
pumping.
 These advantages must be balanced against the lateral pressure
effects of the soil-water mixture
 The resulting stresses that the sheet pile interlocks must resist
before rupture and/or cofferdam failure.
The best cell fill:
1. Is free-draining (large coefficient of permeability, k)
2. Has a high angle of internal friction
3. Contains small amounts of No. 200 sieve material—preferably
less than 5 percent
4. Is resistant to scour (non-silty or clayey)requires presence of
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 STABILITY OF CELLULAR COFFERDAMS
 The design of a cofferdam requires providing an adequate
margin of safety against the following:
1. Cell sliding
2. Cell overturning
3. Cell bursting of which is usually critical since the interlock
(thumb and finger joints) are the weakest part of the system.
4. Cell shear along the centerline and including a component of
interlock friction
5. Bearing capacity and settlement

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  SLIDING STABILITY. A cofferdam must provide adequate
resistance to sliding on the base caused by the unbalanced
hydrostatic pressure.

 In this equation the active earth force Pa on the water side (not
shown) is usually neglected unless the embedment depth is more
than about 1.75 m.
 It is often better to increase the cell diameter rather than to use a
berm (an increase in diameter is not directly related to the
increase in number of sheet piles required). The berm increases
the required basin space, so some economy is achieved by
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 OVERTURNING STABILITY.
 The cofferdam must be stable against overturning. Two
possibilities, or types of analysis, can be made when considering
this type of stability.
 To avoid overturning, and reasoning that soil cannot take tension
forces, we see that the resultant weight W should lie within the
middle one-third of the base giving.

 Thus, larger cell heights H require wider average cell widths B

defined by the equivalent rectangle
 Alternatively, one may reason that as the cell tends to tip over, the
soil will pour out at the heel. For this to occur the friction
resistance between the cell fill and the water-side sheet piling
must develop from the water force Pd = Pw
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 If the sheet piling is embedded to some depth in the soil,
the effects of the active Pa and passive PP soil pressures
on the overturning moment and friction resistance
should be included in summing moments about point A

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 Shear along a plane through the centerline of the cell is another possible
mode of failure . For stability, the shearing resistance along this plane,
which is the sum of soil shear resistance and resistance in the interlocks,
must be equal to or greater than the shear due to the overturning effects.

Since Vr depends on both interlock resistance Ril and cell shear along
the center line Vs, it is necessary to obtain their values so that

Soil shear resistance. The soil shear resistance part of the total cell
shear resistance is computed from

with Ps = area of pressure profile abcd.

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  Interlock friction/shear. Friction in the interlock joints (see
Fig.) occurs simultaneously with soil shear resistance for
vertical shear distortion along the centerline to take place.
 Conventional design uses the average interlock tension based on
using Pt of Fig Pt = area abcd
 Note the use of Ka for the lateral pressure here and not K’ the
interlock friction resistance contribution is

 where fi = interlock friction coefficient, usually taken as 0.3

(values of 0.25 to 0.4 have been measured, and higher values
are obtained when the steel is wet)
 The total cell shear resistance combines for the circular cell to
obtain, given earlier and repeated here:

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 BURSTING STABILITY. The cells must be stable against bursting
pressures (pulling apart of the piles at the joints).
• Experiences at the TVA and elsewhere indicate that during filling of the
cell, lateral pressures develop during filling and increase during
subsequent consolidation of the fill (on the order of 10 days or so).
• The cell expands in proportion to the lateral pressure but expansion is
dependent on the base restraint—whether the cell is founded on rock or
embedded in the ground.
• The expanded cell takes on a modified barrel or bulged shape, and field
observation finds the bulge most pronounced at from one-fifth to one-
third of the free height of the cell above the dredge line or rock.
• The pressure intensity qt = ce of Figs, b or c is used for the critical
interlock tension ti and with reference to Fig. b is computed as follows:

where qt = pressure intensity ce

C1= constant: use 1 if qt in kPa;
tu = ultimate interlock value
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  If the cofferdam is embedded in soft to medium clay, it should be
safe against tilting caused by unequal settlement.
 The tilting can be estimated from the compressibility characteristics
of the soil.
 Cellular cofferdams to be founded on sand bed should be designed
to prevent boiling (piping) at the toe due to seepage of water.
 If the seepage pressure is equal to or greater than the submerged
unit weight , boiling (piping) conditions may be developed.
 The danger of boiling can be eliminated by the use of loaded filter.
 As an alternative, the sheet piling may be driven to a great depth in
order to eliminate the boiling condition.
 The depth of the sheet piling below the bed level required for this
purpose is approximately equal to 2/3H , where H is the height of
the sheet pile above the bed.
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77 Figure – Installation of wale and strut system and driving the sheet piles
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