MINOAN ARCHITECTURE

MARK RHONCHEL B. RAFAEL JANUARY 17, 2O24

BS ARCHITECTURE - 1C FN - RSWQ - 01
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INTRODUCTION
Greece's earliest known civilization was that of the Minoans. They had been in Greece
since approximately 2000 B.C., mostly on the island of Crete. up to approximately 1400 B.C.
until the fall of their civilization. Through our research, we can infer that every aspect of their
culture was created by them using their own hands and intellect. They built their civilization and
way of life from the ground up, and the Greek island of Crete is still home to many reminders of
their magnificence. Archaeological sites like Knossos and Malia provide us hints about their way
of life. Some of the well-preserved ruins allow us to learn about their unique and fascinating
architecture in particular.

The magnificent palace buildings of the principal Minoan centers of Knossos, Phaistos,
Mala, and Zakros may be the best example of the distinctive contribution of the Minoan
civilization to European architecture. These amazing structures, dating from the c. period, were
probably inspired by Egypt and the Near East and developed through the monumental tombs of
the previous period. From 2000 BCE to the present. were so intricate and far ahead of the
architectural norms of 1500 BCE that, at Knossos at least, they might have even been the
inspiration for the myth of the Labyrinth. That was how they would have impressed the
uninitiated observer. Undoubtedly, the rich complex found at numerous Minoan sites in Creta is a
singular addition to the architectural structures of Bronze Age Europe.

A number of genuine architectural innovations were produced by the Minoans as their

legacy was established. What really sticks out is the Minoan pier-and-door partition hall, but
their intricate use of hallways and stairways added to the intricacy of the Minoan "palaces" and
"villas." One of the most remarkable examples of Late Bronze Age architecture is the "Minoan
Hall," which intensifies the labyrinthine characteristics of Minoan structures. It is made up of
multiple rectangular rooms divided by a row of square piers and columns. Double doors that fold
back into shallow recesses to allow for the adjustment of movement, ventilation, and light are
supported by the piers.

The hall and forehall are divided into two sections by these pier-and-door partitions. A
row of columns divides a lightwell from the other two rooms; it also lets light and airflow into
the structure and essentially functions as a small courtyard. A room could have been opened up
or collapsed using the pier-and-door partitions. The difficulty of moving around a building is
further increased if they make up two or more of a room's walls. It functioned in a manner

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similar to how walls divide or expand ballroom areas in contemporary hotels. One characteristic
that makes the place "Minoan" is the "Minoan Hall.

The so-called "Minoan Hall" is one of the more fascinating examples of Minoan
architecture. The simplest configuration consists of a light well, a fore hall, and a room
(polythyron) divided by what are referred to as pier-and-door partitions. The hall, which could be
found in some Neopalatial homes as well as the residential areas of the palaces, was typically
accompanied by a "lustral basin," which is a square, sunken room accessed by steps and
frequently flanked by an ornate balustrade. Ground level observation of the basin was frequently
made possible by a window or a platform.

Although two earlier, protopalatial examples of the Hall have been found at Malia,
examples of the Hall were previously only known from the Neopalatial period. Middle Minoan II
Building A in Quartier Mu is where the later of the two is located. It's composed of a polythyron,
a large hall, and the lustral basin. A distinct sequence of five basement rooms make up the earlier
example, a Minoan Hall suite in the Middle Minoan I Crypte hypostyle. The first room is
bounded by a light well, and the others are a polythyron, a relatively small square room with a
large interior window (possibly a lustral basin), and a benched entrance room adjoining it.The
first and last underground rooms could be accessed separately from the spacious ground-level
hall, which was likely intended for groups, located south of these rooms.

It appears from a comparison of the two room groups that the Quartier Mu group is
derived from the Crypte hypostyle example. In particular, the latter's lustral basin—which
featured chthonic connections—remained at basement level and was accessible via steps, while
its polythyron was, for pragmatic reasons, positioned at ground level. The Neopalatial era would
later adopt a modified version of this arrangement, capping a lengthy history of social and
ceremonial architecture that may have started as early as the Early Minoan Period.

Palaces
Although the term "palace" is frequently used to describe the centers on Minoan Crete,
one should be cautious of the contemporary implications that the word carries, such as "political"
and "centralized power." Large and luxurious, the Bronze Age Minoan complexes featured
spacious public areas and ample storage magazines. However, the archaeological evidence is still
insufficient to definitively conclude that these palaces served as the residence of a central
religious or political ruler or ruling body. Nonetheless, it is reasonable to argue that the
abundance of seals, pithoi, amphorae, Linear A tablet archives, and the area allotted to storage

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facilities (more than one-third of the entire site) would imply that the palaces were the epicenter
of some kind of centralized domestic and international trade. Furthermore, the sheer scale and
magnificence of the structures would imply the need for a specific kind of centralized material,
artisan, and planning organization.

The palatial complexes' immense size, spanning several thousand square meters, is their
most striking feature. Their height, which in certain places reaches four stories, is equally
remarkable. The palace's individual rooms' relative small size was another characteristic. These
chambers frequently served as air passageways, light wells—another Minoan
invention—corridors, entrances, and exits. Unfortunately, it has been challenging to pinpoint the
precise purpose of many of the rooms due to the dearth of archaeological discoveries. For
instance, there is much debate regarding the original purpose of the tiny sunken rooms, also
known as "lustral basins," which were accessible by a right-angled staircase and located below
floor level. Sacred horns may indicate a ritualistic function for a particular ceremonial courtyard
or room, but more conclusive evidence is absent.

The wooden doors, which could be pushed back into wall recesses to open or close,
allowed the palaces' rooms to be set up in a variety of ways. The palace's spiral design, which
was created from the center out, may have contributed to its maze-like arrangement.
Consequently, the visitor would have encountered numerous turns and twists before reaching the
striking central courtyard, which serves as the complex's focal point and is built in a 2:1 ratio
with a north-south orientation.

There is some repetitive and organizational structure discernible in the various palaces,
despite the seemingly haphazard and disorganized structural arrangement of these communal
buildings. Large halls were typically found in the east and/or west wings; smaller, occasionally
sunken rooms were situated close to storage areas, which were typically found in the western
wing. Typically, light-wells were located in the center of the longer, rectangular rooms and on
one side of the smaller ones. The north wing contained a hypostyle (colonnaded) hall in addition
to main and subsidiary entrances at all times. On the other hand, certain elements are exclusive to
one location; these include the circular stone pools of Zakros and the "throne room" that is only
found at Knossos.

The palaces' architectural design implies that their purpose was to be functional. There
were municipal spaces, living quarters, and storage areas. The architecture suggests that for the

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Minoans residing in the region, the palaces served as the epicenter of religion, culture,
governance, and trade. A few of these palaces' characteristics are as follows:

● Unfortified: The Minoans were traders rather than fighters. Their palaces were therefore
not fortified.
● Chambers: The presence of numerous chambers was another attribute of Minoan palaces.
Due to their various uses, the palaces required an adequate number of rooms to
accommodate the guests. Every palace featured numerous wings, each housing a large
number of smaller rooms.
● Courts: There were several smaller courts dispersed throughout the palaces in addition to
the central court found in each palace. All of the courts were paved and used as
communal spaces.
● Wings: Each of the four wings in each palace served a specific function. The layout of
the palace was north to south. The magazines for food storage were kept in the
western-facing wing, which was also revered. Craftspeople could hone their skills in the
workshops located in the east wing.
● Columbs: Because each palace had multiple stories and levels, it was composed of
multiple columns, each of which had a wooden core inside.

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Building Materials

Local sandstone and limestone ashlar blocks were used in the construction, possibly to
withstand seismic activity. Timber cross beams and rubble were also added. Every palace has a
sizable western court, which is often tiled with limestone flagstones. Gypsum was also used for
the lower portions of walls, door jambs, benches, flooring, and occasionally the interstitial spaces
between the red or white plaster. Wooden beams were used to construct flat roofs. Stone
carvings, especially those of consecration horns, adorned a monumental structure. Sometimes
veneer, stucco, or frescoes were applied on painted walls.

FACTS

The walls were constructed either on undeveloped land or a rock, or a foundation trench
was dug for them. matching the wall's width. These methods are specifically used at sites with
several strata and loose soil. In other cases, they are constructed to cling to the slope or
outcropping rock to maintain their structural integrity; the latter is frequently seen in the hills and
mountains of Crete, where there was previous habitation.

There are two types of walls: those with two faces or those composed of roughly straight
rows of stones. The two parallel walls of the double-faced walls are made of dry stonework or
packed earth with medium- or large-sized stones; the space between them is filled with cobbles,
smaller stones, and earth. The smooth faces of the walls are his way. They seldom get wider than

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one meter. Alternatively, the walls could be constructed entirely of stones, packed earth or clay,
and no filling.

There is little evidence, which makes the roofs of these buildings extremely problematic.
in relation to their shape. The Vasiliki observation provides the best indications to date.
Horizontal beams were used to construct roofs, and these beams were covered with woven reeds.
Lepidohoma, a clayey earth, and occasionally even schist were used to seal the entire surface.
Plastering a roof so that people could walk on it or do other tasks required the use of plates.

The floors lacked unique foundations; typically, they were constructed from packed
schist-plastered stone or clay. A few of these exceptions to the rule are as follows: in an example
of a room on Knossos' Royal Road where red gravel was arranged in a certain way in order to
level the area in preparation for the cobblestone paving above it. getting ready for the leveling of
earlier structures serves as additional evidence of the site (this can only be demonstrated in
multiple stratified settings).

Buildings are constructed either in tandem or are unattached. In the latter instance, they
are never seen alone, with the exception of a handful exceptions (Chrysokamino, for example);
instead, they are divided into a number of houses. Additionally, We are unable to determine
whether they were used concurrently at this point in the investigation or at various points during
the EM subphase, depending on how we interpret chronology pertaining to the ceramic
sequence, in which specific forms and items have a time limit greater than a few centuries. When
the architecture is constructed as a unit, Most of the time, it is easy to distinguish between the
various stages, and in these cases, the continuity of a site can be demonstrated across several EM
era stages and centuries.

The residences, even in cases where there is a "central" area (court, road, passage), install
a radiant access system where they begin their journey inside a building. the development or
existence of the open spaces where the individual structures emerge suggest, at least in part
planned ahead of time and a feeling of unity within the community. Characteristics like central
structures of the L and Π shapes are unique characteristics of EM architecture. Such unique
methods,Double walls can be built for a single structure or two distinct structure groups of
rooms. They consistently show two distinct stages of construction, which are not always
architectural phases; cultural phases could also exist.

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 Furthermore, these are constructed up against the rising slope or outcropping of the wall
with the intention of stabilizing it. Additionally, they can have double L-walls or perpendicular
walls constructed on the lower portions of the slope to counteract the wall's drag from the slope.
Additionally, cupboards are particular characteristics of EM architecture, such as the lime and
clay plasters, which, when painted, are typically red; they are sporadically white or yellow.
Typically, the latter encompasses the whole inner surfaces of benches and floors, as well as
walls. The lighter mud used to build the upper structure brick strengthened with pieces of stone
or wood.

From the EM II onwards, benches both inside and outside are utilized, as are paved areas.
structures. They can be plastered, or they can be constructed of coursing stones. A preliminary
investigation of the Cretan Early Bronze Age: Early Minoan domestic architecture the earth and
clay used for the floors are among the first locally sourced materials culminating in the wall
stones. Where did the wood come from for the wooden parts? and it is currently impossible to
locate the roof's reeds.

By making an effort to separate and definitions of terms pertaining to various stages (raw
materials, site planning, building, and use) of the structural creation, it will advance scientific
the conversation during this time. Lastly, it might be a useful step toward comprehension
The intricate building systems of the complex thought became tangible subsequent Minoan
Architecture

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ETHRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

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 The architecture of the Etruscan civilization, which peaked in central Italy between the
eighth and third centuries BCE, has been largely destroyed by time and the Roman conquerors,
but the very impact the Etruscans had on Roman architecture and the impression their buildings
left on later writers offer tantalizing hints as to what has been left behind.There is concrete proof
that Etruscan architects were inventive and ambitious thanks to pottery models, tomb paintings,
and excavations at places like Tarquinia, Vulci, Veii, and Cerveteri. Among the innovations that
their Italian cultural successors would copy and adapt were the Tuscan column, arched gate,
private villa with atrium, and massive temples on impressive raised platforms with elaborate
terracotta decorations.
Problems of Reconstruction

The lack of any significant remnants unfortunately makes it difficult to reconstruct the
Etruscan towns and buildings. Sadly, this extensive and powerful civilization lacks a Parthenon
or Pompeii. Additionally, many Etruscan towns were entirely submerged under later medieval
and modern cities, making excavations difficult or impossible today. It's necessary to obtain
information from other sources, and luckily the Etruscans themselves can do so through their
representations of architecture in tomb paintings and ceramic vessels shaped like structures
ranging from simple huts to enormous temples.Because of their laudatory accounts, Roman
authors have also added to our understanding of Etruscan architecture. The thousands of
surviving Etruscan tombs, which changed over the centuries from tumuli to magnificent
stone-vaulted chambers housing multiple generations of the dead, are one area where neither
texts nor reconstructions are required.

Etruscan Housing

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 Everyday domestic architecture was constructed from more perishable materials, such as
wood, sun-dried mud brick, or waddle and daub for the walls, even though Etruscan tombs
appeared to be constructed to last for centuries using stone or rock-cut chambers. Plaster
coverings on the walls of Acquarossa dating from the 7th and 6th century BCE are examples of
the circular and oval huts that exist there. The thatch roof was held up by wooden poles, which
also offered extra stability. On lower levels and in some cases, however, stone was utilized.
Similar to bigger public buildings, houses may have had terracotta additions like figurines, lotus
motifs, and palmettes adorning their roofs. The apex of the roofs of rectangular buildings was
shielded by saddle tiles made of the same material, while round structures had center tiles with
holes in them that let smoke or light escape. This Acquarossa tile included a disc cover to seal
the opening in the event of rain. Terracotta plaques were nailed to the exposed ends of the beams
to provide protection. Thatch would eventually give way to tiles on the roof.

Houses had several interconnecting rooms as early as the sixth century BCE;
occasionally, they also included a hall and a private courtyard. These still only have one story.
Early communities had some rudimentary planning, as evidenced by excavations, with multiple
homes grouped around a common courtyard. In some towns, the farther out from the center a
building is placed, the more randomly it is placed; however, this was also advantageous for the
construction of rock-cut drainage channels that led off to cisterns. During the middle of the 6th
century BCE, larger private structures with gabled roofs supported by columns were likely
inspired by the architecture of Phoenicia and Asia Minor. They featured a shallow basin for
rainwater collection on the floor in the middle, an atrium, and an entrance hall that was open to
the sky. A sizable room with a cistern, fireplace, and side chambers that included servant quarters
was directly across from it.

Houses had several interconnecting rooms as early as the sixth century BCE;
occasionally, they also included a hall and a private courtyard. These still only have one story.
Early communities had some rudimentary planning, as evidenced by excavations, with multiple
homes grouped around a common courtyard. In some towns, the farther out from the center a
building is placed, the more randomly it is placed; however, this was also advantageous for the
construction of rock-cut drainage channels that led off to cisterns.
During the middle of the 6th century BCE, larger private structures with gabled roofs
supported by columns were likely inspired by the architecture of Phoenicia and Asia Minor.

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They featured a shallow basin for rainwater collection on the floor in the middle, an atrium, and
an entrance hall that was open to the sky. A sizable room with a cistern, fireplace, and side
chambers that included servant quarters was directly across from it.

Initially, Etruscan towns were built on easily fortified plateaus and ridges; however,
towns situated in areas deemed susceptible to assault were additionally shielded by stone walls
and ditches. With its grid-patterned, north-south oriented buildings from the 5th century BCE,
the settlement at Marzabotto is a great example of town planning. We are aware that the
Etruscans were especially preoccupied with ceremonies and rituals related to building design and
layout, and that they regarded specific configurations as fortunate.

Ethruscan Temples

With the exception of an altar where rituals were carried out, the earliest Etruscan sacred
spaces were defined as outdoor areas devoid of any architecture. In certain places there was a
rectangular podium where omens could be seen. The holy area eventually saw the construction
of structures, most likely limited to wood and thatch, serving a number of purposes, including
housing. It is at Veii c that the first Etruscan stone temple is seen. 600 years ago. As evidenced
by the altar platform at Cortona dating back to the sixth century BCE, secondary structures were
also built of stone.

The scarcity of surviving examples of Etruscan temple architecture has made

reconstructions challenging. While evidence suggests a more varied reality even though some
basic features are common, the Roman architect and writer Vitruvius describes a distinct "Tuscan
temple" with a columned portico and three small chambers at the rear interior. Greek temples are
clearly rectangular, but the temples built today are nearly square and situated on a much higher
platform. The Tuscan type of column is characterized by its lack of flutes and base-supported
design, much like the Doric order. These provide support to the roof, which creates a deep porch
by overhanging the entrance.

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Etruscan tombs

Larger stone tombs surrounded by tumuli and, even later, free-standing structures
frequently arranged in neat rows replaced the simple stone cavities dug into the ground and filled
with a jar containing the ashes of the departed along with a few everyday items. More
remarkable artifacts, including jewelry, dinner service sets, and even chariots, were interred with
the uncremated remains of the deceased in these later tumuli and block tombs from the 7th to 5th
century.

Tumuli are constructed using a circular tufa block base and lower courses arranged in a
circle. Alternatively, they are cut from existing rock at the desired location. These low walls can
be decorated with simple mouldings. A stone corridor leads to a central chamber that is designed
to resemble a house with painted windows and doors, or, in the case of the earliest, with a low
ceiling painted to resemble tent fabric, evoking the even older Etruscan practice of burying the
dead in tents. Corbelled roofs can be found in some corridors and chambers, as seen in the
7th-century BCE tomb at Volterra, which has a domed roof made of decreasing rings of small
stone blocks.

The Tomb of the Chariots at Populonia demonstrates how drainage was achieved by
either constructing the entire tomb on a sloping stone base or by using sloping stone slabs laid
across the roof. Then a mound of earth was placed over the entire structure. The diameter of
some of the biggest tumuli, like those at Cerveteri, can reach 40 meters. A large number of these
tombs were occupied for multiple generations.

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 The two new designs that emerge from Etruscan tombs during the Hellenistic era are best
observed at Chiusi. One type resembles Macedonian tombs in that it is built of well-cut blocks
with a barrel vault. The entrance tunnel of the second type is considerably more impressive;
some of them are as long as 25 meters. On the other hand, the interiors are simpler, featuring a
straightforward room that is either rectangular or cross-shaped and has benches and niches for
sarcophagi and funerary jars. These tombs were used for many generations, and in certain
cases—one example has 39 niches for placing remains—the entrance tunnels became the tomb
itself, without an end chamber.The Etruscan elite's tomb walls were painted with vibrant and
animated images from religious rituals, mythology, and everyday life—particularly feasts and
dancing. These scenes contain architectural elements, or they even depict them. For example,
painted doors and frames on tombs are often used as a symbol of the deceased's transition into
the afterlife. Windows and columns are additional features that show up in paint and are useful in
supporting archaeological excavations of actual buildings.

History

Later Roman architects would be influenced and inspired by the monumental city gates,
arches, Tuscan columns, and vaulted ceilings of Etruscan architecture. Indeed, the Jupiter
Optimus Maximus temple on Capitoline Hill, which dates back to the sixth century BCE, is
Rome's most significant early temple. It was constructed by Etruscan artisans. Like so much else
in Roman architecture, Etruscan arched gates would be elaborated and made much grander until
becoming the triumphal arch. The Romans' later columbaria, in which hundreds of remains were
neatly entombed on multiple levels, were influenced by the Etruscan use of Hellenistic tombs to
inter a large number of remains. In recognition of their architectural debt to the Etruscans, the
Romans also adopted and modified the atrium house design, naming it atrium tutcanicum.
Between roughly 900 BC and 27 BC, when ancient Rome's civilization finally began to
absorb Etruscan civilization, Etruscan architecture was created. The Etruscans were adept at
building roads, bridges, and city walls as well as temples, homes, tombs, and other structures out
of stone, wood, and other materials.
The grand mansions of the nobility, the enigmatic "monumental complexes," temples,
city walls, and rock-cut tombs were the principal examples of Etruscan monumental architecture.
Beginning around 630 BC, Greek architecture greatly impacted Etruscan architecture, which in

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turn impacted Roman architecture, which in its early centuries can be thought of as merely a
regional variant of Etruscan architecture.
Ornate decorations and the use of arches and vaults are characteristics of Etruscan
architecture. Before the Etruscans came into contact with their neighbors, the Romans used post
and beam structures, which turned out to be far inferior to the buildings constructed by the
Etruscans. The use of mortar, a durable and flexible mixture essential for building vaults and
domes, was also made popular by the Etruscans.
The lack of any significant remnants unfortunately makes it difficult to reconstruct the
Etruscan towns and buildings. Yet there is concrete proof that Etruscan architects were inventive
and ambitious thanks to pottery models, tomb paintings, and excavations at places like Tarquinia,
Vulci, Veii, and Cerveteri. Italy's cultural successors would copy and adapt many of the
innovations found in the Tuscan column, arched gate, private villa with atrium, and large-scale
temples on impressive raised platforms with elaborate terracotta decorations.

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