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AUTOMOTIVE, MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 2016 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON AUTOMOTIVE
ENGINEERING, MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (AEMEE 2016), HONG KONG,
CHINA, 9–11 DECEMBER 2016

Automotive, Mechanical and Electrical

Engineering

Editor
Lin Liu
Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China
CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

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ISBN: 978-1-138-62951-6 (Hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-21044-5 (eBook)
 Automotive, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering – Liu (Ed.)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62951-6

Table of contents

Preface xiii
Committees xv
Sponsors xvii

Automotive engineering and rail transit engineering

A study of the fuzzy three-parameter shifting rules of the AMT vehicle 3
Q. Chen & Y. Wang
Design process and kinematic characteristics analysis of a minivan’s Macpherson suspension system 9
Y. Wei, Z. Su, C. Liu, F. Xu & H. Chen
Energy conservation of electric vehicles by applying multi-speed transmissions 15
X. Wu, P. Dong, X. Xu, D.A. Kupka & Y. Huang
Finite element analysis and optimisation analysis of thrust rod for mining truck suspension 23
S. Hu, Q. Zhen, M. Ji & G. Shang
Research on crashworthy structure for the straddled-type monorail vehicle 27
X. Zhang
Research on a hybrid electric vehicle regenerative braking system 31
Z. Fang, C. Yang, X. Zhu & L. Zhao
Research on seal performance of rotating articulated skirt and the underwater vehicle 35
H. Gong, Z. Liu & J. Zhou
Research on the improvement of the pedestrians’ overtaking behaviours based
on a social force model in urban rail channel 41
Y. Xing, X. Yin & Y. Liu
Sound quality of vehicle exhaust noise prediction by using support vector regression 49
X. Zhang
A simulation analysis of the exhaust muffler basic unit transmission loss 53
D. Cheng, J. Fan & L. Ji
The Weibull model of the diesel engine based on reliability data distribution fitting 57
Z. Liu, G. Wang, Q. Zhang & X. Li

Mechanical, manufacturing, and process engineering

Analysis of metal structure cracks on the miter gate of the ship lock 65
P. Zhang & J. Zhou
Design and analysis of a wave-piercing buoy 69
D. Jiang, L. Ma, Z. Zhang, H. Dai & H. Chen
Research on tenuous shaft assembly technique based on a three-dimensional pose 75
K. Wei, B. Ren & L. Chai
Research on the meshing characteristic of the gear with the engagement misalignment 79
X. Deng

v
Simulation of towing operation for tractor-aircraft system 85
J. Bao, Q. Wu & J. Xie
Study of the influence of the process parameters of incremental forming of 6061
aluminium alloy 89
Z. Liu, Z. Shi, T. Guo, Z. Li & C. Cui

Network, communications and applied information technologies

Design of a single-input and dual-input reconfigurable pipelined Analogue
to Digital Converter (ADC) 99
X. Yi, Y. Yin & Z. Xie
A new method of particle filter location based on multi-view fusion 103
Z. Deng, Y. Zhou, J. Jiao & C. Zhai
A review of DNA sequence data analysis technologies and their combination
with data mining methods 109
T. Yu, Y. Chen & B. Zhang
A routing protocol of vehicular heterogeneous network based on the Dijkstra algorithm 115
H. Yu & Z. Bin
Agile C&C decision-making information combination technique based on the theory of evidence 119
H. Sun, J. Quan, H. Huang & Z. Lei
An operational amplifier based non-foster matching network for small loop antenna 123
Y. Ren, J. Tang, J. Sun, J. Zhou & H. Zhang
Analysis of the precision influence factors of SDS-TWR method based on UWB 127
Z. Zhang, S. Li & Z. Lu
Analysis of user influence in Sina Microblog 133
J. Wang, Z. Cao, P. Shi & W. Liu
Cloud evolved packet core network architecture based on Software-Defined
Networking (SDN) 139
Y. Zhang, Z. Xu & Z. Tian
Construction of a military requirement system based on object-relational analytical approach 145
X. Zheng & J. Ren
Data link layer design and verification based on PCIe 2.0 151
Z. Lang, T. Lu & Y. Zong
Design of a new carrier tracking loop in a positioning receiver 157
Z. Deng, S. Jiang, J. Mo & S. Yu
Idealised Six Sigma software design and development 161
H. Yan, R. Tan, H. Song & W. Sun
Message scheduling and network parameter optimisation for FlexRay 167
Y.F. Wang, X.H. Sun, J.B. Xia & J.L. Yin
Micro-satellite attitude determination based on federated Kalman filter using multiple sensors 175
F. Ni, H. Quan & W. Li
Modeling and simulation of meteor burst communication network based on the OPNET 181
H. Gao, X. Zhang, X. Mu, J. Wan & Y. Ren
Performance of wireless communication analysis at high speed 185
X. Li & Y. Liu
Research on the key technologies for developing the internet of things 189
C. Huang & Z. Liu
Research on analysis systems of gas sensors 193
L. Hou, J. Li & H. Gu

vi
Research on clustering algorithms for wireless sensor networks 197
H. Chen & L. Yuan
Research on real-time data centre reconstruction technology based on big data technology 203
X. Li, S. Zhou, S. Ji, G. Zhen, Y. He, W. Li, Y. Wang, W. Tang, J. Chen & P. Lou
Research on a small wireless power transfer device via magnetic coupling resonant 207
X. Liu, R. Dou, Y. Yang, P. Wu, X. Xiao, S. Chen & J. Sun
Simulation and verification technology of shortwave communication based on OPNET 211
X. Zhang, Z. Yi, H. He, J. Wan & Y. Ren
The application of time-frequency analysis method in frequency hopping signal analysis 215
Q. Wu, Z. Tan & H. Shang
Two strategies to improve the performance of two-way relay networks: Relay selection
and power allocation 219
T. Liu, C. Dong & X. Jiang
Updated dynamic channel reservation scheme based on priorities in LEO satellite systems 223
J. Guo, J. Gao & J. Ran

Technologies in energy and power, cells, engines, generators, electric vehicles

A study on coordinated charging strategies for electric vehicles at the workplace
under a uniform electricity price 231
L. Chen, X. Huang & F. Wen
Analysis and study of an energy recycling segment erector hydraulic system 239
J. Liu, X. Zhou & K. Wang
Comprehensive evaluation of microgrid planning schemes based on the Analytic Hierarchy
Process (AHP) method 245
J. He, D. Li, K. Zhou, K. Chen, C. Cao & L. Cheng
Finite element analysis of battery holder based on ANSYS 253
G. Yang & B. Zhao
Integrated control strategy of two operating modes switching based on energy storage 257
T. Yue & X. Yu
Load forecasting of expressway EV charging based on travel characteristics 263
D. Yin, Y. Liu, Z. Chen, T. Zhou & Z. Shi
Machine-team quota measurement of a power transmission project based on GM and BPNN 269
H. Li, L. Zhang, K. Lv & W. Xiao
Man-hour quota measurement of power transmission project based on LSSVM and PSO model 273
K. Lv, F. Xu, Y. Xu & J. Zhang
Non-dissipative equalisation circuit research based on adjacent lithium-ion cell energy transfer 277
R. Wan, M. Chen, J. Wang & F. Yang
On-line electric vehicle charging system under complex environment of transmission lines and
pedestrians with metallic implants 283
F. Wen, X. Huang & L. Chen
Optimisation of oxygen-enriched air intake system of an engine based on pressure
swing adsorption 289
D. Li, Z. Gao & Y. Li
Optimised state of charge estimation in lithium-ion batteries by the modified particle filter method 293
R. Wan, B. Pan, F. Yang, J. Wang & Q. Chen
Research on large power transformer electric field calculation analysis software 299
H. Wang, Y. Li, Y. Jing & B. Zhang

vii
Research on the output-input relationship of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) stack
with indirect internal reforming operation 305
C. Yuan & H. Liu
Simulation of a heat pipe receiver with high-temperature latent heat thermal energy
storage during the charging process 313
H. Song, W. Zhang, Y. Li, Z. Yang & A. Ming
Temperature distribution of wire crimp tubes under different loads 321
H. Zhang, B. Wang, M. Wang, Y. Duan, X. Hu & H. Liu
Optical property research on Mg0.15Zn0.85O film by sol-gel technology 327
J. Zhang

System test and diagnosis, monitoring and identification, video and image processing
A novel remote sensing image segmentation algorithm based on the graph theory 333
Y. Zhou, Y. Han & J. Luo
A subpixel edge detection algorithm for the vision-based localisation of Light Emitting
Diode (LED) chips 339
Y. Qiu & B. Li
Active learning framework for android unknown malware detection 345
H. Zhu
An accelerated testing method based on similarity theory 349
S. Li, Y. Zhang & A. Wang
Analysis of factors influencing laser ranging accuracy 353
Y.G. Ji, C.Y. Tian, X.G. Ge, C.D. Ning & Z.H. Lan
Application of graph databases in the communication and information asset management
in power grid 357
X. Lv, S. Zheng, Z. Li, S. Liu & Y. Wang
Application of support vector regression in surge arrester fault diagnosis 363
Y. He, Y. Sun & H. Jiang
Effect of heave plate on wave piercing buoy 367
D. Jiang, J. Zhang, L. Ma & H. Chen
Height detection in smart baby weighing system using machine vision 371
Q. Fang & H. Tang
Lamb wave metal plate defect detection based on comsol and finite element analysis 375
P. Qin
Lane detection and fitting using the Artificial Fish Swarm Algorithm (AFSA) based
on a parabolic model 381
X. Wang, Z. Wang & L. Zhao
Method for supplementing incomplete traffic flow data in hazy conditions based
on guidance data 389
Y. Gong, J. Zhang, S. Li & J. Lan
Micro-satellite attitude determination based on MEKF using MEMS gyroscope
and magnetometer 395
F. Ni, H. Quan & W. Li
Research and implementation of a vehicle top-view system based on i.MX6Q 401
Y. Xu, X. Zuo, A. Cheng & R. Yuan
Research of the fault detection and repair technology for submarine cable 405
Z. Chen, Z. Lu, X. He & Y. Le
Research on blind identification method of error correcting code type 409
X. Li, M. Zhang & S. Han

viii
Research on the detection system for dynamic ship draft on the basis of ultrasonic
diffraction effect 419
M. Xiong, L. Lu, W. Zheng & R. Li
Research on key technologies of the unmanned-helicopter-born obstacle avoidance radar
for power line inspection 427
C. Li, B. Yang, C. Li, Z. Li & T. Ge
Research on the key technology of automatic target detection for visual vehicles 431
Q. Ren, H. Cheng & J. Chang
Research on machine learning identification based on adaptive algorithm 437
Q. Ren, H. Cheng & J. Chang
Research on main insulation monitoring of submarine cable based on the low frequency
signal of the system 443
Z. Chen, Z. Lu, X. Zheng & W. Peng
Research on object re-identification with compressive sensing in multi-camera systems 447
Y. Huang, Q. Liu & C. Yan
Research on plugging technology in the Yingtai Area of Daqing oilfield 451
Y. Li & Z. Dong
Research on vision technology: Introducing an intelligent destacker based on an ARM-based
laser scanner 455
L. Wang, Y. Peng & H. Li
Review of the image quality assessment methods and their applications to image defogging
and stabilisation 461
J. Cai, W. Yan & J. Liu
Study of a driver’s face and eyes identification method 471
Y. Zhang, H. Zhang, Z. Ding & J. Zhang
Testability modeling for a remote monitoring system of marine diesel engine power plant 475
X. Wen, G. He, K. Bi & P. Zhang
The dynamic target of Yellow River ice tracking algorithm based on wireless video streaming 481
L. Xu & S. Li
The on-line fault diagnosis technique for the radar system based on one-class support vector
machine and fuzzy expert system theory 485
M.S. Shao, X.Z. Zhang & G.H. Fan

Applied and computational mathematics, methods, algorithms and optimization

A highly robust power window anti-pinch algorithm based on approximate integral method 491
H. Fu & J. Liu
A probabilistic aircraft conflict resolution method using stochastic optimal control 497
S. Jia, X. Zhang & X. Guan
A study on wind speed probability distribution models used in wind energy analysis 501
Y.D. Li, Y.T. Sun, K. Li & M. Liu
A tunnel inspection robot localisation algorithm based on a wireless sensor network 507
L. Zhang, R. Huang, L. Zhu, Y. Tao, S. Yao, H. Zheng & B. Tan
Behavior-learning based semi-supervised kernel extreme learning machine for classification 511
H. Yin, J. Yang & Y. Jiang
Big data storage and processing method on the coal mine emergency cloud platform 515
L. Ma, S.G. Li, S.C. Tang & B.F. Yi
Clustering based random over-sampling examples for learning from binary class
imbalanced data sets 519
S. Chen, Z. Huang & X. Guo

ix
Comparative study on directional and reverse directional expert systems 525
Z. Lin, H. Huang & P. Wang
Dynamic modelling and simulation of a centrifugal compressor for diesel engines 531
L. Huang, G. Cheng, G. Zhu & S. Fan
Exploration of the operational management of a pig farm based on mathematical modelling 539
N. Ruan & L. Duan
Global large behaviour on a 2-D equation in turbulent fluid 543
H. Li & S. Deng
Glonass almanac parameters algorithm model 549
X. Xie & M. Lu
Local stability of solutions for a class of viscous compressible equations 553
S. Deng & H. Li
Maximum entropy-based sentiment analysis of online product reviews in Chinese 559
H. Wu, J. Li & J. Xie
Node spatial distribution and layout optimization based on the improved particle
swarm algorithm 563
H. Yu, F. Cui & Y. Wang
Optimal load control in direct current distribution networks 569
S. Liu, S. Zou, Z. Ma, Y. Shao & S. Feng
Research on attribute-based encryption scheme for constant-length ciphertexts 575
L. Han, Z. Wang & Y. Wang
Research on attribute-based encryption scheme for constant-length decryption key
in Hadoop cloud environment 581
L. Han, Y. Wang & Y. Sun
Research on Bayesian network structure learning method based on hybrid mountain-climbing
algorithm and genetic algorithm 587
W. Xu, G. Cheng & L. Huang
Research of the evaluation of electric power construction projects based on fuzzy
comprehensive evaluation 591
X. Feng, Y. Sha, X. Wang, M. Li, K. Cao, H. Xu, Z. Sun & Y. Wang
Research on vehicle routing optimisation in the emergency period of natural disaster rescue 597
J. Ma, X. Wang & L. Zhao
Research on the Zigbee routing algorithm based on link availability prediction 601
Z. He
Short-term load forecasting based on fuzzy neural network using ant colony
optimization algorithm 605
Z. Ren, Q. Chen, L. Chen, K. Cao, H. Wang, R. Chen, Y. Tian, Y. Wang & H. Wang
Soft measurement of emulsion matrix viscosity based on GA-BP neural network theory 609
Y. Wang & J. Zhang
Stability control algorithm for unmanned aerial vehicle based on dynamic
feedback search 613
X. Lu & J. Ke
Study of MA and MACD directional expert systems based on funds management 621
F. Yu, H. Huang & P. Wang
Study of RSI and W%R reverse directional expert systems based on funds management 627
H. Huang & P. Wang
Weather routing based on modified genetic algorithm 633
Y. Wang, X. Zhu, X. Li & H. Wang

x
Technologies in electrical and electronic control and automation
A full on-chip LDO regulator with a novel transient-response-enhanced circuit 639
P. Zhang, P. Wang, H. Meng, S. Zhao & F. Liu
A review on camera ego-motion estimation methods based on optical flow for robotics 645
L. Lu
A work charged car insulation system design and research 651
K. Li, L. Xia, L. Tan & D. Wang
Analysis of static impedance abnormity based on EMMI 655
H. Meng, R. Li, P. Zhang & Y. Chen
Application of an unmanned aerial vehicle in fire rescue 659
B. Hu & J. Xing
Attitude tracking of quadrotor UAV based on extended state observer 663
Y. Liu, X. Xu & Z. Yang
Design of a high performance triple-mode oscillator 669
Z. Li, S. Yue, Y. Mo, J. Wang & F. Chu
Electromagnetic compatibility design of power supply based on DSP industrial control system 675
W. Liu, X. Zheng, Z. Lin & J. Xu
MAC design and verification based on PCIe 2.0 681
Z. Lang, T. Lu & Y. Zong
Miniaturization of microstrip open-loop resonator with fragment-type loading 687
T. Liu, L. Wang & G. Wang
Power electronic digital controller based on real-time operating system 691
L. Guo, S. Tao, L. Pei & W. Gao
Reactive power optimisation with small-signal stability constraints 695
J. Xu, X. Wang, K. Wang & C. Zha
Research and design of beacon laser drive system 701
D. Xiao, H. Li & H. Zhang
Research on a kind of intelligent garbage bin combined with solar street light 705
Y. Feng
Research on dual PWM converter for doubly fed motor generation system 709
J. Xu, L. Huang, L. Zhang, Y. Zhou, L. Yan & H. Li
Research on single event effect based on micro-nano SRAM semiconductor devices 713
S. Wang
Design of an industrial robot system based on PLC control 717
Y. Dai

Industrial production, manufacturing, management and logistics

A method of electric power enterprise project plan audit based on full-text retrieval technology 723
Z. Wang, Y. Chen, H. Zhou, F. Li, Q. Chen, Z. Ren, Y. Wang & H. Kang
Advanced predictive quality adjustment strategy for aircraft parts 727
F. Zhu, X. Huang, N. Wei & B. Ye
Analysis on international fragmentation production of China’s manufacturing industry 733
Y. Yang & Y. Chen
Impact analysis of global production network on China’s industrial chain upgrading 741
Y. Yang & Y. Chen
Logistics demand forecasting model applied in the Wuling mountain area 747
H. Chen & R. Chen

xi
Logistics equipment support capability evaluation 753
G. Zhen
Optimisation and simulation of the production schedule for the missile general assembly process 757
X. Hu, Z. Zhang & Y. Li
Research on bridge construction methods of power outage maintenance in distribution networks 761
L. Xu, J. Niu, D. Zou, L. Tang, L. Liu, W. Li & Y. Fu
Research on logistics network site selection under imperfect information 765
L. Yang, X. Wang & J. Ye
Research on strategic development of smart logistics 771
Z. Fan & M. Ma
Virtual missile assembly system based customisation of plant simulation 775
L. Ma, Z. Zhang, X. Su & K. Guo

Author index 779

xii
 Automotive, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering – Liu (Ed.)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62951-6

Preface

The organizing committee of AEMEE 2016 is proud to present the proceedings of the 2016 International
Conference on Automotive Engineering, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering (AEMEE 2016: http://
www.aemee.org/), held in Hong Kong, China during December 09–11, 2016.
AEMEE 2016 was a platform for presenting excellent results and new challenges facing the field of the
automotive engineering, mechanical and electrical engineering. It brought together experts from industry,
governments and academia, experienced in engineering, design and research.
AEMEE 2016 received 356 manuscripts, and 115 authors participated in this conference. By submit-
ting a paper to AEMEE 2016, the authors agreed to the review process and understood that papers would
undergo a peer-review process. Manuscripts were reviewed by appropriately qualified experts in the field
selected by the Conference Committee, who gave detailed comments and-if the submission was accepted-
the authors would submit a revised version that took into account this feedback. All papers were reviewed
using a double-blind review process: authors declared their names and affiliations in the manuscript for
the reviewers to see, but reviewers did not know each other’s identities, nor did the authors receive infor-
mation about who had reviewed their manuscript. The Committees of AEMEE 2016 invested great efforts
in reviewing the papers submitted to the conference and organizing the sessions to enable the participants
to gain maximum benefit.
Hopefully, all participants and other interested readers will benefit scientifically from the proceedings
and also find it stimulating in the process.

With our warmest regards,

Lin Liu
Conference Organizing Chair
Wuhan, China

xiii
 Automotive, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering – Liu (Ed.)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62951-6

Committees

CONFERENCE CHAIRS

Prof. L. Liu, Wuhan University of Technology, China

Prof. T.S. Ma, Wuhan University, China

TECHNICAL COMMITTEE

Prof. L. Liu, Wuhan University of Technology, China

Prof. Y. Wang, Chongqing University, China
Prof. H. Davis, Boya Century Publishing Ltd., Hong Kong
Prof. W. Liu, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China
Prof. S. Zhu, Wuhan University, China
Prof. G.S. Liu, Hunan University, China
A. Prof. P. Wang, Guangxi College of Education, China
Dr. C. Yang, Wuhan University of Technology, China
Dr. Z.G. Fang, Wuhan University of Technology, China
Dr. Z.B. You, Wuhan University of Technology, China
Dr. J.F. Ke, Wuhan University of Technology, China
Dr. Z.H. Tan, Wuhan University of Technology, China
Dr. H. Zhang, GAC Automotive Engineering Institute, China
Mr. Y. Zhou, Dongfeng Citroen Automobile Co. Ltd., China
Dr. J. Cai, Dongfeng Motor Corporation Technical Center, China
Dr. C. Yang, Wuhan University of Technology, China
Dr. S.F. Zhao, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, China
Mr. Yang Zhou, Dongfeng Citroen Automobile Co. Ltd., China

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Prof. L. Liu, Wuhan University of Technology, China

Dr. Z.B. You, Wuhan University of Technology, China
Dr. C. Zhang, Asian Union of Information Technology, China
Dr. D.W. Fang, Asian Union of Information Technology, China
Mr. C. Ma, Wuhan Vike Technology Co. Ltd., China
Mr. Y.Y. Liu, Wuhan Vike Technology Co. Ltd., China
Mr. C. Liu, Wuhan Vike Technology Co. Ltd., China
Ms. H.H. You, Wuhan Zhicheng Times Cultural Development Co. Ltd., China
Mr. X.T. Ke, Wuhan Zhicheng Times Cultural Development Co. Ltd., China
Mr. B. Zhou, Wuhan Zhicheng Times Cultural Development Co. Ltd., China
Mr. X. Yi, Wuhan Zhicheng Times Cultural Development Co. Ltd., China
Mr. K. Mai, Wuhan Zhicheng Times Cultural Development Co. Ltd., China
Ms. Y.F. Ma, Wuhan Zhicheng Times Cultural Development Co. Ltd., China
Mr. X.T. Ke, Wuhan Zhicheng Times Cultural Development Co. Ltd., China
Mr. B. Zhou, Wuhan Zhicheng Times Cultural Development Co. Ltd., China
Mr. X. Yi, Wuhan Zhicheng Times Cultural Development Co. Ltd., China
Mr. K. Mai, Wuhan Zhicheng Times Cultural Development Co. Ltd., China

xv
 Automotive, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering – Liu (Ed.)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62951-6

Sponsors

Guangxi College of Education

Northeast Petroleum University
Research Center of Engineering and Science (RCES)
Asian Union of Information Technology
HuBei XinWenSheng Conference Co. Ltd.

xvii
Automotive engineering and rail transit engineering
 Automotive, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering – Liu (Ed.)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62951-6

A study of the fuzzy three-parameter shifting rules of the AMT vehicle

Qinghong Chen & Yong Wang

Chongqing College of Electronic Engineering, Chongqing, China

ABSTRACT: In order to enable the automatic transmission shifting of the AMT vehicle to reflect the
changes of road conditions and vehicle conditions, and to meet the requirement of shifting smoothness
of the vehicle, we studied the fuzzy three-parameter shifting control of the AMT vehicle and put forward
that acceleration should be used to reflect the changes of road conditions. This paper will introduce the
principle of fuzzy three-parameter shifting control at first, and then it will show the design of fuzzy
three-parameter shifting controller. Finally, it will give the fuzzy three-parameter shifting simulation of
a certain model of AMT car produced by Changan Automobile. In addition, we will also compare it
with the fuzzy two-parameter shifting. The result shows that the fuzzy three-parameter shifting is fit with
drivers’ shifting experience and habits than the two-parameter shifting. And compared with solving the
shifting rules with traditional calculation method, it is more convenient and easier to be implemented with
stronger robustness.

Keywords: Automotive engineering; Automatic transmission; Three-parameter shifting; Fuzzy control

1 INTRODUCTION vehicle’s running status, road conditions, etc., as

At present, several typical automatic transmis-
sions are (A. bastian, 1995): hydraulic mechani-
cal Automatic Transmission (AT), metal-belt-type
Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT), elec-
tronic-controlled Automatic Mechanical Transmis-
sion (AMT). These different kinds of transmissions
have their own advantages and disadvantages, and
research on them at home and abroad has been
continuously deepened to meet people’s increas-
ing demands for comfortable, shifting smoothness,
fuel economy and low emission. The realization
of electronic-controlled Automatic Mechanical
Transmission (AMT) is based on the manual gear
transmission. Its structure is simple, and keeps the
majority of assembly components of dry clutch
and manual transmission, only with the gear lever
of the manual operating system being replaced
with automatic control mechanism. It retains the
advantages of the gear of the original manual
transmission, such as high transmission efficiency,
low cost, simple structure, and easy production,
which, as a result, brings good inheritance in pro-
duction and low cost in transformation, making it
suitable for the situation of China.
The key techniques of automatic transmission
control of the AMT vehicle are the establishment
of the shifting rules and the control of clutch. This
paper mainly focuses on the establishment of the
shifting rules, that is, to determine the best gear
of a vehicle according to the driver’s intention, the
well as the principle that some vehicle parameters
are of the optimal property. Currently, the methods
to determine the gear can be divided into two large
categories, one is to solve the rule of shifting accord-
ing to the principle of optimal index of specific per-
formances after determining the shifting control
parameters; the other one is to take advantage of
the driving experience of drivers and the knowledge
of experts to form the fuzzy control rules, that is, the
shifting rules based on the expert system. The for-
mer is a traditional method with a complete theory
and a set of complete solutions, and the given gear
can ensure the vehicle’s optimal performance when
the operational environment and working condi-
tions of the vehicle are consistent with the preset
conditions of the solved optimal shifting rules, but
the given gear could be obviously not the best, or
not the best in some fields when there exist large
differences between the actual operational condi-
tions of the vehicle and the preset conditions when
solving the shifting rules. In this paper, the fuzzy
shifting control based on expert knowledge will be
discussed. At present, the shifting rule which is com-
paratively mature is the two-parameter shifting rule
(the speed of the vehicle, and the accelerator open-
ing). But the two-parameter shifting rule cannot
reflect the impact of the changes of such external
conditions as road conditions and vehicle load on
shifting. Therefore, I will adopt the three-parameter
shifting in this paper, so as to consider the impact of
the changes of driving conditions on shifting.

3
 Many domestic and foreign scholars have
studied the establishment of the shifting rules,
A.Bastian et al. studied the fuzzy shifting rules
of the AT vehicle (Huang Zongyi, 2006; Huifang
Kong, 2008; J Yi, 2007). Yi Jun et al. studied the
fuzzy shifting of the tracked vehicle. Li Pingkang
et al. studied the fuzzy shifting of the construc-
tion vehicle (Wang Lixin, 2003; Weibo Yu, 2016;
Yi Jun, 2006; Yi Jun, et al. 2008; Zhiyi Zhang,
2008). These studies had something in common,
that is, the transmissions, which was the subject
of these studies, all had a hydraulic torque con-
verter in them, and when establishing the shifting
rules, the rotating speed of the turbine and pump
of the hydraulic torque converter were added, so
that the hydraulic torque converter could serve
as a buffer. However, due to a power interrup- Figure 1. The principle of the fuzzy three-parameter
tion problem when shifting the gear of the AMT shifting control of the AMT vehicle.
vehicle, the vehicles were extremely sensitive to the
change of acceleration, so the way in which the AT
and construction vehicles shift gears fuzzily could fuzzy controller (the part in the double dotted
not be applied to the AMT vehicle directly. Hui- line frame). First quantify and then fuzzy process
fang Kong (Zhang Zhiyi, 2005) and B Mashadi the signals of the accelerator opening, the vehicle
(Zhang Yong, 2003) studied the fuzzy shifting of speed and acceleration, and then do fuzzy reason-
the AMT vehicle. Since what they adopted was ing combining with the fuzzy rule base to get the
the two-parameter shifting, they were unable to results, which can determine the transmission’s
fully consider the impact of external environ- gear through defuzzification and adjusting the
mental changes on the shifting of the vehicle. In scale factor, thus changing the transmission ratio
order to correctly reflect the impact of external of AMT transmission and satisfying the require-
environmental changes on shifting, in this paper ments of the vehicle for driving power and gear
I adopt the fuzzy three-parameter shifting (vehi- when running.
cle speed, accelerator opening, and acceleration).
To some extent, acceleration reflects the changes
of the driving environment, and after introduc- 3 THE DESIGN OF THE FUZZY
ing acceleration, the three-parameter shifting can CONTROLLER
make the impact in the process of shifting smaller,
thus improving riding comfort. First of all, this The design of the fuzzy controller includes the
paper describes the principle of the fuzzy shifting determination of the quantification factor and the
of the AMT vehicle, then studies the fuzzy shift- scale factor, the fuzzy strategy, the design of fuzzy
ing controller, and finally the fuzzy control system rule base, the establishment of fuzzy reasoning
is simulated. It turns out that the adoption of the mechanism, and defuzzification.
fuzzy three-parameter shifting is more fit for the When the vehicle is running, the accelerator
operation of skilled drivers than the adoption of opening reflects the driver’s intention, and the
the two-parameter shifting, because it makes shift- speed reflects the current running conditions of
ing process more comfortable and smoother, and the vehicle. And to a certain extent, acceleration
the vehicle has better fuel economy. reflects the changes of driving environment, while
upshifts and downshifts are the effective methods
to realize drivers’ intentions according to the vehi-
2 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE FUZZY cle’s conditions and the environment. Choose the
THREE-PARAMETER SHIFTING accelerator opening, the vehicle’s speed and accel-
CONTROL OF THE AMT VEHICLE eration as the input of the fuzzy controller and
gear as the output.
The principle of the fuzzy three-parameter shifting
control of the AMT vehicle is shown in Figure 1.
3.1 The fuzzification of controlled variables
In Figure 1, a is the opening of the engine’s
and qualification factor
accelerator, V is the vehicle’s driving speed, and
Ac is the vehicle’s acceleration. The core of fuzzy According to the driving experiences of excellent
three-parameter shifting control is the design of drivers and the specific parameters of vehicles in

4
actual testing, the fuzzy subsets of the three input
quantities of the fuzzy three-parameter shifting
controller respectively are: “Negative Big” (NB),
“Negative Medium” (NM), “Negative Small”
(NS), “Medium” (M), “Positive Small” (PS), “Pos-
itive Medium” (PM), “Positive Big” (PB), which
are seven fuzzy quantities in total. The accelerator
opening is taken as: “Very Small” (VS), “Small” (S),
“Medium” (M), “Big” (B), “Very Big” (VB), which
are five fuzzy quantities in total. And the accelera-
tion is taken as: “Very Small” (VB), “Small” (S),
“Medium” (M), “Big” (B), “Very Big” (VB), which
are five fuzzy quantities in total. The output gear
Dy is indicated by single point, and there are five
gears in total: I, II, III, IV, V.
When the total number of the elements in the
discourse domain is 2–3 times than the total num-
ber of fuzzy subsets, the degree of coverage of the
fuzzy subsets for the discourse domain is the best
(B Mashadi, 2007). Quantify the vehicle speed, the
accelerator opening and the acceleration, and then
their discourse domains are taken respectively as:

{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15}

{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

Based on the experience of drivers, when vehi-

cle speed is less than 10 km per hour, the vehicle
usually stays at the first gear, and when the vehicle
speed is more than 70 km per hour, the vehicle usu-
ally stays at the fifth gear, so the physical discourse
domain of vehicle speed is Vi = [10, 70], and the
quantification factor is ki = 0.25; When the accel-
erator opening is more than 55%, the gear shifting Figure 2. The fuzzy three-parameter shifting input
is mainly based on the driving speed and accel- quantity/output quantity membership functions of the
eration, so the physical discourse domain of the AMT vehicle.
accelerator opening is taken as a = [0, 50], and the
quantification factor is kj = 0.2; the range of accel- The membership functions of the input and
eration is generally less than 4 m/s2, so the physical output quantities are the type of Gaussian func-
discourse domain is taken as Ac = [−5, 5], and the tion, as shown in Figure 2. The Gaussian member-
quantification factor is kl = 1.25. The specific algo- ship function can simplify the calculation designed
rithms obtained are as follows: by some fuzzy reasoning machine (B Mashadi,
2007). The three input quantities and the member-
⎧15 ki (v − 10 ) ≥ 15 ship function expression of the output quantities
⎪
V = ⎨kiv 0 < ki (v − 10 ) < 15 (1) are shown in Equation (4).
⎪0 ki (v − 10 ) ≤ 0
⎩ −
( x c )2
f x, σ , c ) e 2σ 2 (4)
⎧10 k j (a − 10 ) ≥ 10
⎪
a = ⎨ k j a 0 < k j ( a − 10 < 1 0 (2) Among them, C determines the central position
⎪0 k j (a − 10 ) < 0 of the membership function, and σ determines the
⎩
width of the curve of the function.
⎧5 kl Ac ≥ 5 From the figure of the membership function, it
⎪ can be seen that the selected membership function
Ac = ⎨kl Ac 0 < kl Ac < 10 (3)
⎪ −5 meets three basic features: completeness, consist-
⎩ kl Ac ≤ −5 ency, and interactivity.

5
3.2 The establishment of the fuzzy control rules The compositional rule of inference adopts
Mamdani (max-min) compound operation:
According to the shifting experience of excellent
drivers, when establishing the fuzzy three-
parameter shifting rules, there are 175 fuzzy rules Dy′ = (V ′ a ′ × Ac ′ )  R (7)
in total according to the fuzzy subsets of the three
input quantities. The three-dimensional fuzzy rules O is the synthesis operator.
are shown in Figure 3, and each cube corresponds
to one fuzzy rule described below. 3.4 Defuzzification
IF V is NB and a is VS and Ac is VS, THEN
Dy is I; According to the features of this research subject,
IF V is NM and a is S and Ac is S, THEN Dy defuzzification adopts the maximum membership
is II; degree law:
IF V is M and a is M and Ac is B, THEN Dy
is III; Dy = sup{uV ′ a ′× Ac ′ } (8)
IF V is PB and a is VB and Ac is VB, THEN
Dy is V;
4 THE SIMULATION ANALYSIS OF THE
FUZZY THREE-PARAMETER SHIFTING
3.3 Fuzzy reasoning OF THE AMT VEHICLE
The fuzzy relation of the i fuzzy rule is:
After designing the fuzzy three-parameter shifting
controller, the controlling system is simulated by
Ri (vv a Ac D
Dy ) uVi (v, a, Ac, Dy
y) (5)
ai Aci Dy
D i using MATLAB/Simulink program.
The simulation uses a Changan Null car
The total fuzzy relation is: equipped with AMT transmission as the sub-
ject. The main parameters of the car are shown
175
R ∪ Ri in Table 1, and the simulation module diagram
(6)
i =1 is shown in Figure 4. The simulation results are
shown in Figures 5, 6.
In Figure 5, (a) is the fuzzy three-parameter
shift when the acceleration is 3 m/s2; (b) is the
fuzzy three-parameter shift when the accelera-
tion is 1.5 m/s2; (c) is the fuzzy three-parameter
shift when the acceleration is −1.5 m/s2; (d) is the
fuzzy three-parameter shift when the acceleration
is −3 m/s2. It can be seen from the figure that with
the same accelerator opening, the bigger the accel-
eration is, the lower the vehicle speed will be when
shifting the gear, while at the same acceleration,
the bigger the accelerator opening is, the higher the
vehicle speed will be when shifting the gear. And it
is totally the same with the gear-shifting behavior
of skilled drivers, which indicates that the adop-
tion of the fuzzy three-parameter shifting is suc-
cessful, because it is able to reflect the impact of
the changes of the external environment on gear-
shifting decisions completely.
Figure 6 is the fuzzy three-parameter shifting
when acceleration is taken as 0 m/s2. Arrow lines
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 refer to the five gears respectively. The
adoption of the fuzzy two-parameter shifting is
equal to the fuzzy three-parameter shifting when
acceleration is taken as 0 m/s2 (the four cases shown
in Figure 5 are unattainable). Therefore, it can be
seen that when adopting the fuzzy three-parameter
shifting, the impact of acceleration on the process
Figure 3. The three-dimensional fuzzy rule base of the of shifting is taken into account when shifting the
fuzzy three-parameter shifting. gear, making gear shifting be more fit with the

6
Table 1. The table of main parameters of a certain testing model of Changan car.

The speed ratio of the transmission and the main decelerator

Idle Wheel
Power speed diameter First Second Third Fourth Fifth Reverse Main
kw r/min mm gear gear gear gear gear gear decelerator

63 800 274 3.416 1.894 1.280 0.914 0.757 3.272 3.272

driving behaviors of skilled drivers and the gear-

shifting decisions more reasonable. In addition, it
also enhances the vehicles’ abilities to adapt to the
environment, which increases the economy of fuel
and the smoothness of shifting in the process of
gear shifting.

Figure 4. The simulation model of the fuzzy three-
parameter shifting of the AMT vehicle.
Figure 5. The simulation of the fuzzy three-parameter
shifting of the AMT vehicle.
5 CONCLUSION
As people’s requirements for the driving per-
formance and emission of the vehicle are getting
increased, in order to make the gear-shifting deci-
sion and shifting control of the AMT automatic
transmission vehicle be more fit with vehicles, the
environment, the drivers’ intentions, this paper
adopts the fuzzy three-parameter shifting method
to effectively solve the problem that the relation
between the conditions of the vehicle and the road
and the gear-shifting decision and control cannot
be reflected well, which, as a result, makes the shift-
ing process be more fit with people’s driving habits
and more adapt to the road conditions. In addi-
tion, it also avoids the complex calculation in the
traditional gear-shifting decision control, which is
easier and more convenient with better robustness
and adaptability. The fuzzy three-parameter shift-
ing has better controlling precision than the two-
parameter shifting, and the process of shifting is
smoother.
REFERENCES

Bastian, A. S. Tano, T. Oyama etc, System Overview

and Special Feature of FATE: Fuzzy Logic Auto-
matic Transmission Expert System [J]. IEEE1995
0-7803-2461-7.
Huang Zongyi, Principle and Design of the Modern
Transmission Automatic Cars [M], Shanghai, Tongji
University Press, Sept. 2006.
Huifang Kong, Study on AMT Fuzzy shifting Strategy
and Realization [J], IEEE2008 978-1-4244-2503-7.
Li Pingkang, Jin Taotao, Li Bei, Fuzzy Recursive Algo-
rithm Based on Vehicle Shifting Strategy [J]. Journal
of Beijing Jiaotong University, Vol. 32, No. 1, Feb.
2008.
Mashadi, B. A Kazemkhani, and R Baghaei Lakeh, An
automatic gear-shifting strategy for manual trans-
Figure 6. The fuzzy three-parameter shifting when missions [J], JSCE253 IMechE 2007, Proc. IMechE
acceleration is taken as 0 m/s2. Vol. 221 Part I: J. systems and control engineering.

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Sakaguchi, S., I. Sakai, T. Haga, Application of Fuzzy
Logic to Shift Scheduling Method for Automatic
Transmission [J], IEEE1993 0-7803-0614-7.
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[M], Beijing, Tsinghua University Press, June 2003.
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 Automotive, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering – Liu (Ed.)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62951-6

Design process and kinematic characteristics analysis of a minivan’s

Macpherson suspension system

Yong Wei
SAIC GM Wuling Automobile Co. Ltd., Liuzhou, China

Zhuoyu Su
Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Modern Automotive Technology, Wuhan, China
School of Automotive Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China
Hubei Collaborative Innovation Centre for Automotive Components Technology, Wuhan, China

Changye Liu
SAIC GM Wuling Automobile Co. Ltd., Liuzhou, China

Fengxiang Xu & Hao Chen

Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Modern Automotive Technology, Wuhan, China
School of Automotive Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China
Hubei Collaborative Innovation Centre for Automotive Components Technology, Wuhan, China

ABSTRACT: Taking a minivan system as the research object, a process of kinematic characteristics
analysis and optimisation design is presented. The simulation of parallel wheel travel of the suspen-
sion of the minicar is carried out and analysed. The characteristics curves of four front wheel alignment
parameters including toe angle, camber angle, caster angle, and kingpin inclination angle are drawn, the
unreasonable alignment parameters are drawn, and the non-ideal characteristics of the wheel alignment
parameters are established. The objective function is then to reduce the variation of the unreasonable
alignment parameters; the design variables are given by the sensitivity analysis, and the constraint condi-
tion is the change in the coordinate values of key hard points. By optimising wheel alignment parameters,
and the original and optimised simulation results, a better solution is obtained and the system perform-
ance of the suspension is improved.

Keywords: Minivan; Macpherson suspension; Kinematic characteristics; Alignment parameters;

Optimisation design

1 INTRODUCTION points in a suspension system were researched by

The vehicle suspension is a connecting device
transferring force and torques from the frame to
the vehicle axle, to ease the impact of load and
restrain irregular vibration of the vehicle bearing
system (Chen, 2012). In the research and design of
vehicle suspension, the ADAMS virtual prototype
test is an important means of suspension analysis
and optimisation design (Chen, 2008).
Over the years, Macpherson suspension analy-
sis and optimisation design has been widely stud-
ied. In Ren et al. (2010), the multi-body dynamics
model of a minivan’s Macpherson suspension was
established and analysed. In Zhang et al. (2013),
the sensitivity analysis and optimisation of hard
ADAMS. In Sun (2014), based on the mathemati-
cal relationship between suspension characteristics
and the wheel movement, establish variables con-
straint functions and a whole vehicle dynamics
model for researching the suspension characteris-
tics. Wang et al. (2015) proposed the wheel rotation
centre method to evaluate suspension performance
and vehicle comfort. In Sagi et al. (2015), a mul-
ti-objective optimisation model was researched
for determining the optimal parameters of a sus-
pension system. Jamali et al. (2014) combined a
simulation road with pavement power spectral
density, and established a model with five degrees
of freedom for evaluating the vehicle performance
approximately.

9
 To a certain extent, Macpherson suspen-
sion kinematics and dynamics characteristics
were improved in previous studies. However, few
researchers have studied the analysis and design
process of the Macpherson suspension. In order
to further research the analysis and design process,
improving the whole vehicle comfort and handling
stability, taking a minivan suspension system as the
research object, the process of kinematic charac-
teristics analysis and optimisation design is given.
The rest of the paper is organised as follows. The
design process of the suspension system, includ-
ing the general suspension design requirements,
and the composition of the suspension design are
developed in Section 2. The kinematic model of
suspension is established in Section 3. To realise the
fundamental characteristics of the research object,
the kinematics characteristics and wheel alignment
parameters of a minivan suspension system are
analysed and confirmed in Section 4. To further
improve the suspension system performance, the
optimisation design of the suspension system kin-
ematics characteristics is developed in Section 5,
which is followed by the concluding remarks in
Section 6.
2 DESIGN PROCESS OF THE SUSPENSION
SYSTEM
Figure 1 presents the design process of a mini-
van’s suspension system in this study. Consider-
ing the suspension system plays a decisive role in
the vehicle handing stability and comfort, there
are five design requirements during the research
(Ding, 2010). Firstly, reasonable elastic proper-
ties of springs and damper damping character-
istics are important to avoid impact between
Figure 1. Design process of a minivan’s Macpherson
suspension.
10
springs and dampers. Secondly, rational is nec-
essary for transferring force and torque between
frame and wheels. At the same time, the steer-
ing mechanism movement should be coordinated
with the movement of the guide mechanism to
avoid movement interference. It is crucial to
determine the rational suspension roll centre and
longitudinal metacentre to improve anti-roll and
longitudinal ability during steering. Lastly, high-
strength and lightweight components and parts
are essential.
2.1 Design object parameters
Based on the market requirement and design
objective, basic model and standard model
needed to develop was choose. The suspension
parameters of the basic model and standard
model were measured and collected in K&C tests.
Comparing with two kinds of parameters data,
the design object parameters of the suspension
were defined.
2.2 Suspension system hard points
The structural features of the Macpherson suspen-
sion include simple structure, small volume, and
less frame stress point. According to the basic vehi-
cle suspension hard points data and body structure,
the hard points of the front suspension are roughly
determined. The kinematics simulation model is
established using ADAMS, the simulation results
are compared with the object parameters, and
then the data of the hard points are adjusted so
that the simulation results coincide with the object
parameters.
2.3 Components design and checking
According to the change in suspension hard points,
the structure and size of the base model parts are
improved accordingly. Considering the material,
processing technology and connections of the
parts, but also using a simulation model, the stiff-
ness of the bushings is adjusted and determined,
and the parts are optimised by finite element anal-
ysis. For the coil spring, according to the suspen-
sion stiffness and suspension structure to calculate
the stiffness, and to determine the parameters of
the spring. For the damper, the shape of the struc-
ture and the damping curve is determined, and the
appropriate damper is selected to meet the design
requirements.
2.4 Kinetic characteristic simulation
After all the parameters of the suspension system
are determined, the dynamic simulation model is
Another random document with
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to the other. Here were two men whose spirits were in accord. It is easy to
think of them as sitting the candle out in converse about the winter fire, or
as sitting far into the night in silence, each finding pleasure in the mere
presence of the other. Such a relationship had grown up through the years.
They thought alike, found similar enjoyment in agricultural pursuits, and in
the many little things of common life.
‘What say you,’ wrote Jefferson just before the beginning of the much-
discussed journey, ‘to taking a wade into the country at noon? It will be
pleasant above head at least, and the party will finish by dining here.
Information that Colonel Beckwith[314] is coming to be an intimate with
you, and I presume not a desirable one, encourages me to make a
proposition which I did not venture as long as you had your agreeable
congressional society about you; that is to come and take a bed and plate
with me.... To me it will be a relief from the solitude of which I have too
much; and it will lessen your repugnance to be assured that it will not
increase my expenses an atom.... The approaching season will render this
situation more agreeable than Fifth Street, and even in the winter you will
not find it disagreeable.’[315] It required no assiduous and cunning
cultivation by Jefferson to wean Madison away from Hamilton. The
relations of the first two far antedated those of the last. Madison had agreed
with Hamilton on the necessity for a more permanent and substantial union.
They had fought together for the ratification of the Constitution, but such
were their temperamental differences that the breach which quickly
appeared was inevitable when it came to the determination of the policies of
that union. While Jefferson was still in Paris, Madison, without consulting
his friend, was foreshadowing the policy of the future Jeffersonian party in
his fight for discrimination against England in the revenue measure of the
first congressional session. He proposed discrimination between the original
creditors and the speculators before he had the opportunity to discuss the
subject with Jefferson. If there was an accord with the latter, it was due less
to the influence of one upon the other than to the similarity of their
thinking. The little man with the mild, almost shy expression, who rode out
of Philadelphia with Jefferson that spring of 1791, was much too big to
have been led around by the nose by any of his contemporaries.
As early as the spring of 1791, the names of the two were associated in
the minds of many as the prospective leaders of a party that would
challenge the purposes of the Federalists. Answering a series of articles in
the ‘Maryland Journal,’ some one advised the author of how to make his
opinions worth while. ‘Keep always before your eyes the steps by which
Jefferson and Madison have gradually ascended to their present
preëminence of fame. Like them you must devote your whole leisure to the
most useful reading. Like them you must dive into the depths of philosophy
and government.’[316] Thus they were already associated in the public
mind, and there was some whispering among the Federalist leaders when
they set forth in their carriage.
Bumping and splashing over the rough tree-lined roads those spring
days, they unquestionably discussed the political situation, but these
discussions were only the continuation of others that had been proceeding
throughout the previous fall and winter. If politics was the object of the
journey, they were both remarkably successful in covering their tracks.
There is nothing in the letter Jefferson wrote his daughter Mary to indicate
anything more than a pleasure jaunt.[317] In a letter to his other daughter,
Martha, we hear much of fishing for speckled trout, salmon, and bass, of the
strawberries in bloom, of vegetation and agricultural conditions—but
nothing of politics.[318] To his son-in-law he wrote descriptions of historic
places, of botanical objects and scenery, and of running foul of the blue law
in Vermont prohibiting traveling on Sunday.[319] The one reference to the
journey in the correspondence of Madison merely says that ‘it was a very
agreeable one, and carried us through an interesting country, new to us
both.’[320] In none of these letters do we find a single reference to politics
or politicians.
Something is made of the call of the travelers on Burr and Livingston
when in New York, and on Governor Clinton at Albany; but their conduct
would have been suspicious only if they had failed to observe the ordinary
amenities of social life in calling upon the leading public characters in the
towns through which they passed. Still we may safely surmise that they
found time while waiting for the fish to bite to exchange views on the
necessity of organizing an opposition to the Federalists. It is even possible
that out of these conversations on country roads actually sprang the
Democratic Party, but there is no evidence.

VI
 On his return to Philadelphia, Jefferson found himself the center of a
remarkable newspaper controversy. Fascinated by the beauty of Marie
Antoinette, Edmund Burke of England had written his bitter attack, not only
on the excesses of the French Revolution, but upon its democratic
principles as well. It was the fashion in those days to conceal a hate of
democracy under the cloak of a simulated horror over the crimes of the
Terrorists. Thomas Paine had replied to Burke with his brilliant and
eloquent defense of democracy, ‘The Rights of Man.’ In American circles
where democracy was anathema, and even republicanism was discussed
with cynicism, the Burke pamphlet was received with enthusiasm. It was
not until some time later that ‘The Rights of Man’ reached New York, albeit
its nature was known and there had been a keen curiosity to see it. Early in
May, Madison had promised Jefferson to secure a copy as soon as possible.
He understood that the pamphlet had been suppressed in England, and that
Paine had found it convenient to retire to Paris. ‘This,’ he wrote, ‘may
account for his not sending copies to friends in this country.’[321] At length
a single copy arrived and was loaned by its owner to Madison, who passed
it on to Jefferson. He read it with enthusiasm. Here was a spirited defense of
democracy, and of the fight the French were waging for their liberties; here
an excoriation of the prattle in high social and governmental circles of the
advantage, if not necessity, for titles of nobility. Here was not only an
answer to Burke, but to John Adams, whose ‘Discourses of Davilla’ had
been running for weeks in Fenno’s paper, and had been copied extensively
in other journals with a similar slant. Jefferson was immensely pleased.
Before he had finished with it, the owner had called upon Madison for
its return, as arrangements had been made for its publication by a
Philadelphia printer. It was agreed that Jefferson should send it directly to
the print shop, and in the transmission he wrote a brief explanation of the
delay, and added: ‘I am extremely pleased to find it will be reprinted here,
and that something is at length to be publicly said against the political
heresies which have sprung up among us. I have no doubt our citizens will
rally a second time round the standard of “Common Sense.” ’
To this note he attached so little importance that he kept no copy. With
astonishment he found that the printer had used his note as the preface, with
his name and official title as Secretary of State. The general conviction that
the word ‘heresies’ was meant to apply to the Adams papers sufficiently
indicates the popular interpretation of their trend. The storm broke.
 Major Beckwith, the British Agent, hastened to express his pained
surprise to Washington’s Secretary at the recommendation by the Secretary
of State of a pamphlet which had been suppressed in England. The secretary
was sufficiently impressed by the scandalized tone of the aristocratic
society of Philadelphia, which was usually lionizing some degenerate
members of the European nobility, to write his chief in detail. When
Randolph dined with Mrs. Washington, Lear retailed it to him, and the
suggestion was made that Jefferson should know. Thus there was something
more than a tempest in a teapot. Everywhere men were partisans of the
pamphlets of Burke or Paine, the aristocrats on one side, the democrats on
the other, the stoutest of the republicans everywhere delighted with ‘The
Rights of Man.’ This was true in even the small towns and the villages of
far places. One traveler passing through Reading was surprised to find the
two pamphlets the ‘general topic of conversation,’ and he was assured of
the delight that awaited him in the reading of Paine’s.[322] All too long had
the Americans been drugged with Fenno’s deification of the upper classes
—with John Adams’s ‘Discourses’ on the necessity of ‘distinctions’—and
here was old ‘Common Sense’ back again in the old form slashing the
aristocrats fore and aft. The press responded to the popular demand, and
everywhere ‘The Rights of Man’ was being published serially to be eagerly
read by the thousands who had not seen the pamphlet. But it was not all
one-sided. If the ‘Painites’ wrote furiously in some papers, the ‘Burkites’
were prolific in Fenno’s and a few others. In the fashionable drawing-rooms
a poll would have shown a decided preference for the defender of
aristocracy who had wept so eloquently over the woes of a frivolous Queen.
Nowhere was Burke so popular and Paine so loathed as in the home of
Adams, the Vice-President. ‘What do you think of Paine’s pamphlet?’ asked
Dr. Rush, to whom society was cooling because of his democratic
tendencies. The second official of the Republic hesitated as if for dramatic
effect, and then, solemnly laying his hand upon his heart, he answered, ‘I
detest that book and its tendency from the bottom of my heart.’ Indeed,
most of the Federalists were frankly with Burke. ‘Although Mr. Burke may
have carried his veneration for old establishments too far, and may not have
made sufficient allowance for the imperfections of human nature in the
conflict of the French Revolution,’ wrote Davie to Judge Iredell, ‘yet I think
his letter contains a sufficient amount of intelligence to have rescued him
from the undistinguishing abuse of Paine.’[323]
 With most of the Federalist leaders in sympathy with Burke, few
ventured to attack Paine in the open. Not so with Adams who was
spluttering mad over the Jefferson ‘preface.’ He was positive that the
publication of Paine’s pamphlet in this country had been instigated by his
former colleague at Paris.[324] To him the pamphlet of Paine, the ‘preface’
of Jefferson, the acclaim for both on the part of the people was but a
devilish conspiracy of Jefferson’s to pull him down. ‘More of Jefferson’s
subterranean tricks.’ And with this conviction, John Quincy Adams, the
son, then in Boston, took up a trenchant pen to write the articles of
‘Publicola’ for the ‘Centinel,’ sneering at the Jeffersonian note to the
printer, assailing Paine and democracy, and stoutly defending the
governmental forms of England. So well did he discharge his filial duty that
his articles were published in pamphlet form in England by the friends of
Burke, and many of the Federalist papers reproduced them as they
appeared.
Then the newspaper battle began in earnest. Many indignant democrats
rushed to the attack of ‘Publicola’ with all the greater zest because of the
belief that ‘Publicola’ was none other than ‘Davilla’ himself. ‘America will
not attend to this antiquated sophistry,’ wrote one, ‘whether decorated by
the gaudy ornaments of a Burke, the curious patch-work of a Parr to which
all antiquity must have contributed its prettiest rags and tatters, or the
homely ungraceful garb which has been furnished her by Mr. John
Adams.’[325] Another suggested that ‘Publicola’ would soon cease to write
since ‘the time for the new election is approaching,’ although the
‘Discourses’ might be continued without danger since ‘dullness, like the
essence of opium, sets every reader to sleep before he has passed the third
sentence.’[326] As for ‘Publicola,’ his letters were ‘being brought forward to
persuade the people that an hereditary nobility, and, of consequence, high
salaries, pomp and parade are essential to the prosperity of the country.’[327]
In Boston, where the letters were appearing, ‘Agricola’ and ‘Brutus’ began
spirited replies in the rival paper.[328] Other writers, with less grace and
force, joined in the fray. Who are to constitute our nobility, demanded
‘Republican,’ our moneyed men—the speculators? If so ‘Dukes, Lords and
Earls will swarm like insects gendered by the sun,’ and the worn-out soldier
who had been tricked out of his paper would have the satisfaction of
‘bowing most submissively to their lordships while seated in their
carriages.’[329]
But Adams was not without his defenders. ‘An American’ declared that
all the abuse was ‘designed as a political ladder by which to climb.’
Miserable creatures! ‘Ages after the tide of time has swept their names into
oblivion, the immortal deeds of Adams will shine on the brightest pages of
history.’[330] ‘The Ploughman’ indignantly resented the insinuation that
Adams had written the ‘Publicola’ letters. In truth, ‘his friends consider Dr.
Adams as being calumniated’ by having such sentiments ascribed to him.
[331] To all the ‘hornets’ that were buzzing about Adams, Fenno felt he
could be indifferent, for they had no stings. They were merely nonentities
trying to give consequence to their scribblings by appearing to be answering
the Vice-President.
Meanwhile, Jefferson was keenly enjoying the turmoil. We wish it were
possible to trace it all to his contrivance, for nothing could have served his
purpose better. To have foreseen that the writing of a few simple lines
would have awakened the militant republicanism of the country and have
aroused the democratic impulses of the inert mass would have been
complimentary to his political genius. But this is not the only instance
where a clever politician with the reputation of a magician has stumbled
forward. There is no doubt that Jefferson was astonished and embarrassed
on learning that the printer had made an unauthorized use of his personal
note. He admitted to Washington that he had Adams’s writings in mind, but
that nothing was more remote from his thoughts than of becoming ‘a
contributor before the public.’ However, he was not impressed with the
reflections on his taste. ‘Their real fear,’ he added, ‘is that this popular and
republican pamphlet ... is likely ... to wipe out all the unconstitutional
doctrines which their bellwether, Davilla, has been preaching for a twelve-
month.’[332] This explanation was enough for Knox, who wrote accordingly
to Adams,[333] but not enough for Jefferson who sent a frank explanation to
Adams with an expression of regret. In generous mood, the latter accepted
the explanation with the protestation that their old friendship was ‘still dear
to my heart,’ and that ‘there is no office I would not resign rather than give
a just occasion for one friend to desert me.’[334]
Madison, to whom Jefferson had sent a similar explanation, had assumed
that there had been a mistake or an imposition, but he could see no reason
for indignation on the part of Adams or his friends. ‘Surely,’ he wrote, ‘if it
be innocent and decent for one servant of the public to write against its
government, it cannot be very criminal or indecent in another to patronize a
written defence of the principles on which that Government is
founded.’[335]
However much Jefferson may have regretted the unauthorized use of his
letter, he rejoiced in its effect. He wrote Paine that the controversy had
awakened the people, shown the ‘monocrats’ that the silence of the masses
concerning the teachings of ‘Davilla’ did not mean that they had been
converted ‘to the doctrine of king, lords and commons,’ and that they were
‘confirmed in their good old faith.’[336] The incident had established
Jefferson in the public mind as the outstanding leader of democracy, had set
the public tongue to wagging on politics again. More was involved in the
pamphlets of Burke and Paine than differences over the French Revolution.
The keynote of Burke’s was aristocracy and privilege; that of Paine’s was
democracy and equal rights. The former was the gospel of the American
Federalists; the latter the covenant of the American Democracy. Studying
the reactions with his characteristic keenness, Jefferson was convinced that
the time was ripe to mobilize for the inevitable struggle.

VII

‘What do you think of this scrippomony?’ Jefferson wrote to Edward

Rutledge in the late summer. ‘Ships are lying idle at the wharfs, buildings
are stopped, capital withdrawn from commerce, manufactures, arts and
agriculture to be employed in gambling, and the tide of public prosperity ...
is arrested in its course.... I imagine that we shall hear that all the cash has
quitted the extremities of the nation and accumulated here.’[337] As he
wrote, Jefferson had before him the report of the craze which had just
reached him in a letter from Madison in New York. ‘Stock and scrip the
sole domestic subjects of conversation ... speculations ... carried on with
money borrowed at from two and a half per cent a month to one per cent a
week.’[338]
Men grown reckless with the frenzy of the intoxication were resorting to
fraud to rob the Government, many taking out administration papers for
deceased soldiers who had left no heirs. ‘By this knavery,’ wrote Madison
at an earlier period, ‘a prodigious sum will be unsaved by the public, and
reward the worst of its citizens.’ And suppose one of the clerks of the
account offices is not proof against the temptation?[339]
By the middle of the summer (July 10th) Bank stock had risen as much
in the market in New York as in Philadelphia with the feeling that there was
a certainty of gain. A scramble had set in ‘for so much public plunder.’ The
meticulously scrupulous Madison, with his lofty notions of official
propriety, was shocked to find ‘the members of the Legislature who were
most active in pushing this job openly grasping the emoluments.’ Schuyler,
the father-in-law of Hamilton, was to be the head of the directors of the
Bank ‘if the weight of the New York subscribers can effect it.’ Stock-
jobbing monopolized all conversation. The coffee-houses buzzed with the
gamblers.[340]
Meanwhile, from the high-placed to the ordinary scamp, men maddened,
by the money-itch, were resorting to ordinary crime to get possession of
public paper. In some places clever counterfeiters were driving through the
country under the pretext of examining securities with the idea of purchase
and cleverly exchanging the worthless for the real.[341] In the South and in
the remote parts of Maine, swindlers were scouring the woods for State
notes, lying to the uninformed and ignorant about their value, and getting
them for a song. ‘What must be the feelings of the widow and orphan,’
wrote a correspondent of a Philadelphia paper, ‘when they find themselves
thus defrauded of a great part of their little all, and that, not unlikely, the
earnings of their late husbands and fathers, who died in the service of their
country, by these pests of society who ought to be despised?’[342] But greed
knew no shame. An appalling picture: members of Congress feathering
their nest through their legislative acts, counterfeiters robbing the unwary,
common crooks stealing from the Government by posing as the
administrators of the dead, and distinguished members of the Boston Bar,
like Otis and Gore, speculating with their clients’ money without their
knowledge or consent.
So sinister was the situation that notes of warning began to appear in the
newspapers. The ‘Pennsylvania Gazette’ found that speculators had ‘turned
raving mad, and others so agitated that they appear on the borders of
insanity.’[343] Fenno tried vainly to restore sobriety to the drunk—for
Hamilton himself was shocked and not a little concerned.[344] Better be
careful about parting with Bank scrip, warned the ‘New York Daily
Advertiser.’ Efforts were being made to buy up all the scrip in the city ‘and
for this purpose a powerful combination was formed ... on Saturday night to
reduce the price.’[345] Beware of another South Sea Bubble, warned
‘Centinel’ in the same paper. ‘The National Bank stock has risen so high, so
enormously above its real value, that no two transactions in the annals of
history can be found to equal it....’[346]
From Boston came similar stories of the madness. All the while the New
York papers were publishing day-by-day quotations on the scrip.[347] By
August 15th the mania was at its height. ‘It has risen like a rocket,’ wrote an
amused scribbler. ‘Like a rocket it will burst with a crack and down drops
the rocket stick. What goes up must come down—so take care of your pate,
brother Jonathan.’[348] The craze was becoming ridiculous. The sane and
the honest looked upon it as a spectacle. Above the angry cries in the
market-place rang the laughter of the observers who kept their heads. Some
put their scoffing into verse:

‘What magic this among the people,

That swells a Maypole to a steeple?’[349]

Suddenly the bubble showed signs of bursting. A New York bank stopped
discounting for some of the speculators. Messengers hurried forth with the
ominous news, horses’ hoofs hammering the Jersey roads to Philadelphia,
where there was consternation and a falling-off in buying.[350] Pay-day had
not yet come, but it was on the way, and men began to regain their senses.
Then came the emergence of the political phase. ‘Does history afford an
instance,’ asked one observer, ‘where inequality in property, without any
adequate consideration, ever before so suddenly took place in the world? or
the basis of the power and influence of an Aristocracy was created?’[351] A
Boston paper commented significantly on the ease with which the mere
opening and closing of the galleries of Congress could serve the purposes of
speculation. ‘How easily might this be done should any member of
Congress be inclined to speculate.’[352]
Thus the talk of a ‘corrupt squadron’ in the First Congress was not the
invention of Jefferson—it was the talk of the highways and the byways, the
coffee-houses and the taverns, and we find it recurring in the
correspondence of the public men of the period. Everywhere sudden
fortunes sprang up as if by magic. There was a rumbling and grumbling in
the offing. With the people thinking more seriously of Madison’s fight for
discrimination, he began to loom along with Jefferson as a prospective
leader against the ‘system.’ With the discovery that the law had been
violated in the subscription of more than thirty shares, it was hoped that it
would ‘draw the attention of Madison ... immediately on the meeting of
Congress’ and that ‘the whole proceedings ... be declared nugatory.’[353]
Then came the election of Bank directors in the fall, and indignation
flamed when the prizes went to leaders in the Congress that had created the
Bank—to Rufus King, Samuel Johnson of North Carolina, William Smith
of South Carolina, Jeremiah Wadsworth of the ‘fast sailing vessels,’ John
Laurance of New York, William Bingham of Philadelphia, Charles Carroll
of Carrollton, George Cabot, Fisher Ames, and Thomas Willing, the partner
of Robert Morris.
Members of Congress had speculated heavily and profitably on their
knowledge of their own intent in legislation; they were owners of bank
scrip of the Bank they created, and their leaders were on the board of
directors. There was talk among the people of a ‘corrupt squadron,’ and
Jefferson did not invent the term; he found it in the street and used it.
Though Hamilton, scrupulously honest, was not involved in proceedings
that were vicious, if not corrupt, many of his lieutenants were, and that, for
the purposes of politics, made an issue.
But Hamilton was in the saddle, booted and spurred, and riding hard
toward the realization of his conception of government, followed by an
army that fairly glittered with the brilliancy of many of his field marshals,
and which was imposing in the financial, social, and cultural superiority of
the rank and file; an army that could count on the greater part of the press to
publish its orders of the day, and on the beneficiaries of its policies to fill its
campaign coffers. And it was at this juncture that Jefferson began the
mobilization of an army that would seem uncouth and ragged by
comparison. The cleavage was distinct; the ten-year war was on.
As a preliminary to the story of the struggle, it is important to know
more of the character and methods of the man who dared challenge
Hamilton’s powerful array and something of the social atmosphere in
Philadelphia where the great battles were fought.
 CHAPTER V

THOMAS JEFFERSON: A PORTRAIT

I N the personal appearance of Thomas Jefferson there was little to denote

the powerful, dominating leader and strict disciplinarian that he was.
Unlike Hamilton, he did not look the commander so much as the rather
shy philosopher. The gruff Maclay, on seeing him for the first time, was
disappointed with his slender frame, the looseness of his figure, and the ‘air
of stiffness in his manner,’ while pleased with the sunniness of his face.[354]
He was of imposing height, being more than six feet, and slender without
being thin.[355] All contemporaries who have left descriptions refer to the
long, loosely jointed limbs, and none of them convey an impression of
grace. His hair, much redder than that of Hamilton, was combed loosely
over the forehead and at the side, and tied behind. His complexion was
light, his eyes blue and usually mild in expression, his forehead broad and
high. Beneath the eyes, his face was rather broad, the cheek-bones high, the
chin noticeably long, and the mouth of generous size. The casual glance
discovered more of benevolence than force, more of subtlety than
pugnacity. Nor, in that day of lace and frills, was there anything in his garb
to proclaim him of the élite. His enemies then, and ever since, have made
too much of his loose carpet slippers and worn clothes, and the only thing
they prove is that he may have had the Lincolnian indifference to style.
Long before he made his ‘pose’ in the President’s house for the benefit of
the groundlings, we find a critic who was to be numbered among his
followers complaining because his clothes were too small for his body.[356]
The truth, no doubt, is that he dressed conventionally, because men must,
and was careless of his attire.
Certain it is that when she first met him, Mrs. Bayard Smith, who had
been unduly impressed with the Federalist references to the ‘coarseness and
vulgarity of his manners,’ was astonished at the contradiction of the
caricature by the man. ‘So meek and mild, yet dignified in his manners,
with a voice so soft and low, with a countenance so benign and intelligent’
she found him.[357] In truth there was enough dignity in his manner to
discourage the stranger on a first approach, as Tom Moore found to his
disgust. Even Mrs. Smith thought his ‘dignified and reserved air’ chill at
first;[358] and a French admirer who made a sentimental journey to
Monticello thought him somewhat cold and reserved.’[359] ‘The cold first
look he always cast upon a stranger’[360] appears too often in the
observations of his contemporaries to have been imaginary.
As some have found fault with his dress, others have criticized a
slovenly way of sitting—‘in a lounging manner, on one hip commonly, with
one of his shoulders elevated much above the other’;[361] while another—a
woman too—was charmed at the ‘free and easy manner’ in which he
accepted a proffered chair.[362] The natural deduction from the
contradictions is that he seated himself as comfortably as possible with little
regard to the picture in the pose. There is a manifest absurdity in the idea
that the man who moved familiarly in the most cultured circles of the most
polished capital in Europe could have been either impossible in dress or
boorish in manner.
But there is one unpleasant criticism of his manner that cannot be so
easily put aside—a shiftiness in his glance which bears out the charge of his
enemies that he was lacking in frankness. The most democratic member of
the first Senate, meeting him for the first time, was disappointed to find that
‘he had a rambling vacant look, and nothing of that firm collected
deportment which I expected would dignify the presence of a Secretary or
Minister.’[363] Another found that ‘when speaking he did not look at his
auditor, but cast his eyes toward the ceiling or anywhere but at the eye of
his auditor.’[364] This weakness was possibly overemphasized, for he was
notoriously shy.
Aside from this, there is abundant evidence that there was an ineffable
charm in his manner. One who objected to his ‘shifty glance’ was favorably
impressed with ‘the simplicity and sobriety’ of his deportment, and found
that while ‘he was quiet and unobtrusive ... a stranger would perceive that
he was in the presence of one who was not a common man.’[365] He was
free of the affectations of pedantry, courteous and kindly, modest and
tolerant. Thus he appeared to excellent advantage in conversation, and, with
one exception, all who knew him and have left their impressions found him
an entertaining and illuminating talker. Maclay, who was certainly not the
most competent of judges, thought his conversation ‘loose and rambling,’
and yet admitted that ‘he scattered information wherever he went, and some
even brilliant sentiments sparkled from him.’[366] It is probable that the
gout-racked radical confused conversation with set speeches, and quite as
possible that on this particular occasion, when Jefferson was meeting with a
curious senatorial committee, he was not inclined to tell all he knew.
Certainly the polished nobleman, familiar with the most intellectual
circles of Paris, who found his ‘conversation of the most agreeable kind,’
and that he possessed ‘a stock of information not inferior to that of any
other man,’ and ‘in Europe ... would hold a distinguished rank among men
of letters,’ was quite as competent a judge as the Senator from the
wilderness of Pennsylvania.[367] Among men his manner of conversation
was calm and deliberate, without the Johnsonian ex-cathedra touch, and yet
he ‘spoke like one who considered himself as entitled to deference.’[368]
Among friends, and particularly women, he appears to have been
deferential and captivating in his tactful kindness. Then when, ‘with a
manner and voice almost femininely soft and gentle,’ he ‘entered into
conversation on the commonplace topics of the day,’ at least one woman
found that ‘there was something in his manner, his countenance and voice
that at once unlocked [her] heart.’[369]
Such was the Jefferson seen superficially by his contemporaries.

II

Those who prefer to think of Jefferson as an aristocrat, born to the

purple, who departed from the paths of his fathers, refer only to the
maternal ancestry. The American founder of this branch of the family liked
to think of himself as the descendant of gentlemen of title and of the half-
brother of Queen Mary. Jefferson preferred to dismiss this claim on the
aristocracy with the statement that his mother’s family traced ‘their
pedigree far back in England and Scotland, to which let every one ascribe
the faith and merit he chooses.’ From the Randolphs he probably inherited
his love of beauty, his fondness for luxury, but they failed utterly to transmit
to him any aristocratic notions of government. There was a reason—his
father was a middle-class farmer, and it was from him and his early
environment that he received his earliest and most lasting political
impressions.
This father was no ordinary man. Physically a giant, he was big in mind
and strong in character. By the light of the log fire in the evenings, he was
wont to read Shakespeare, Swift, and Addison to his family. An ardent
Whig with advanced democratic ideas, he as a magistrate manifested
sympathy for the plain people.[370] His thousand acres at Shadwell were in
the wilderness and on the frontier, and his son was as much a Westerner in
his boyhood as is the boy of Idaho to-day, for the West is a relative term.
This Western boy at the most impressionable age was sent to school in
Louisa County, which was then the hot-bed of radical democracy and
Presbyterian dissent. The natives about him were in buckskin breeches and
Indian moccasins, and, with no coat over their rough hunting shirts, they
covered their heads with coon-skin caps. It was a long cry from the polished
circles of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia to this typical Western scene;
if one was the East, the other was the West. The small proprietor farmers
lived in crude cabins, and theirs was the hard lot of the pioneer. Thus
Jefferson’s training was that of the Westerner.[371]
The boy was father to the man. When he entered college at
Williamsburg, he found himself in the headquarters of the aristocracy, for
there, at the capital, the lords of the land had their winter homes where
lavish hospitality was displayed. Into this society Jefferson was thrown, and
he moved therein as to the manor born—at heart a Western man with
Eastern polish.[372] It was not for nothing that there was Randolph blood in
his veins.
Even as he moved among the hard-drinking, fox-hunting imitators of the
English squires, his sympathies were enlisted in the growing democratic
movement of the small farmers among the upper rivers, the tobacco-
growers, the hunters and trappers of the Alleghany slopes. The western
counties, then the western frontier, had been populated by the Scotch-Irish
and Germans—earnest, hard-working, hard-thinking men, who wrestled
with nature as with their consciences, built churches in the woods, and
school-houses in the clearing. These men were democrats, and their cause
became the cause of Jefferson even while he was in college. Volumes have
been written to explain Jefferson, but it was reserved for Professor William
E. Dodd to do it in a paragraph:
 It is not difficult ... to see how the great principle of Jefferson’s life—
absolute faith in democracy—came to him. He was the product of the first
West in American history; he grew up with men who ruled their country
well, who fought the Indians valiantly.... Jefferson loved his backwoods
neighbors, and he, in turn, was loved by them.[373]
If in college he was confirming his faith in democracy, born of his
schooling in the land of the small farmers, he was burnishing his weapons
for the fight. It is significant that he disliked Blackstone and liked Coke
because he found the former a teacher of Toryism and the latter a reflector of
the philosophy of the Whigs. His training in the law was thorough, for he
studied under George Wythe, with whom both Marshall and Clay received
their legal schooling. The friendship of Professor Small encouraged his
natural spirit of toleration and investigation; and at the ‘palace’ of Francis
Fauquier, the gay and brilliant royal governor—‘a gentleman of the school
of Louis XV translated into England by Charles II, and into English by Lord
Chesterfield’[374] he formed his literary tastes and learned the virtues of
literary style. Thus assiduous in his studies, reasonably circumspect in his
morals, and profiting immeasurably by contact with superior minds, he was
receiving an intensive preparation for his future labors. In the seclusion of
his room he communed with Coke and Milton, Harrington and Locke, and
the time was to come when his most notable literary production was to
disclose, in word and phrase, the influence of the latter. Locke, not
Rousseau, was the well from which he drew; and there is no sillier assertion
in history than that his democracy was born of association with the men of
the French Revolution.

III

Long before there were levelers in France, Jefferson was a leveler in

Virginia; and because he was a leveler in Virginia, the reactionaries who
resented his reforms were afterward to charge his democracy to the influence
of the levelers of Paris. His democracy was inherent, in part inherited from a
pioneer father. His dislike of the aristocratic system amounted to a prejudice,
and he could not bear the novels of Scott because of his detestation of the
institutions of medieval times.[375] Having written the Declaration of
Independence in the house of a bricklayer, he declined a reëlection to
Congress to enter the House of Burgesses in Virginia to revamp the
institutions of the State along democratic lines. When he finished his work
there, he had made himself one of the foremost democrats of all times—and
the French Revolution was still in the distance.
The Virginia system had been made for caste society; the landed
aristocracy were as much a caste as that in England—minus the titles. They
had the same love of land, the same obsession that the alienation of any part
of their possessions was treason to the family. Through the system of entail,
the lands and slaves of the aristocracy could be passed on down through the
generations, proof against the extravagance and inefficiency of the owners
and the attacks of creditors. The law of primogeniture was designed to serve
the same general end of preventing the disruption of the great estates. With a
fine audacity, Jefferson sallied forth quite gayly to attack them both. Even
Henry thought this was radicalism gone mad. Pendleton was more hurt than
outraged. The aristocratic members of his mother’s family looked upon him
as a matricide. Undaunted by the hate engendered, he put his hand to the
plough and kept it there until he had ploughed the field and prepared it for a
democratic harvest. His friend Pendleton begged a compromise on
primogeniture giving the eldest son a double share of the land. ‘Yes,’ replied
the leveler, ‘when he can eat twice the allowance of food and do double the
allowance of work.’ It was his purpose to eradicate ‘every fibre of ancient or
future aristocracy.’[376] The outraged landed aristocracy never forgave him.
He was the first American to invite the hate of a class, and from the
beginning he turned his back on the aristocracy and made his appeal to the
middle-class yeomanry.[377] All this was behind him when he went to Paris
before the Revolution there began. There the tall, slender American in the
elegant house on the Grande Route des Champs Elysées, with its extensive
gardens and court, was an impressive figure. ‘You replace Doctor Franklin, I
hear,’ said Vergennes, the Minister of Foreign Affairs. ‘I succeed him,’
Jefferson replied; ‘nobody could replace him.’ There could have been no
more ingratiating reply, for his predecessor had been greatly admired and
loved.
No one could have found the conversation of the salons and dinner tables
more congenial. His manners were those of a man of the world, and he
shared the French fondness for speculative talk, and the French knack of
spicing gravity with frivolity. Even his table tastes were similar. He ate
sparingly and preferred the light wines. Both his natural hospitality and his
respect for the dignity of his position spread the reputation of his lavish
table; and while he gave no great parties, gay and frequent dinners were the
rule. Lafayette ran in and out constantly; members of the diplomatic set
found Jefferson’s house an agreeable meeting-place; the young French
officers who had served in America liked his company, and De la Tude, the
wit, who had served thirty-five years in prison for writing an epigram on
Pompadour, enlivened many an evening with his reminiscences. American
tourists were captivated by his civilities, introductions to celebrities,
itineraries for profitable trips. Like Franklin before him, he charmed the
beautiful women of the court with his wit and humor, and the eloquence of
his conversation. He loved the promenades and shops, and was constantly
alert for something unusual to send his friends at home—rare books for
Madison, Monroe, and Wythe, a portable table for Madison, an artistic lamp
for Lee. And yet he was far from an elegant idler, and his days were
laboriously passed; mornings at his office, afternoons given to country
walks, evenings to society, art, music. He found time for elaborate and
illuminating reports that are models in diplomatic literature and which
exacted tribute from even John Marshall. Feeling frequently the need of
absolute seclusion for his work, he had rooms in the Carthusian Monastery
on Mount Calvary where silence was enjoined outside the rooms, but where
he had the privileges of the garden.
‘I am much pleased with the people of this country,’ he wrote a lady. ‘The
roughness of the human mind is so thoroughly rubbed off with them, that it
seems one might glide through a whole life without a jostle.’[378] And in
another letter, the same impression: ‘Here it seems a man might pass a life
without encountering a single rudeness.’[379] But if he loved the society of
Paris, he was not, like Morris, seduced into an acceptance of its system. His
passion for democracy did not permit him to judge the happiness of a nation
by the luxuries of the court and aristocracy. He struck out into the country to
judge for himself of the condition of the peasants, looked into the pots on the
fire to see what they ate, felt their beds to see if they were comfortable. He
inquired into the wages and the working conditions of the artisans of the
cities—and his conclusions were unavoidable, of course. ‘It is a fact,’ he
wrote, ‘in spite of the mildness of their governors, the people are ground to
powder by their form of government. Of twenty million people supposed to
be in France, I am of opinion there are nineteen million more wretched,
more accursed in every circumstance of human existence than the most
conspicuously wretched individual in the whole United States.’[380] And to
another: ‘I find the general fate of humanity here most deplorable. The truth
of Voltaire’s observation offers itself perpetually, that every man here is
either the hammer or the anvil.’[381] He was shocked by a system that
dedicated the sons of peasants as cannon fodder in remote wars precipitated
by the whims of a prostitute; that winked at the debauchery of their wives
and daughters; that gave men to the Bastile for the expression of a criticism;
that crushed the people with intolerable taxation to sustain the luxury of a
few; that forced the poor to live on food not fit for a stray dog in a city
slums, and which awed the masses into submission to such conditions by the
bayonets of the soldiery. This was the France of which he thought in the day
when his sympathy with the Revolution was to damn him with the
Federalists’ taunt of ‘Jacobin’ and ‘anarchist.’
Such being his observations and views, he rejoiced in the popular
awakening in the dawning days of the Revolution. Witnessing the meeting of
the Assembly of the Notables, a fascinated spectator of the razing of the
Bastile, listening, deeply moved, to the audacious eloquence of Mirabeau, he
wrote, with the joy of the reformer, to Washington that ‘the French nation
has been awakened by our Revolution.’ It was in those days that Gouverneur
Morris, the friend of Hamilton, was accustomed to drop in on Jefferson for a
chat on the situation, and their friendly disagreements were soon to appear in
a party division in America. ‘He and I differ,’ wrote Morris in his diary, ‘in
our system of politics. He with all the leaders of liberty here is desirous of
annihilating distinctions of order.’[382] And yet he was not hostile to the
King or the monarchy. He hoped for reforms, freely granted. Louis he found
‘irascible, rude, very limited in his understanding,’ with ‘no mistress,’ but
governed too much by the Queen—‘devoted to pleasure and expense, and
not remarkable for any other vices or virtues.’[383] As the storm-clouds
lowered and the easy-going monarch remained inert, he became less tolerant.
‘The King, long in the habit of drowning his cares in wine, plunges deeper
and deeper. The Queen cries but sins on. The Count d’Artois is
detested.’[384] And a month later: ‘The King goes for nothing. He hunts one
half the day, is drunk the other, and signs whatever he is bid.’[385]
As the future Terrorists ascended from the cellars and descended from the
garrets, and occasional riots gave premonitory signs of the bloody days
ahead, he reported to Jay that the rioting was the work of the ‘abandoned
banditti of Paris,’ and had no ‘professed connection with the great national
reformation going on.’[386]
All this time he was being constantly consulted by Lafayette and the
moderate leaders who were to become the members of the attractive but
unfortunate party of the Gironde. They even met at his dinner table to make
plans, without notifying him of their intent, and his voluntary explanation to
the Minister was received with the expression of a hope that he might be
able to assist in an accommodation of differences. He did, in fact, propose a
plan, which, had it been accepted, might have saved the monarchy. It was his
suggestion that Louis step forward with a charter in his hands, granting
liberty of the person, of conscience, of the press, a trial by jury, an annual
legislature with the power of taxation, and with a ministry responsible to the
people.[387] These associations and these views are conclusive as to the
absurdity that he was permeated with the theories of Jacobinism and brought
them back to the United States. He was the same kind of Jacobin as
Lafayette. His interest was the interest in democracy and popular rights that
he had taken with him when he sailed for Europe. Mirabeau was still
laboring to save the monarchy with reforms when Jefferson returned to
America on leave.

IV

Jefferson was a humanitarian ahead of his time. His humanity spoke

above the passions of the Revolution in his letter to Patrick Henry against
the mistreatment of the German prisoners. ‘Is an enemy so execrable,’ he
wrote, ‘that though in captivity his wishes and comforts are to be
disregarded and even crossed? I think not. It is for the benefit of mankind to
mitigate the horrors of war as much as possible.’[388] These captives,
interned near Monticello, came to love the master on the hill for his efforts
to lighten the burdens of their captivity.[389] A little later, in the Virginia
Legislature, we find him opposing the death penalty except for treason and
murder, and the policy of working convicts on the highways and canals.
‘Exhibited as a public spectacle,’ he wrote, ‘with shaved heads and mean
clothing, working on the highroads produced in the criminals such a
prostration of self-respect, as, instead of reforming, plunged them into the
most desperate and hardened depravity.’[390] It was novel then to hear men
speaking of reform instead of punishment.
 That this humanitarian impulse was not confined to people at a distance is
shown in his relations to his own servants, both the employees and the
slaves. A woman of fashion commented on ‘the most perfect servants at the
White House’ during his eight years there and the significant circumstance
that ‘none left.’[391] But we must turn to his relations with his slaves to find
him at his best. One picture will suffice. It is on the occasion of his return to
Monticello from his French mission. At the foot of the hill all the slaves in
their gaudiest attire are assembled to greet him. The carriage appears down
the road. The slaves, laughing, shouting, rush forward to welcome him,
unhitch the horses to draw the carriage up the steep hill, some pulling, some
pushing, and others huddled in a dark mass close around the vehicle. Some
kiss his hands, others his feet, and it is long after he reaches the house before
he is permitted to enter. This was long before the day when correspondents
with cameras pursued public men and demonstrations were staged.[392] Here
was a master who loved his slaves.
Nor can there be any possible doubt as to his hostility to slavery. One of
the features of his Virginia reforms was abolition. While he failed, he never
doubted that ultimately the chains would fall. ‘Nothing is more certainly
written in the book of fate than that these people are to be free’ he wrote in
his ‘Autobiography.’[393] A little later, referring to his strictures on slavery
in his ‘Notes on Virginia,’ he expressed a desire to get them to the young
men in the colleges. ‘It is to them I look, to the rising generation, and not to
the one now in power, for these great reformations.’[394] Declining
membership in a society for abolition in France on the ground that his
official status would make improper a demonstration against an institution
his own people were retaining, he said that ‘it is decent of me to avoid too
public a demonstration of my wishes to see it [slavery] abolished.’[395]
Without any of this evidence, his hostility to slavery would be irrefutably
established by the Ordinance of the Northwest Territory, in the handwriting
of Jefferson in the archives of the Nation, prohibiting slavery in any of the
States that might be carved therefrom after the year 1800.

Such is the persistency of falsehood that Jefferson has come down to us

vaguely as an atheist and an enemy of the Christian religion. Since this
charge is to play a part in the political story we are about to tell, it calls for